Module 1.

Introduction to Networking
CO1: Apply appropriate topology for end-to-end communication

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Introduction to Networking

• 1.1
Introduction to computer network, network application, network software and hardware
components (Interconnection networking devices), Network topology, protocol hierarchies,
design issues for the layers, connection-oriented and connectionless services.

• 1.2
Reference models: Layer details of OSI, TCP/IP models.
Communication between layers.
NETWORKS

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Communication Model
▪ The purpose of a communication system is to transfer an information signal from a
source to a user destination via a communication channel.

Communication
Source Transmitter Receiver Destination
link

Typical Communication Model

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Communication Model
❑ Source
▪ It is the device that generates the data to be transmitted to the user
destination.
▪ This source can be analog or digital.
▪ If the source is analog, the information source is first converted into a
discrete form for digital communication.

❑ Transmitter
▪ The data generated by the source is not transmitted directly in the
form in which it is generated.
▪ Different modulation techniques are used for providing efficient
transmission of the signal over the channel.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Communication Model
❑ Communication Link
▪ The transmission of the signal can be done either in guided or
unguided form depending on the requirements of the system.
❑ Receiver
▪ The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts
it in the suitable form, which can be handled by the user destination.
❑ Destination
▪ The user destination takes the data from the receiver and performs the task for
which it
• is send from the source.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Need for Communication Model

▪ To provide sharing of resources information on processors. Resource sharing is a common

objective for providing networks within the constraint of cost and reliability of network.

▪ To provide inter-process communication among users and processors.

▪ To provide distribution of processing functions; for example, a transaction is translated in

one node, processed in another and the response formatted in the third node.

▪ To provide centralized control for geographically distributed system; for example, defense
network may provide central control facilities for graphically distributed monitoring
stations. Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Need for Communication Model

▪ To provide centralized management and allocation of network resources.

▪ To provide compatibility of dissimilar equipment and software.

▪ To provide network users with maximum performance at lowest cost.

▪ To provide an efficient means of transport large volumes of data among remote locations.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
 Network
• A network is a set of devices (often referred
to as nodes) connected by communication
links.

• A node can be a computer, printer, or any

other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on
the network.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Introduction to Computer Network

• “Computer network’’ means a collection of

autonomous computers interconnected by a
single technology.

• Two computers are said to be interconnected if

they can exchange information.

• The connection need not be via a copper wire;

fiber optics, microwaves, infrared, and
communication satellites can also be used.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
 Uses of Computer Network
There are multiple uses for a computer network including:
• Communication: Through computer networks individuals and
organizations can collaborate using communicational channels
that may include email, chat, and video conferencing.

• Resource sharing: These bags are a boon to users since they

provide a way to share the printer, scanner, and files, which
will help to improve work activities and reduce costs.

• Remote access: Network technologies bring the power of

information and assistance by making it accessible from
anywhere on the globe. Hence, this enables users to operate
with more freedom and comfort.

• Collaboration: Networks function to make collaboration gin

and tonic by offering the opportunities to work jointly on
something, share thoughts, and critique in the biggest way. Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
• E-commerce: Online sales and payments processing are empowered with computer networks, that
enable businesses to sell products online and execute secure payments.

• Education: From their use in the educational setting, they are employed to provide a basis for
distance learning, access to resources of higher education and give opportunity for collaboration
among students and teachers.

• Entertainment: Networks are applied to matters of entertainment like online gaming, online film
and music streaming, and social networking.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Types of Computer Communication Networks
▪ Computer networks are classified on the basis of the computing model used,
the geographical area that the network covers and the topology or the media
used.
▪ Computer networks used are often classified by size, distance covered, and
the transmission media used.
▪ In that aspect, we have the following types:

• LAN (Local Area Networks)

• MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks)
• WAN (Wide Area Networks)
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Types of Computer Communication Networks
❑ LAN (Local Area Networks)

▪ LANs are typically used to interconnect computers and PCs within relatively small
areas, such as within a building, office or campus.
▪ A LAN typically operates at speeds ranging from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps,
connecting several hundred devices over a distance of up to 5 km to 10 km.
Fiber-based LANS can offer speeds up to 1 Gbps.
▪ LANs become popular because they allow many users to share resources,
such as mainframes, file servers, high-speed printers, and other expensive
devices.
▪ They are interconnected through cable media.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Types of Computer Communication Networks
❑ MAN (Metropolitan Area Networks)
▪ MAN covers a larger area than LAN, such as small towns, cities, etc.
▪ MAN connects two or more computers that reside within the same or completely
different cities.
▪ MAN is expensive and should or might not be owned by one organization.

❑ WAN (Wide Area Networks)

▪ WAN covers a larger area than LAN, as well as a MAN, such as a country/continent
etc.
▪ WAN is expensive and should or might not be owned by one organization.
▪ PSTN or satellite medium is used for wide area networks.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Types of Computer Communication Networks

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Types of Computer Communication Networks
Parameter LAN MAN WAN
Full Form LAN is an acronym for Local MAN is an acronym for WAN is an acronym for Wide
Area Network. Metropolitan Area Network. Area Network.
Definition and LAN is a network that usually MAN is a comparatively wider The WAN network spans to
Meaning connects a small group of network that covers large an even larger locality. It has
computers in a given regions- like towns, cities, etc. the capacity to connect
geographical area. various countries together.
For example, the Internet is a
WAN.

Network The LAN is private. Hospitals, The MAN can be both private The WAN can also be both
Ownership homes, schools, offices, etc., or public. Many organizations private or public.
may own it. and telecom operators may
own them.
Maintenance and Very easy to design and Comparatively difficult to Very difficult to design and
Designing maintain. design and maintain. maintain.
Speed LAN offers a very high MAN offers a moderate WAN offers a low Internet
Internet speed. Internet speed. speed.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Types of Computer Communication Networks
Parameter LAN MAN WAN
Delay in It faces a very short It faces a moderate It faces a high propagation
Propagation propagation delay. propagation delay. delay.
Faulty Tolerance The LAN exhibits a better The MAN exhibits a lesser The WAN also exhibits a
fault tolerance than the rest fault tolerance. lesser fault tolerance.
of the networks.
Congestion The congestion in the It exhibits a higher network It exhibits a higher congestion
network is very low. congestion. in the network.
Communication LAN typically allows a single MAN allows multiple A huge group of computers
Allotment pair of devices to establish a computers to interact can easily interact with each
communication. But it may simultaneously with each other using the WAN.
also support more other.
computers.
Uses Schools, homes, colleges, It basically covers a city, a It covers an entire country, a
hospitals, offices, etc., can small town, or any given area subcontinent, or an
privately use it. with a bigger radius than the equivalent area.
LAN.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Network software and hardware components

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Network software and hardware components
• Hardware Components:
●Servers −Servers are high-configuration
computers that manage the resources of the
network. The network operating system is
typically installed in the server and so they give
user accesses to the network resources. Servers
can be of various kinds: file servers, database
servers, print servers etc.

