DC MOTOR
1) Introduction
A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.
It operates on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a force (Lorentz Force).
2) Principle of Operation
• Based on Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule:
If the forefinger points to the magnetic field (B), the middle finger to the current (I),
then the thumb points to the direction of motion (force).
• When armature conductors carry current inside the magnetic field, a torque is
produced causing the rotor to rotate.
3) Construction of DC Motor
The construction is the same as a DC generator, but the function is reversed.
Main parts:
1. Yoke – Magnetic frame providing mechanical strength and path for flux.
2. Pole Core and Pole Shoes – Carry field winding and spread magnetic flux.
3. Field Winding – Produces the main magnetic field when supplied with DC.
4. Armature Core – Laminated steel to reduce eddy current loss, holds armature
conductors in slots.
5. Armature Winding – Conductors connected to commutator segments, carry armature
current.
6. Commutator – Converts the AC induced in the armature into DC supply for motor
operation.
7. Brushes – Carbon blocks to make contact between supply and armature winding
through commutator.
4) Types of DC Motors
Based on excitation method:
1. Separately Excited DC Motor – Field winding supplied from independent DC source.
2. Self-Excited DC Motor – Field winding supplied from the armature itself:
o Shunt Motor – Field winding connected in parallel with armature.
o Series Motor – Field winding connected in series with armature.
o Compound Motor – Has both series and shunt field windings.
▪ Long-shunt
▪ Short-shunt
5) Working of DC Motor
1. Supply DC voltage to armature and field winding.
2. Field winding produces magnetic flux.
3. Armature conductors carry current and lie in the magnetic field.
4. Force is produced (F = B × I × l) causing torque on the armature.
5. Commutator ensures that the direction of torque remains the same during rotation.
6) Back EMF in DC Motor
When the armature rotates, it cuts the magnetic field and induces an emf in opposition to the
applied voltage — called back emf (Eb).
Equation:
Eb = (P × Φ × Z × N) / (60 × A)
Motor voltage equation:
V = Eb + Ia × Ra
Where:
V = supply voltage (V)
Ia = armature current (A)
Ra = armature resistance (Ω)
7) Torque Equation of DC Motor
Mechanical power developed:
P = Eb × Ia
But, P = Torque (T) × Angular speed (ω)
ω = (2π × N) / 60
Therefore,
T = (P × 60) / (2π × N)
T = (9.55 × Eb × Ia) / N
For a given motor:
T ∝ Φ × Ia
8) Characteristics of DC Motors
1. Shunt Motor – Nearly constant speed, torque proportional to armature current.
2. Series Motor – High starting torque, speed decreases with load.
3. Compound Motor – Combines properties of shunt and series motors.
9) Commutation in DC Motors
• Commutation is the process of current reversal in the armature conductors as they
pass from one commutator segment to another.
• Good commutation is necessary to avoid sparking.
Methods to improve commutation:
• Using interpoles (commutating poles).
• Using high resistance brushes.
10) Applications of DC Motors
• Shunt Motor: Fans, blowers, machine tools, lathe machines.
• Series Motor: Cranes, hoists, electric traction.
• Compound Motor: Presses, elevators, rolling mills.
11) Example Problem
Example:
A 4-pole DC shunt motor has 500 conductors, lap wound, flux per pole = 0.02 Wb, speed =
1000 rpm, armature current = 50 A, Ra = 0.1 Ω. Find the back emf.