●Clients − Clients are computers that request and

receive service from the servers to access and use
the network resources.

●Peers − Peers are computers that provide as

well as receive services from other peers in a
workgroup network.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Network hardware components
• Transmission Media −
Transmission media are the
channels through which data is
transferred from one device to
another in a network.

• Transmission media may be

guided media like coaxial cable,
fibre optic cables etc; or maybe
unguided media like microwaves,
infra-red waves etc.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
 Network hardware components
• Connecting Devices − Connecting devices act as middleware between networks or computers, by binding
the network media together. Some of the common connecting devices are:

a) Routers
b) Bridges
c) Hubs
d) Repeaters
e) Gateways
f) Switches

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Connecting Devices

• Repeater – A repeater operates at the

physical layer.

• Its job is to amplifies (i.e., regenerates) the

signal over the same network before the
signal becomes too weak or corrupted to
extend the length to which the signal can be
transmitted over the same network.

• When the signal becomes weak, they copy it

bit by bit and regenerate it at its star
topology connectors connecting following
the original strength.
• It is a 2-port device. Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
 Connecting Devices
❑ Repeater

Ref: https://webeduclick.com/wp-
content/uploads/2020/02/Repeater.png

▪ A repeater (Regenerator) is an electronic device that operates on only Physical Layer of

the OSI model.
▪ Signals that information within a network can travel a fixed distance before attenuation
or interface from noise; endanger the integrity of data.
▪ A repeater installed on a link receives data before it becomes too weak or corrupted,
regenerates the original bit pattern, and puts the refreshed copy back onto the link.
▪ A repeater allows us to extend only the physical length of the network.
▪ A repeater does not change the functionality of the network in any way.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
 Connecting Devices
❑ Repeater
Distorted Signal Amplitude Decision Regenerated Signal
Equalizer Making Device

Timing
Circuit
▪ Three basic functions performed by the repeaters are equalization, timing and decision
making.
▪ The equalizer shapes the received pulse so as to compensate for the effect of
amplitude and phase distortions produced by the transmission characteristics of the
channel.
▪ Using the timing circuit, the equalized pulses are integrated by T sec. (pulse duration)
and is compared with predetermined threshold voltage at the end of every Tb sec.
▪ The output of decision-making device will be the regenerated signal.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu 59
Connecting Devices
• Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater.
• A hub connects multiple wires coming from
different branches, for example, the connector in
star topology which connects different stations.
• Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent
to all connected devices.
• In other words, the collision domain of all hosts
connected through Hub remains one.
• Also, they do not have the intelligence to find
out the best path for data packets which leads to
inefficiencies and wastage.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Connecting Devices
Types of Hub

• Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost, and relay
the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a wiring center.
These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.

• Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply from the
active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them,
and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.

• Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote management capabilities.
They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to
monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Connecting Devices
• Switch :
• A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance.

• A switch is a data link layer device.

• The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it
very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and forward good
packets selectively to the correct port only.

• In other words, the switch divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast
domain remains the same.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connecting Devices
• Bridge –

• A bridge operates at the data link layer.

• A bridge is a repeater, with add on the
functionality of filtering content by
reading the MAC addresses of the source
and destination.
• It is also used for interconnecting two
LANs working on the same protocol.
• It has a single input and single output
port, thus making it a 2-port device.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Connecting Devices
❑ Bridges
▪ A bridge is an intermediate system used to connect two LANs that uses identical
LAN protocol.
▪ The bridge acts as an address filter, picking packets from on LAN that are intended for
destination on another LAN and passing those packets on.
▪ The bridge does not add anything to packet.
▪ The bridge operates at Data Link Layer of OSI model.

Why are bridges used instead of Large LAN?

• Reliability
• Security
• Performance
• Geography
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Connecting Devices
❑ Bridges

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connecting Devices
❑ Bridges
Functions of Bridge
• Read all frames transmitted on A and accepts those addressed to station B.
• Using Medium Control Protocol for B, retransmits the frames onto B.
• Does the same for B-to-A traffic.
• A bridge can be connected for more than two LANs.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connecting Devices
❑ Bridges

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connecting Devices
• Types of Bridges

• Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware
of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network,
reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes
i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.

• Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the source
station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover the frame by
sending a special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads through the entire
network using all possible paths to the destination.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connecting Devices
• Routers –
• A router is a device like a switch that
routes data packets based on their IP
addresses.
• The router is mainly a Network Layer
device. Routers normally connect
LANs and WANs and have a
dynamically updating routing table
based on which they make decisions on
routing the data packets.
• The router divides the broadcast
domains of hosts connected through it.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connecting Devices
❑ Routers
▪ A router intermediate system used to connect two networks that may or may not be
similar.
▪ The router employs an internet protocol present in each router and each host of the
network.
▪ The router operates on Network Layer of OSI model.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connecting Devices
❑ Routers

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Connecting Devices
❑ Routers
▪ Repeater or Bridge are simple hardware devices capable of executing specific tasks.
▪ Router are more sophisticated. They have access to network layer addresses and contain
software that enables them to determine which of the several possible path between
those addresses is the best for particular transmission.
▪ A bridge was interconnecting LANs having different media access control sub-layers but
same LLC (Logical Link Control) protocol. If there are differences in those protocols at
the data link and Network Layers of the two networks, routers are required to
interconnect them.
▪ It operates on the Network Layer of OSI model and accommodates all the differences
of the sub-network upto this layer to provide a uniform network service to transport
layer entities in the end system.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
 Connecting Devices
❑ Routers

▪ Since the router is operating at the Network layer, its configuration is determined by:
• The type of the network services (Connectionless Network Services (CLNS) or
Connection Oriented Network Service (CONS).
• The type of underlying sub-network service.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connecting Devices
Advantages Of Router:
• Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will traverse the entire
cable, but the only specified device which has been addressed can read the data.

• Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes down, but no other
networks are affected that are served by the router.

• Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the network. Suppose there
are 24 workstations in a network generates a same amount of traffic. This increases the
traffic load on the network. Router splits the single network into two networks of 12
workstations each, reduces the traffic load by half.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Connecting Devices
• Gateway –
• A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage
to connect two networks that may work upon
different networking models.
• They work as messenger agents that take data
from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to
another system.
• Gateways are also called protocol converters
and can operate at any network layer.
• Gateways are generally more complex than
switches or routers. A gateway is also called a
protocol converter.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connecting Devices
NIC –

• NIC or network interface card is a network

adapter that is used to connect the computer to the
network.
• It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN.
• It has a unique ID that is written on the chip, and
it has a connector to connect the cable to it.
• The cable acts as an interface between the
computer and the router or modem.
• NIC card is a layer 2 device, which means that it
works on both the physical and data link layers of
the network model.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Software Components:

• Networking Operating System − Network Operating Systems is typically installed

in the server and facilitate workstations in a network to share files, database,
applications, printers etc.

• Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each computer for

data communication. Protocol suite is a set of related protocols that are laid down
for computer networks.

• The two popular protocol suites are −

• OSI Model ( Open System Interconnections)
• TCP / IP Model

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Type of Connection:

Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.

The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.

Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two
ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible When you
change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point
connection between the remote control and the television's control system.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
 Type of Connection:

• Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single link.
• In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or
temporally.
• If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If
users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
 Network Topology
• A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems
or network devices are connected to each other.
• Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the network.
• Both logical and physical topologies could be same or different in a
same network.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Network Topology
▪ The physical structure by which computers are connected represents the topology of the
network.
▪ The following parameters are to be considered in selecting a physical topology of the
network:
• Ease of installation
• Ease of reconfiguration
• Ease of troubleshooting
• The number of units attached in case a media failure
▪ Two ways of connecting relationships are possible:
a) Peer-to-peer, where devices share link equally.
b) Primary-Secondary, where one device controls the traffic and other must transmit
through it.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Network Topology

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Types of Topologies

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Ring Topology
▪ In ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point line configuration only with
two devices on either side of it.
▪ A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device until it reaches
its destination.
▪ When the device receives the signal intended for the other node, it just regenerates the
bits and passes them along.
▪ Ring network passes a token.
▪ A token is a short message with the electronic address of the node permitted to transmit
data.
▪ Each network interface card is given a unique electronic address, which is used to
identify the computer on the network.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Ring Topology

• In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting

devices with exactly two neighboring devices.

• A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology

• with a large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node
in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data
will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the
100th node.

• Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in

the network.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
 Ring Topology
Advantages of Ring Topology
• Easy to install and reconfigure.
• Cheap to install and expand.
• Adding and deleting new device is easy as only two connections have to adjusted.
• Fault isolation is simplified.
• Unlike Bus topology, there is no signal loss in ring topology, since the token is
regenerated at each node.
• No terminators required.
• The data transmission is high-speed.
• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
• It is less costly than a star topology.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

20
 Ring Topology
• Disadvantages of Ring Topology
• The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to
fail.
• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
• The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb
the whole topology.
• Less secure.
• A break in the ring can stop the transmission in the entire network. Using
the dual ring network or a switch capable of closing the break can be used to
solve this problem.
• Difficult to troubleshoot.
• Adding and removing computers disrupts the entire network.
• Expensive when compared to other topologies

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Mesh Topology
• In this type of topology, a host is connected
to one or multiple hosts.

• This topology has hosts in point-to-point

connection with every other host or may also
have hosts which are in point-to-point
connection to few hosts only.

• Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay

for other hosts which do not have direct
point-to-point links.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Mesh Topology

• Mesh type of connectivity has a dedicated point-

to-point link between devices.

• The term dedicated means that the link carries

traffic between the two devices it connects.

• A fully connected mesh therefore has n(n-1)/2

physical channels to link 'n' devices. To
accommodate these, every device on the
network must have (n-1) input/output ports.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Mesh Topology
• Every device is connected to another via dedicated
channels. These channels are known as links.
• Suppose, the N number of devices are connected
with each other in a mesh topology, the total number
of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In
Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each
other, hence the total number of ports required by
each device is 4.
• The total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
• Suppose, N number of devices are connected with
each other in a mesh topology, then the total number
of dedicated links required to connect them
is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence the total number of
links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Mesh Topology
Advantages of Mesh Topology
•Communication is very fast between the nodes.
•Mesh Topology is robust.
•The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the
devices through dedicated channels or links.
•Provides security and privacy.
•Use of dedicated links eliminate the traffic problem.
•It is robust i.e. if one link becomes unusable it does not incapacitate the entire
•network.
•Privacy is maintained since the message travels along the dedicated line.
•Point-to-point link makes faults identification and faulty isolation easy.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Mesh Topology

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

• Installation and configuration are difficult.

• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number
of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.
• The amount of cabling required is high.
• The number of I/0 ports required is high.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Star Topology
• All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device,
using a point-to-point connection.
• That is, there exists a point to point connection between hosts and hub.
The hub device can be any of the following:
• Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater
• Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
• Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Star Topology
• Advantages of star topology:
• Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central computer, hub, or switch.
• Easy to add another computer to the network.
• If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to function normally.
• The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs), High-speed LANs often use a star topology
with a central hub.

• Disadvantages of star topology:

• Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or router as the central network
device.
• The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes the network can handle.
• If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and all computers are
disconnected from the network.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Bus Topology

• In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or

cable.
• Bus topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at
the same time.
• It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device
does not affect the other devices. But failure of the shared
communication line can make all other devices stop functioning.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Bus Topology
• Advantages of bus topology:

1. It works well when you have a small network.

2. It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear
fashion.

3. It requires less cable length than a star topology.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Bus Topology
• Disadvantages of bus topology:
1. It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
2. It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
3. Bus topology is not great for large networks.
4. Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
5. Additional devices slow the network down.
6. If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Tree Topology
▪ It is similar to star topology, but the nodes are connected to the secondary hub, which in
turn is connected to the central hub.
▪ The central hub is the active hub. The active hub contains the repeater, which
regenerates the bits pattern that it receives, before sending them out.
▪ The secondary hub can be either active or passive.
▪ A passive hub provides a simple physical connection between the attached devices.
▪ The advantages and disadvantages of tree topology are the same as those of a Star
network.
▪ Also, the addition of the secondary hub allows more devices to be connected to the
central hub.
▪ It also allows the network to isolate and prioritize communication from different
computers.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Hybrid Topology

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Network Topology

❑ Selection of Topology

The selection of topology is done based on the following considerations:

▪ Application software and protocols.
▪ Type of data communicating devices.
▪ Geographic scope of the network.
▪ Cost and reliability.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Protocol
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.
• It represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
• Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be
understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Data Flow
• Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex
as shown in Figure.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Data Flow
• Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way
street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive
(Figure a). Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.

• Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not
at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice
versa (Figure b). Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half- duplex
systems.

• Full-Duplex: In full-duplex, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously

(Figure c). One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone
network. When two people are communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and
listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both
directions is required all the time.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Design issues for the layers

1. Reliability 9. Service Quality (QoS)

2. Addressing 10. Network management
3. Error Control 11. Load Balancing
4. Flow Control 12. Network Topology Design
5. Multiplexing and De-multiplexing 13. Energy Efficiency
6. Scalability 14. Interoperability
7. Routing 15. Disaster Recovery and Redundancy
8. Confidentiality and Integrity 16. Security

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Design issues for the layers