Solution:
Eb = (P × Φ × Z × N) / (60 × A)
Eb = (4 × 0.02 × 500 × 1000) / (60 × 4)
Eb = (40 × 1000) / 240
Eb = 166.67 V
12) PYQs – DC Motor
Q1. The type of DC motor best suited for cranes and hoists is:
a) Shunt Motor
b) Series Motor
c) Compound Motor
d) Separately excited Motor
Answer: b) Series Motor
Exam: SSC JE Electrical 2019
Q2. In a DC motor, the back EMF is:
a) Greater than supply voltage
b) In phase with armature current
c) Opposes the supply voltage
d) Independent of speed
Answer: c) Opposes the supply voltage
Exam: RRB JE Electrical 2015
Speed Control of DC Motors
1) Basic Concept
The speed of a DC motor is given by the formula:
N = (V − Ia × Ra) / (k × Φ)
Where:
• N = speed in revolutions per minute (rpm)
• V = supply voltage (volts)
• Ia = armature current (amperes)
• Ra = armature resistance (ohms)
• Φ = flux per pole (webers)
• k = constant for a given motor
From the formula:
• Speed increases if flux Φ decreases.
• Speed decreases if armature circuit resistance Ra increases.
• Speed can also be changed by varying supply voltage V.
2) Speed Control Methods for Shunt Motor
(i) Field Control Method
• A variable resistor (field rheostat) is connected in series with the shunt field winding.
• Reducing field current → reduces flux (Φ) → speed increases above rated speed.
• Used when speed above normal is required.
Formula relation: N ∝ 1/Φ
(ii) Armature Resistance Control
• A variable resistor is connected in series with the armature.
• Voltage drop across this resistor reduces voltage across the armature → speed
decreases.
• Used for speeds below rated speed.
Formula relation: N decreases when Ra increases
(iii) Voltage Control Method
• The armature is supplied with variable voltage using a motor-generator set or
electronic converter.
• Gives smooth control both above and below rated speed.
3) Speed Control Methods for Series Motor
(i) Field Diverter
• A resistor connected parallel to series field winding.
• Allows part of current to bypass field winding → reduces flux → speed increases.
(ii) Armature Resistance Control
• Same as shunt motor method → reduces speed.
(iii) Tapped Field Control
• The field winding is tapped at different points → changing number of turns →
changes flux and speed.
4) Example Problem
A 220 V DC shunt motor has Ra = 0.5 Ω, Φ constant.
At 1000 rpm, armature current is 20 A.
If an extra 2 Ω resistance is added in armature circuit, and Ia becomes 40 A, find new speed.
Step 1: Calculate initial back EMF
Eb1 = V − Ia × Ra
Eb1 = 220 − (20 × 0.5) = 210 V
Step 2: Calculate new back EMF
Total Ra = 0.5 + 2 = 2.5 Ω
Eb2 = 220 − (40 × 2.5) = 220 − 100 = 120 V
Step 3: Find speed ratio (Φ constant → N ∝ Eb)
N2 = (Eb2 / Eb1) × N1
N2 = (120 / 210) × 1000 = 571.4 rpm
5) PYQs – Speed Control of DC Motors
Q1. In a DC shunt motor, which method is preferred for increasing speed above rated value?
a) Armature resistance control
b) Field control
c) Voltage control
d) Armature voltage drop control
Answer: b) Field control
Exam: RRB JE Electrical 2015
Q2. In a DC series motor, which method is used to increase speed?
a) Increasing field current
b) Field diverter
c) Armature resistance
d) Increasing armature turns
Answer: b) Field diverter
Exam: SSC JE Electrical 2017
Q3. Armature resistance control of DC motor is generally used for:
a) Speed above rated value
b) Speed below rated value
c) Constant speed
d) Variable torque control
Answer: b) Speed below rated value
Exam: KPSC JE Electrical 2019
DC Starters
1) Why a Starter is Needed in a DC Motor
When a DC motor starts, the armature is stationary → back EMF (Eb) is zero.
From the armature current formula:
Ia = (V − Eb) / Ra
At start:
Eb = 0 → Ia = V / Ra
Since Ra is very small (fraction of an ohm), starting current becomes extremely high, which
can:
• Damage the armature winding
• Damage the commutator and brushes
• Cause mechanical shock to the shaft
Solution: A starter is used to gradually apply voltage to the armature through resistance,
limiting the starting current.