1. Reliability
• Reliability is a cornerstone design issue in computer networks.
• Networks are composed of various components, and some of these
components may be inherently unreliable, leading to potential data loss
during transmission.
• Ensuring that data is transferred without distortion or corruption is
paramount.
• Robust error detection and correction mechanisms are essential for
preserving data integrity, especially in the face of unreliable
communication channels.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
2. Addressing
• Addressing is a fundamental aspect of network layers.
• In a network, numerous processes run on multiple machines, and each
layer requires a mechanism to identify both senders and receivers
accurately.
• Effectively assigning and managing addresses helps facilitate efficient
communication, ensuring that data reaches its intended destination.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
2. Addressing
• Addressing is a fundamental aspect of network layers.
• In a network, numerous processes run on multiple machines, and each
layer requires a mechanism to identify both senders and receivers
accurately.
• Effectively assigning and managing addresses helps facilitate efficient
communication, ensuring that data reaches its intended destination.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
3. Error Control
• The inherent imperfections in physical communication circuits
necessitate error control as a vital design issue.
• To safeguard data integrity, error-detecting and error-correcting codes
are employed.
• However, it's imperative that both the sending and receiving ends
reach a consensus on the specific error detection and correction codes
to be used, ensuring effective data packet protection.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
4. Flow Control
• Maintaining an equilibrium between data senders and receivers is
essential to prevent data loss due to speed mismatches.
• A fast sender transmitting data to a slower receiver necessitates the
implementation of a flow control mechanism.
• Several approaches are used, such as increasing buffer sizes at
receivers or slowing down the fast sender.
• Additionally, the network should handle processes that cannot
accommodate arbitrarily long messages by disassembling,
transmitting, and reassembling messages as required.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
• 5. Multiplexing and De-multiplexing
• Efficient data transmission on a network often involves transmitting
data separately on the transmission medium.
• Setting up separate connections for every pair of communicating
processes is neither practical nor cost-effective.
• To address this challenge, multiplexing is employed at the sender's
end, allowing data from multiple sources to be combined into a single
transmission stream.
• De-multiplexing is then performed at the receiver's end to separate and
direct the data to the appropriate recipients.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers

6. Scalability
• As networks expand in size and complexity, new challenges inevitably
arise.
• Scalability is crucial to ensuring that networks can continue to function
effectively as they grow.
• The network's design should accommodate increasing sizes, reducing
the risk of congestion and compatibility issues when new technologies
are introduced.
• Scalability is a cornerstone for ensuring the network's long-term
viability.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
7. Routing

• Routing is a critical function within the network layer.

• When multiple paths exist between a source and destination, the
network must select the most optimal route for data transmission.
• Various routing algorithms are utilized to make this determination, with
the aim of minimizing cost and time, thereby ensuring efficient and
reliable data transfer.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
8. Confidentiality and Integrity
• The security of a network is critical.
• Confidentiality methods are critical for protecting against risks like
eavesdropping and preventing unauthorized parties from accessing
sensitive data.
• Data integrity is also crucial since it protects against tampering and
unauthorized changes to messages during transmission.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
9. Service Quality (QoS):
• QoS refers to a network's ability to deliver varying levels of service to
different types of traffic.
• Video streaming, VoIP, and data transmission all have varying
bandwidth, latency, and reliability needs.
• It is a difficult challenge to ensure that the network can prioritize and
distribute resources effectively to satisfy these objectives.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
10. Network management:
• Network management includes monitoring and maintaining the health
and performance of different network components such as routers,
switches, and servers.
• Device configuration, fault detection, performance analysis, and
security monitoring all need network management tools and protocols.
• Effective network administration is critical for detecting and resolving
problems in real time, optimizing resource utilization, and maintaining
a positive user experience.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
10. Network management:
• Network management includes monitoring and maintaining the health
and performance of different network components such as routers,
switches, and servers.
• Device configuration, fault detection, performance analysis, and
security monitoring all need network management tools and protocols.
• Effective network administration is critical for detecting and resolving
problems in real time, optimizing resource utilization, and maintaining
a positive user experience.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
11. Load Balancing:
• In scenarios where a network has multiple servers or paths to handle
incoming traffic, load balancing becomes critical.
• The challenge is to distribute network traffic evenly across these
resources to prevent overloads and optimize resource utilization.
• Load balancing can be achieved through hardware or software
solutions, and it may require advanced algorithms to make intelligent
decisions based on factors like server health and current traffic loads.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
12. Network Topology Design:
• The choice of network topology can significantly impact the network's
performance, scalability, and fault tolerance.
• Designing the right topology for a given scenario involves considering
factors such as cost, reliability, ease of expansion, and fault tolerance.
• For example, a star topology might be suitable for a small office
network, while a mesh or hybrid topology could be preferred for a
large-scale data center.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
13. Energy Efficiency:
• With increasing concerns about energy consumption and its
environmental impact, designing energy-efficient networks is
essential.
• This includes using energy-efficient hardware, optimizing network
protocols, and implementing strategies for turning off or reducing
power to unused network components during periods of low demand.
• Energy-efficient network design helps reduce operational costs and
minimizes the carbon footprint.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
14. Interoperability:
• It is a huge task to ensure that these components can function together
seamlessly.
• Adherence to industry standards and protocols, as well as testing and
certification processes, are used to achieve interoperability.
• It's crucial to ensure that data can flow smoothly between diverse
network elements.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
15. Disaster Recovery and Redundancy:

• Planning for network resilience in the face of disasters, equipment

failures, or cyberattacks is critical.
• Redundancy, failover mechanisms, and disaster recovery strategies
must be in place to maintain network continuity.
• This involves duplicating critical components, creating backup data
centers, and implementing data backup and recovery solutions.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Design issues for the layers
16. Security:
• A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats
like eavesdropping and surreptitious alteration of messages.
• So, there should be adequate mechanisms to prevent unauthorized
access to data through authentication and cryptography.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Network Services
• Inorder to establish a connection between two or more
devices, there are services in Computer Networks.
• two services are given by the layers to layers above them.
These services are as follows:

1) Connection-Oriented Service

2) Connectionless Services

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connection oriented services
• There is a sequence of operations to be followed by the users of a
connection-oriented service.
• These are:

1. The connection is established.

2. Information is sent.

3. The connection is released.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Connection oriented services
• In connection-oriented service, we have to establish a connection
before starting the communication.
• When the connection is established, we send the message or the
information, and then we release the connection.
• Connection-oriented service is more reliable than connectionless
service.
• We can send the message in a connection-oriented service if there is an
error at the receiver's end.
• An example of connection-oriented is TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) protocol.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Connection oriented services
• In the diagram, a solid line
between Device A and Device
B indicates that there is a
dedicated link with which the
stream of data travels between
them.

• With the help of this link, a

receiver can send an
acknowledgment to the sender
about the status of the packet.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
 • Connection-Oriented Service Primitives:
• There are 5 types of primitives for Connection-
Oriented Service:

BLOCK WAITING FOR AN

Connection LISTEN
CONNECTION
INCOMING CONNECTION
Establish a connection with a
oriented waiting peer
RECEIVE Block waiting for an incoming
services message
SEND Sending a message to the peer
DISCONNECT Terminate a connection

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connection oriented services

Advantages:

1. Connection-Oriented Services are reliable.

2. There is no duplication of data packets.
3. There are no chances of Congestion.
4. These are Suitable for long connections.
5. Sequencing of data packets is guaranteed.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connection oriented services

Disadvantages:
1. This allocation of resources is mandatory before communication.
2. The speed of connection is slower. As much time is taken for
establishing and relinquishing the connection.
3. In the case of Network Congestion or router failures, there are no
alternative ways to continue with communication.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connection Less Services
• It is similar to the postal services, as it carries the full address where
the message (letter) is to be carried.
• Each message is routed independently from source to destination. The
order of messages sent can be different from the order received.
• In connectionless the data is transferred in one direction from source
to destination without checking the destination is still there or not or if
it prepared to accept the message.
• Authentication is not needed in this. An example of a Connectionless
service is UDP (User Datagram Protocol) protocol.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 • There are 2 types of primitives for Connectionless
Service:

Connectionless
Service
UNIDATA This primitive sends a packet of
Primitives: data
FACILITY, Primitive for enquiring about the
REPORT performance of the network, like
delivery statistics.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connection Less Services

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connection Less Services

Advantages:
1. There are usually low overheads.
2. Connection-Oriented services help to broadcast or multicast
messages to multiple recipients.
3. In this, there is no circuit setup. Thus it takes a fraction of a minute
in order to establish a connection.
4. In the case of Network congestion or router failures, it has an
alternative path of data transmission.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Connection Less Services

Disadvantages

• These are susceptible to congestion in the network.

• It is not reliable as there is the possibility of a loss of data packets,
wrong delivery of packets or duplication is high.
• In this, each data packet needs lengthy fields because these are
supposed to hold all the destination addresses and the routing
information.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

S. No Comparison Connection-oriented Service Connection Less Service
Parameter

1. Related It is designed and developed It is service based on the postal

System based on the telephone system. system.

2. Definition It is used to create an end to end It is used to transfer the data packets
connection between the senders between senders to the receiver
to the receiver before transmitting without creating any connection.
the data over the same or different
network.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

S. No Comparison Connection-oriented Service Connection Less Service
Parameter

3. Virtual path It creates a virtual path between It does not create any virtual
the sender and the receiver. connection or path between the
sender and the receiver.

4. Authenticati It requires authentication before It does not require authentication

on transmitting the data packets to before transferring data packets.
the receiver.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

S. No Parameter Connection-oriented Service Connection Less Service

5. Data All data packets are received in the Not all data packets are received in the
Packets Path same order as those sent by the same order as those sent by the
sender. sender.

6. Bandwidth It requires a higher bandwidth to It requires low bandwidth to transfer

Requirement transfer the data packets. the data packets.

7. Data It is a more reliable connection It is not a reliable connection service

Reliability service because it guarantees data because it does not guarantee the
packets transfer from one end to transfer of data packets from one end
the other end with a connection. to another for establishing a
connection.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
S. No Comparison Connection-oriented Service Connection Less Service
Parameter

8. Congestion There is no congestion as it There may be congestion due to not

provides an end-to-end providing an end-to-end connection
connection between sender and between the source and receiver to
receiver during transmission of transmit of data packets.
data.

9. Examples Transmission Control Protocol User Datagram Protocol (UDP),

(TCP) is an example of a Internet Protocol (IP), and Internet
connection-oriented service. Control Message Protocol (ICMP) are
examples of connectionless service.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Layered Architecture of Data Network
▪ Layered architecture of a data network is a modular design of data network with
standardization of various modules.
▪ All practical data networks are designed using these reference models.

Advantages of Modular Design (Layered Architecture):

• Simplicity in design.
• Each module can be independently modified without affecting other modules.
• Understandability and Interchangeability of modules.
• Improved reliability.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Layered Architecture of Data Network

▪ To reduce design complexity, most of the networks are organized as a series of

Layers or Levels.

▪ The number of layers, the name of each layer, the content of each layer, and their
function are different for different networks.

▪ Layer n on one machine carries a conversation with layer n on another machine.

▪ The rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the
Layer n protocol.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Protocol Hierarchies
• A protocol is a set of rules and conventions agreed upon and followed by
the communicating entities for data communication. A protocol outlines
the what, how and when of a communication.
• The three aspects of a protocol are −

• Syntax − It defines the format of data that is to be sent or received.

• Semantics − It defines the meaning of each section of bits that are
transferred.
• Timings − It defines the time at which data is transferred as well as the
speed at which it is transferred.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Protocol Hierarchies

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Protocol Hierarchies
• The diagram shows communication between Host 1 and Host 2.

• The data stream is passed through several layers from one host to
another.

• Virtual communication is represented using dotted lines between peer

layers.

• Physical communication is represented using solid arrows between

adjacent layers.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Protocol Hierarchies

• Through physical medium, actual communication occurs.

• The layers at same level are commonly known as peers.

• The peer basically has a set of communication protocols.

• An interface is present between each of layers that are used to explain

services provided by lower layer to higher layer.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Protocol Hierarchies
Advantages

1. The layers generally reduce complexity of communication between

networks
2. It increases network lifetime.
3. It also uses energy efficiently.
4. It does not require overall knowledge and understanding of network.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Protocol Hierarchies
Disadvantages

1. Protocol Hierarchy requires a deep understanding of each layer of the OSI

model.

1. Implementation of the protocol hierarchy is very costly.

2. Every layer in the protocol hierarchy introduces overhead in terms of

memory, bandwidth, and processing.

3. Protocol Hierarchy is not scalable for complex networks.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Common Terminology:
▪ Packets: Long strings of bits for a message are broken into shorter
strings of bits are called Packets.

▪ Datagrams: The independent packets of a connectionless

organization are called Datagram.

▪ Session: The setup procedure to establish connection between two

users is called Session.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Reference Models
• In computer networks, reference models give a conceptual framework
that standardizes communication between heterogeneous networks.

• The two popular reference models are −

1. OSI Model
2. TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

OSI MODEL
• OSI or Open System Interconnection model was developed by International
Standards Organization (ISO).

• It gives a layered networking framework that conceptualizes how

communication should be done between heterogeneous systems.
• It has seven interconnected layers.

• The seven layers of the OSI Model are a physical layer, data link layer,
network layer, transport layer, session layer, presentation layer, and
application layer.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

OSI MODEL
• OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.

• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural
model for the inter-computer communications.

• OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks.
Each layer is assigned a particular task.

• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be

performed independently.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 OSI Reference Model
▪ OSI stands for Open System Interconnection.
▪ OSI model was developed in 1979 by International Standard organization (ISO) as a first
step towards the international standardization of various protocols.
▪ It is the reference considered for development of network protocols.
▪ OSI model has 7 layers.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
OSI Reference Model

Layer 7 Application

Layer 6 Presentation

Layer 5 Session

Layer 4 Transport

Layer 3 Network

Layer 2 Data Link Control

Layer 1 Physical

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Layer 1 Physical Layer

Layer 7 Application

Layer 6 Presentation
• To transmit bits over a medium to provide
Layer 5 Session mechanical and electrical specifications.
• It consists of computer terminal, modems and
Layer 4 Transport
transmission channel such as twisted pair cable,
Layer 3 Network coaxial cable, fiber etc.
• It forms virtual bit pipe for higher layer.
Layer 2 Data Link Control • It forms incoming bits into appropriate signal, which
Layer 1 Physical can be transmitted on the channel at transmitting
end and at the receiving end it maps signal into
appropriate bits.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Layer 1 Physical Layer

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Physical Layer
• The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the
individual bits from one node to another node.