2) Functions of a DC Starter
1. To limit the starting current.
2. To protect the motor from overload.
3. To protect the motor from low voltage supply conditions.
3) Types of DC Starters
(i) 3-Point Starter
• Named because it has three terminals:
L (Line), A (Armature), F (Field).
• Contains:
o Starting resistance (in series with armature)
o No-Voltage Coil (NVC)
o Overload Release Coil (OLC)
Working:
• Handle is moved from OFF position to ON position through several studs.
• Each stud reduces series resistance step-by-step until the handle reaches RUN
position.
• NVC holds handle in RUN position as long as field circuit is energized.
• If supply voltage fails or field current is lost → NVC de-energizes → handle returns
to OFF.
Limitation: Not suitable for field weakening method of speed control because NVC is in
series with field winding.
(ii) 4-Point Starter
• Similar to 3-point starter but NVC is connected directly across supply voltage
(independent of field circuit).
• Used when speed control by field weakening is required.
• More reliable against handle returning to OFF during speed control.
(iii) Two-Point Starter
• Used for DC series motors.
• Has only two terminals: Line and Armature.
• Consists of a starting resistance and overload protection.
4) Example Problem
A 220 V DC shunt motor has Ra = 0.5 Ω. Without starter, what is the starting current if V =
220 V and back EMF at start is zero?
Ia = V / Ra = 220 / 0.5 = 440 A
This is many times the rated current (say, 20–30 A).
With starter resistance Rs = 10 Ω in series:
Ia = V / (Ra + Rs) = 220 / (0.5 + 10) = 20.95 A
→ Current is now safe for the motor.
5) PYQs – DC Starters
Q1. The purpose of a starter in a DC motor is to:
a) Control speed
b) Limit starting current
c) Reduce armature reaction
d) Improve commutation
Answer: b) Limit starting current
Exam: SSC JE Electrical 2019
Q2. Which starter is preferred for a DC shunt motor with field weakening speed control?
a) 2-point starter
b) 3-point starter
c) 4-point starter
d) Direct-on-line starter
Answer: c) 4-point starter
Exam: RRB JE Electrical 2015
Q3. Which coil in a DC starter drops the handle back to OFF when the supply fails?
a) Field coil
b) No-Voltage coil
c) Overload coil
d) Compensating coil
Answer: b) No-Voltage coil
Exam: KPSC JE Electrical 2020
Losses in DC Machines
1) Introduction
In any electrical machine, not all the input power is converted into useful output power.
Some of the input is lost as heat, vibration, and other effects.
These power losses reduce efficiency and cause heating.
For a DC machine (motor or generator):
Total Loss = Copper Losses + Iron Losses + Mechanical Losses
2) Types of Losses
(i) Copper Losses (I²R Losses)
• Occur due to current flowing through resistances of various windings.
• Armature copper loss: Ia² × Ra
Where Ia = armature current, Ra = armature resistance.
• Shunt field copper loss: Ish² × Rsh (or V × Ish)
Where Ish = shunt field current, Rsh = shunt field resistance.
• Series field copper loss: Ise² × Rse
Where Ise = series field current, Rse = series field resistance.
• These vary with load current (variable losses).
(ii) Iron Losses (Core Losses)
• Occur in the armature core because it rotates in a magnetic field.
• Two parts:
1. Hysteresis Loss = Kh × Bmax^1.6 × f × V
(Kh = hysteresis constant, Bmax = maximum flux density, f = frequency of
magnetic reversals, V = volume of core)
Reduced by using silicon steel laminations.
2. Eddy Current Loss = Ke × Bmax² × f² × t² × V
(Ke = eddy current constant, t = lamination thickness)
Reduced by using thin laminated cores.
(iii) Mechanical Losses
• Due to friction at bearings and air resistance (windage loss).
• Almost constant at a given speed.
3) Constant and Variable Losses
• Constant losses: Iron losses + Mechanical losses + Shunt field copper loss (in shunt
machines)
• Variable losses: Armature copper loss + Series field copper loss (depend on load).