• It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.

• It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.

• It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface

specifications.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Physical Layer
Functions of a Physical layer:

1. Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.

2. Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex,

half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.

3. Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.

4. Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Data Link Layer

• It organizes bits into frames to provide node-to-

Layer 7 Application node delivery.
• It converts unreliable bit pipe at lower level i.e.
Layer 6 Presentation
physical layer into reliable bit pipe at higher level.
Layer 5 Session • It forms virtual communication link for transmission
of data packets asynchronously but error free in
Layer 4 Transport both directions.
Layer 3 Network
• Error detection and correction is provided by adding
header and trailer with the data packet.
Layer 2 Data Link Control • Header provides parity or CRC for error detection
and correction and also indicates beginning of data
Layer 1 Physical packet.
• Trailer indicates end of the data packet.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
• It also performs ARQ.
 Data Link Layer
• This layer is responsible for
the error-free transfer of data
frames.
• It defines the format of the
data on the network.
• It provides a reliable and
efficient communication
between two or more
devices.
• It is mainly responsible for
the unique identification of
each device that resides on a
local network.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Data Link Layer
• It contains two sub-layers:

• Logical Link Control Layer

• It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the
receiver that is receiving.
• It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
• It also provides flow control.

• Media Access Control Layer

• A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link Control
layer and the network's physical layer.
• It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Data Link Layer

• Functions of the Data-link layer

• Framing:
• The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets
known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the
frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware
destination and source address.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Data Link Layer

• Physical Addressing:
• The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a destination
address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in
the header.

• Flow Control:
• Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the
sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station
such as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving
station, with lower processing speed.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Data Link Layer

• Error Control:
• Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is
added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any
error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the
retransmission of the corrupted frames.

• Access Control:
• When two or more devices are connected to the same communication
channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine which
device has control over the link at a given time.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
 Network Layer
• It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices
on the network.
• It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination
based on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
• The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
• Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.
• The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Network Layer

Layer 7 Application

Layer 6 Presentation

Layer 5 Session • It moves packets from source to destination and

provides Internetworking.
Layer 4 Transport • It provides routing and flow control by adding its
own header.
Layer 3 Network
• At the receiving end, the network layer module i.e.
Layer 2 Data Link Control Peer Processor uses header for routing and flow
control to avoid congestion.
Layer 1 Physical • It also improves reliability of data link layer.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Network Layer

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Network Layer
Functions of Network Layer:

• Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of

the network layer. It provides a logical connection between
different devices.

• Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination

address to the header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify
the device on the internet.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Network Layer
• Functions of Network Layer:

• Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it

determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to
the destination.

• Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer
and converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It
is achieved by internet protocol (IP).

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Transport Layer
• The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted
in the order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
• The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data
completely.
• It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into
smaller units known as segments.
• This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-
to-point connection between source and destination to deliver the data
reliably.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Transport Layer

Layer 7 Application

Layer 6 Presentation
• To provide reliable end-to-end message delivery
Layer 5 Session and error recovery by determining network.
• It provides following three operations.
Layer 4 Transport a) Packet formation
Layer 3 Network
b) Multiplexing
c) Flow control
Layer 2 Data Link Control

Layer 1 Physical

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Transport Layer

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Transport Layer
• The two protocols used in this layer are:

• Transmission Control Protocol

• It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the
internet.
• It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
• When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the
data into smaller units known as segments.
• Each segment travels over the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive
in different orders at the destination.
• The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the correct order at
the receiving end.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Transport Layer
• User Datagram Protocol

• User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.

• It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Transport Layer
• Functions of Transport Layer:
• Service-point addressing:
• Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this reason, the
transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one
computer to another computer but also from one process to another
process.
• The transport layer adds the header that contains the address known as a
service-point address or port address.
• The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data from one
computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer
is to transmit the message to the correct process.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Transport Layer
• Segmentation and reassembly:
• When the transport layer receives the message from the upper layer, it
divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is
assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each
segment.

• When the message has arrived at the destination, then the transport
layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Transport Layer
• Connection control:
• Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service and
connectionless service.
• A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet,
and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination.
• A connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport
layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets.
• In connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single
route.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Transport Layer

• Flow control:
• The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.

• Error control:
• The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control
is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender
transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without
any error.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Session Layer

Layer 7 Application
• It makes various services available for network.
Layer 6 Presentation
• To establish, manage and terminate sessions.
Layer 5 Session • It also deals with access rights and handles
interaction between two end points in setting up
Layer 4 Transport session.
Layer 3 Network

Layer 2 Data Link Control

Layer 1 Physical

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Session Layer
• It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
• The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Session Layer
• Functions of Session layer:

• Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a

dialog between two processes, or we can say that it allows the
communication between two processes which can be either half-duplex or
full-duplex.

• Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when

transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of
the transmission of data, then the transmission will take place again from
the checkpoint. This process is known as Synchronization and recovery.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Presentation Layer

• A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and

semantics of the information exchanged between the two systems.
• It acts as a data translator for a network.
• This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from
one presentation format to another format.
• The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Presentation Layer
• Its major functions are data encryption, data
Layer 7 Application compression and code conversion.
Layer 6 Presentation • Data encryption provides security in network
communication.
Layer 5 Session • Data compression to reduce bit rate, which requires
less bandwidth and improves communication speed.
Layer 4 Transport • Code conversion is required for interfacing
Layer 3 Network incompatible terminals, printers, file systems and so
on.
Layer 2 Data Link Control

Layer 1 Physical

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Presentation Layer

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Presentation Layer
Functions of Presentation layer:
Translation:

• The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of

character strings, numbers and so on.
• Different computers use different encoding methods, the presentation
layer handles the interoperability between the different encoding
methods.
• It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common format
and changes the common format into receiver-dependent format at the
receiving end.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 Presentation Layer

Encryption:

• Encryption is needed to maintain privacy.

• Encryption is a process of converting the sender-transmitted information
into another form and sends the resulting message over the network.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Presentation Layer

Compression:

• Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces the

number of bits to be transmitted.
• Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text, audio,
video.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Presentation Layer

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Application Layer
• An application layer serves as a window for users and application
processes to access network service.

• It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation,

etc.

• An application layer is not an application, but it performs the

application layer functions.

• This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
 Application Layer
• It allows access to the network resources.
• It performs specific task intended for a particular
Layer 7 Application
application.
Layer 6 Presentation • Generates messages to initiate sessions.

Layer 5 Session

Layer 4 Transport

Layer 3 Network

Layer 2 Data Link Control

Layer 1 Physical

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Application Layer
Functions of Application layer:

• File transfer, access, and management (FTAM):

• An application layer allows a user to access the files in a remote computer,
to retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a remote
computer.