4) Total Loss Equation
Total Loss (W) = Armature copper loss + Field copper loss + Iron loss + Mechanical loss
5) Importance of Knowing Losses
• To calculate efficiency:
Efficiency (%) = (Output power / Input power) × 100
• To design cooling systems for the machine.
• To improve performance by reducing avoidable losses.
6) PYQs – Losses in DC Machines
Q1. Which losses in a DC machine vary with the square of the load current?
a) Hysteresis losses
b) Eddy current losses
c) Copper losses
d) Mechanical losses
Answer: c) Copper losses
Exam: SSC JE Electrical 2019
Q2. Which losses are present even when the DC machine is running without load?
a) Copper losses only
b) Constant losses
c) Variable losses
d) Armature reaction losses
Answer: b) Constant losses
Exam: RRB JE Electrical 2015
Q3. Iron losses in a DC machine occur in the:
a) Armature winding
b) Field winding
c) Armature core
d) Brushes
Answer: c) Armature core
Exam: KPSC JE Electrical 2020
Testing of DC Machines
1) Purpose of Testing
• To determine the efficiency of the machine.
• To find out the losses without dismantling the machine.
• To check the performance under load or no-load conditions.
• To detect faults in operation.
2) Types of Tests
DC machine tests are divided into:
(i) Direct Tests
• Load is applied directly to the machine.
• Example: Brake Test.
• Measures output directly.
• Not suitable for large machines (wastes full load power as heat).
(ii) Indirect Tests
• Machine is not loaded fully.
• Losses are measured, and efficiency is calculated mathematically.
• Examples: Swinburne’s Test, Hopkinson’s Test, Retardation Test.
3) Direct Test
Brake Test
(on DC Motor)
• A belt brake is applied to the pulley mounted on the motor shaft.
• Two spring balances measure the tight side (W1) and slack side (W2) forces.
• Output power:
Pout (W) = 2 × π × N × (W1 – W2) × r / 60
Where:
N = speed in rpm
W1, W2 = spring balance readings in kg
r = radius of pulley in meters
• Efficiency:
η = (Output power) / (Input power) × 100
Input power = V × I (V in volts, I in amps)
4) Indirect Tests
(a) Swinburne’s Test
(No-load test on shunt motor)
• Run the motor at rated voltage and no load.
• Measure no-load input.
• Subtract shunt field copper loss to find constant losses.
• For any load current:
Total loss = Constant losses + Armature copper loss.
• Advantage: No need for full load.
• Limitation: Does not include load-dependent stray losses.
(b) Hopkinson’s Test
(Back-to-back test)
• Two identical machines are mechanically coupled.
• One acts as motor, other as generator.
• Power supplied from mains covers only the losses.
• Used for large machines where full-load testing is not practical.
(c) Retardation Test
(Running down test)
• Machine is driven to rated speed, then supply is cut off.
• Time taken for speed to reduce is measured.
• From deceleration, constant losses are calculated.
5) Key Formulas
1. Armature Copper Loss = Ia² × Ra
2. Shunt Field Copper Loss = V × Ish
3. Series Field Copper Loss = Ise² × Rse
4. Output Power in Brake Test = 2 × π × N × (W1 – W2) × r / 60
5. Efficiency = (Output Power / Input Power) × 100
6) PYQs – Testing of DC Machines
Q1. Swinburne’s test is conducted on:
a) DC series motor
b) DC shunt motor
c) DC compound motor
d) Any DC motor
Answer: b) DC shunt motor
Exam: SSC JE Electrical 2017
Q2. In brake test of a DC motor, output power is determined using:
a) Voltmeter and ammeter readings
b) Spring balance readings and speed
c) Wattmeter readings only
d) Tachometer only
Answer: b) Spring balance readings and speed
Exam: RRB JE Electrical 2014
Q3. Which test requires two identical DC machines?
a) Brake test
b) Swinburne’s test
c) Hopkinson’s test
d) Retardation test
Answer: c) Hopkinson’s test
Exam: KPSC JE Electrical 2019
Storage Batteries
1. Introduction
• A storage battery (also called a secondary cell) is an electrochemical device that
stores energy in chemical form and delivers it as electrical energy when needed.