• Mail services:
• An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and storage.
• Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources
and is used to provide that global information about various objects.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Application Layer

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

OSI Reference Model
❑ Information Flow through Network

Sending Receiving
Process Data Process
Application Application
AH Data
Layer Layer
Presentation Presentation
PH Data
Layer Layer
Session Session
SH Data
Layer Layer
Transport Transport
TH Data
Layer Layer
Network Network
NH Data
Layer Layer
Data Link Data Link
DH Data DT
Control Layer Control Layer
Physical Physical
Bits
Layer Layer
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu Actual Data Transmission Path
The interaction between layers in the OSI model

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 OSI Reference Model
❑ Information Flow through Network
▪ The message from the information source passes down through the layers.
▪ Each layer adds its header information and whenever applicable trailer information to
the message bits.
▪ The protocol header contains control and address information for the corresponding
peer layer in the destination node.
▪ At each layer, the message that was received from the higher layer plus the overhead
information (Header and/or Trailer) is added. It becomes data field for the next layer
below.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

OSI Reference Model
❑ Information Flow through Network
▪ At the receiver node, the message block that received from the physical
channel is passed up to the data link layer at that node.
▪ The data link uses CRC in the content of the data link header so as to determine
if the bits occurred in the transmission are in error, and it examines the
message number contained in the header to check that the packet arrived is in
proper sequence. The end of the frame is marked by its trailer.
▪ If the error has occurred, a correction procedure will be used; otherwise,
header and trailer are removed from the message block, and the remainder is
passed up to the network layer.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 OSI Reference Model
❑ Information Flow through Network

Application --> APDU

Presentation --> PPDU

Virtual
Communication Session --> SPDU

Transport --> TPDU

Network --> Packet

Actual Data Link Control --> Frame
Communication
Physical --> Bits

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

(Note: PDU = Protocol Datagram Unit) 41
 OSI Reference Model
❑ Information Flow through Network
Intermediate Intermediate
Node A Node B
Node Node
Application Application
Layer Layer
Presentation Presentation
Layer Layer
Session Session
Layer Layer
Transport Transport
Layer Layer
Network Network Network Network
Layer Layer Layer Layer
Data Link Data Link Data Link Data Link
Control Layer Control Layer Control Layer Control Layer
Physical Physical Physical Physical
Layer Layer Layer Layer
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
An Exchange using the OSI Model

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Internetworking and Network Devices in OSI
Model
Network Devices and OSI Model

Application Application

Presentation Presentation
Gateway
Session Session

Transport Transport

Network Router Network

Data Link Control Bridge Data Link Control

Physical Repeater Physical

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 OSI Reference Model
❑ Information Flow through Network
▪ There is a destination address in the network header, it is checked to see whether the
packet has arrived at the correct destination.
▪ If not, the network layer selects its next outgoing path (channel) from its routing table
and passes the message to the data link layer.
▪ The data link layer again adds header and trailer information and passes the message to
physical layer for transmission on link.
▪ This process will continue till the message finally arrives at the destination node.
▪ At the destination node various header and trailer are stripped off to get back the data.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
TCP/IP model
• The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport
layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
• The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four
layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP
model by a single layer called the application layer.
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each
of them provides specific functionality.
• Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by
two or more lower-level protocols.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
 TCP/IP model
• A protocol suite is a large number of related protocols that work together to
allow networked computers to communicate.
• TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in
the 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of
the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI
model.
• The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four.
• The entire IP suite -- a set of rules and procedures -- is commonly referred to
as TCP/IP. TCP and IP are the two main protocols, though others are included
in the suite. The TCP/IP protocol suite functions as an abstraction layer
between internet applications and the routing and switching fabric.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 TCP/IP Reference Model

▪ TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol.

▪ OSI model was developed in 1979, although protocol layering concepts
existed long before they were formalized by OSI model.
▪ An example of successful protocol layering concept was TCP/IP protocol.
▪ Because the TCP/P's historic ties with the Department of Defense
(DoD), the TCP/IP model is also called as DoD model.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

TCP/IP Reference Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Application Application

Presentation
Not present
in TCP/IP
Session

Transport Transport

Network Network

Data Link Control

Data Link
Physical

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

TCP/IP model

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP Model

Application

Transport • Also called as Host-to-Network Layer or Network Access

Layer.
• It corresponds to two Layers in OSI model: Physical Layer and
Network Data Link Layer.
• It represents the physical connection components such as
cables, transceivers, network boards, link protocols, LAN
Data Link
access protocols (such as CSMA/CD for Ethernet and Token
access for Token Ring, Token Bus and FDDI).
• The network access layer is used by Network Layer.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Model • Also called as Internetwork Layer.

• The network layer is responsible for providing a logical
address for the physical network interface.
Application
• The DoD model's implementation of the network layer is
Internet Protocol (IP).
Transport • The IP protocol layer provides a mapping between the logical
address and the physical address provided by the Network
access layer, by using Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) and
Network Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP).
• Problems, diagnostic information, and unusual conditions
associated with the IP protocol are reported by a separate
Data Link protocol called Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
which also operates at the network layer.
• The network layer is also concerned with routing the packet
between
Compiled Bythe hosts
Mrs. Soniya and networks.
Khatu
47
TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP Model • Also called as Host-to-Host Layer.
• The Host-to-Host protocol, as the name suggests, implements
connection between two hosts across a networks.
Application
• The DoD model implements two Host-to-Host protocols; viz.:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram
Transport Protocol (UDP).
• The TCP protocol is responsible for reliable, simultaneous, full
duplex connection. The term reliable means TCP takes care of
Network transmission errors by resending the portion of the data that
was in error.
• The application layer that uses TCP, however, do not have to
Data Link concern with reliability of data transmission because this is
handled by TCP.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

48
TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Model

Application

Transport
• TCP also provides simultaneous connections. Several TCP
connections can be established at a host and data can be sent
Network
simultaneously, independent of data on other connections.
• TCP provides full duplex connections, which means that data
Data Link can be send and received on a single connection.
• The UDP protocol is not as robust as TCP and can be used by
applications that do not require the reliability of the TCP at
the Host-to-Host layer.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu 49
TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP Model

Application

Transport
• TCP also provides simultaneous connections. Several TCP
connections can be established at a host and data can be sent
Network
simultaneously, independent of data on other connections.
• TCP provides full duplex connections, which means that data
Data Link can be send and received on a single connection.
• The UDP protocol is not as robust as TCP and can be used by
applications that do not require the reliability of the TCP at
the Host-to-Host layer.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu 49
TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP Model • Also called as Process/Application Layer.
• It provides applications that use the Host-to-Host layer
protocol (TCP and UDP).
Application
• Example of this applications are File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
Terminal Emulation (Telnet), Electronic Mail (SMTP) and
Transport Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).
• The Application layer represents the user interface to the
TCP/IP protocol stack.
Network

Data Link

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 TCP/IP Reference Model
❑ Protocol and Networks in TCP/IP Model
Name Host Web File Email
Search Config HTTP Transfer SMTP
Application BOOTP FTP
DNS POP
Layer
DHCP TFTP
IMAP

Transport Layer TCP UDP Protocol

IP IP Support Routing Protocols

NAT ICMP RIP IGRP EIGRP
Network Layer
OSFP BGP EGP

ARP RARP
Other Link Layer
Data Link Layer PPP Ethernet Token Ring Protocols Network
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Model

Application

Transport
• TCP also provides simultaneous connections. Several TCP
connections can be established at a host and data can be sent
Network
simultaneously, independent of data on other connections.
• TCP provides full duplex connections, which means that data
Data Link can be send and received on a single connection.
• The UDP protocol is not as robust as TCP and can be used by
applications that do not require the reliability of the TCP at
the Host-to-Host layer.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
49
TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP Model • Also called as Process/Application Layer.
• It provides applications that use the Host-to-Host layer
protocol (TCP and UDP).
Application
• Example of this applications are File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
Terminal Emulation (Telnet), Electronic Mail (SMTP) and
Transport Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).
• The Application layer represents the user interface to the
TCP/IP protocol stack.
Network

Data Link

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 TCP/IP Reference Model
❑ Dataflow through TCP/IP Network
Data

Application Message Application

Layer SH Data Layer

TCP Segment Transport

Transport
Layer TH Data Layer

IP Datagram Network
Network
Layer NH Data Layer

Data Link Frame Data Link

Layer DH Data DT Layer

Bits

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 TCP/IP Reference Model
❑ Dataflow through TCP/IP Network
▪ The data transmitted by host is encapsulated by the header protocol of the Application
layer.
▪ The Application data is in turn encapsulated by Transport Layer Protocol, which is then
encapsulated by Network layer protocol. Finally, the data from the Network layer is
encapsulated by the header and trailer of network access layer.
▪ When the encapsulated data is received by the remote host at the Receiving end, it de-
capsulates the header (and/or trailer) at each layer and sends the data resulting to the
layer above it until the original data is recovered.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 TCP/IP Reference Model
❑ Communication through an internet

Ref: Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data Communications and

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu Networking, 6th Edition, Mc Graw Hill education. 54
 TCP/IP Reference Model
❑ Protocol and Networks in TCP/IP Model
Name Host Web File Email
Search Config HTTP Transfer SMTP
Application BOOTP FTP
DNS POP
Layer
DHCP TFTP
IMAP

Transport Layer TCP UDP Protocol

IP IP Support Routing Protocols

NAT ICMP RIP IGRP EIGRP
Network Layer
OSFP BGP EGP

ARP RARP
Other Link Layer
Data Link Layer PPP Ethernet Token Ring Protocols Network
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
TCP/IP model

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Network Access Layer
• A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
• A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data
Link layer defined in the OSI reference model.
• It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
• This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data
between two devices on the same network.
• The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP
datagram into frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP
addresses into physical addresses.
• The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25,
frame relay.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Internet layer
• An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.
• An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
• The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets
from any network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the
route they take.
• Following are the protocols used in this layer are:
• IP Protocol

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Internet Protocol
• Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

➢IP Addressing:
• This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses.
• The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify
the device and to provide internetwork routing.

➢Host-to-host communication:
• It determines the path through which the data is to be transmitted.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Internet Protocol

➢Data Encapsulation and Formatting:

• An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport layer protocol.
• An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Internet Protocol
➢Fragmentation and Reassembly:
• The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data link layer
protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU).
• If the size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP
protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel
over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or
intermediate router.
• At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an
original message.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Internet Protocol
➢Routing:

• When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN,
MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery.
• When source and destination are on the distant network, then the IP
datagram is sent indirectly.
• This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various
devices such as routers.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

ARP Protocol
• ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
• ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical
address from the IP address.

• The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
• ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the
device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
• ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request
and process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends
back its physical address in the form of ARP reply.
• The recipient adds the physical address both to its cache memory and to the
datagram header
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
ICMP Protocol

• ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

• It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications
regarding datagram problems back to the sender.
• A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination.
• If a router is unable to route the data because of some unusual
conditions such as disabled links, a device is on fire or network
congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that
the datagram is undeliverable.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

ICMP Protocol
• An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
• ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or
not.

• ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is
responding or not.
• The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct
them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
• ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers
because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not
of the router that it is passed to.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Transport Layer

• The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and
correction of data that is being sent over the network.

• The two protocols used in the transport layer are the User Datagram
Protocol and the Transmission Control Protocol.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

UDP: User Datagram Protocol

• UDP provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of

transmission.
• It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the
error.
• User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol
reports the error to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 UDP: User Datagram Protocol
UDP consists of the following fields:

Source port address:

• The source port address is the address of the
application program that has created the
message.

Destination port address:

• The destination port address is the address of
the application program that receives the
message.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

 UDP: User Datagram Protocol

Total length:
• It defines the total number of bytes of
the user datagram in bytes.

Checksum:
• The checksum is a 16-bit field used in
error detection.
• UDP does not specify which packet is
lost. UDP contains only checksum; it
does not contain any ID of a data
segment.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

• It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for
the duration of the transmission.

• TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged
frames.
• Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged
before the transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is
discarded.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

• At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known
as segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is
required for reordering the frames to form an original message.

• At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based
on sequence numbers.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Application Layer

• An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

• It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of

representation.

• This layer allows the user to interact with the application.

• When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with

another application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Application Layer

• There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer.

• Every application cannot be placed inside the application layer except

those who interact with the communication system.

• For example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer

while web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the network
where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Application Layer
Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:
➢HTTP:
• HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us
to access the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the
form of plain text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer
protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment
where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.

➢SNMP:
• SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a
framework used for managing the devices on the internet by using the
TCP/IP protocol suite.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
Application Layer
➢SMTP:
• SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol
that supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol.
This protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail address.

➢DNS:
• DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to
identify the connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people
prefer to use the names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that
maps the name to the address is known as Domain Name System.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

Application Layer
➢TELNET:
• It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the
connection between the local computer and remote computer in such a
way that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote
system.

➢FTP:
• FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet
protocol used for transmitting the files from one computer to another
computer.

Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu

OSI v/s TCP/IP Reference Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

OSI is a reference model i.e. model was first TCP/IP is an implementation model i.e. Model
implemented. was
defined after implementation of protocol.
It is developed by ISO (International It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced
Standard Organization). Research Project Agency Network).

It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

OSI model is based on three concepts viz., TCP/IP model did not originally clearly
service, interface and protocol. distinguish between service, interface and
protocol.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu
OSI v/s TCP/IP Reference Model
OSI Model TCP/IP Model

OSI model gives guarantee of reliable Transport layer (using UDP) does not always
delivery of packets. guarantee the reliable delivery of packets.

OSI does not support Internetworking. TCP/IP supports Internetworking.

OSI model is strictly layered. TCP/IP model is loosely layered.

Supports connectionless and connection- Supports only connection-oriented

oriented communication in
communication in the Network layer. the Transport layer.
Compiled By Mrs. Soniya Khatu