• Unlike primary cells, storage batteries can be recharged by passing current in the
reverse direction.
2. Construction of a Lead-Acid Storage Battery
• Container: Made of hard rubber or polypropylene, resistant to acid.
• Plates:
o Positive plates: Lead dioxide (PbO₂)
o Negative plates: Sponge lead (Pb)
• Separators: Made of microporous material, placed between positive and negative
plates to prevent short-circuiting.
• Electrolyte: Dilute sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) with a specific gravity of 1.2–1.3.
• Vent plugs: Allow escape of gases and prevent dirt entry.
3. Working Principle
• Based on the chemical reaction between lead, lead dioxide, and sulfuric acid.
• Discharging reaction:
o Positive plate: PbO₂ + H₂SO₄ + 2H⁺ + 2e⁻ → PbSO₄ + 2H₂O
o Negative plate: Pb + SO₄²⁻ → PbSO₄ + 2e⁻
o Overall: Pb + PbO₂ + 2H₂SO₄ → 2PbSO₄ + 2H₂O
• During discharge:
o Sulfuric acid concentration decreases.
o Both plates become lead sulfate (PbSO₄).
• Charging reaction (reverse process):
o PbSO₄ is converted back into PbO₂ at positive plate and Pb at negative plate.
o Sulfuric acid concentration increases.
4. Characteristics
• Voltage:
o Nominal voltage per cell = 2 V
o Fully charged: ~2.2 V
o Fully discharged: ~1.8 V
• Capacity (Ah):
Capacity = Current × Time
• Efficiency:
o Ampere-hour efficiency = (Ah output / Ah input) × 100
o Watt-hour efficiency = (Wh output / Wh input) × 100
5. Maintenance of Lead-Acid Batteries
• Keep electrolyte level above plates by adding distilled water (never add acid).
• Keep terminals clean and coated with petroleum jelly.
• Avoid deep discharging (below 1.8 V per cell).
• Regularly check specific gravity using a hydrometer.
• Keep battery clean and dry to avoid leakage currents.
6. Applications
• Automotive starting systems.
• UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) systems.
• Railway signaling.
• Power backup in telecom systems.
7. Important Formulas
1. Capacity: C = I × t (in Ah)
2. Energy stored: E = V × I × t (in Wh)
3. Efficiency:
o η_Ah = (Ah output / Ah input) × 100
o η_Wh = (Wh output / Wh input) × 100
8. Previous Year Questions (PYQ) – Verified
Q1. (SSC JE Electrical 2018)
The nominal voltage of a lead-acid cell is:
a) 1.2 V
b) 2 V
c) 3.7 V
d) 1.5 V
Answer: b) 2 V
Q2. (RRB JE Electrical 2019)
During discharge of a lead-acid cell, the specific gravity of the electrolyte:
a) Increases
b) Decreases
c) Remains same
d) First increases then decreases
Answer: b) Decreases
Q3. (SSC JE Electrical 2016)
The electrolyte used in a lead-acid battery is:
a) Dilute H₂SO₄
b) Dilute HCl
c) KOH
d) NaOH
Answer: a) Dilute H₂SO₄
Q4. (RRB SSE Electrical 2015)
In a fully charged lead-acid cell, the positive plate is made of:
a) Lead dioxide
b) Sponge lead
c) Lead sulfate
d) Lead oxide
Answer: a) Lead dioxide
Q5. (KPSC JE Electrical 2020)
The capacity of a storage battery is expressed in:
a) kW
b) Ah
c) Wh
d) Joule
Answer: b) Ah
Special DC Machines
Special DC machines are modified versions of conventional DC motors and generators
designed for specific applications where normal DC machines may not perform well.
1. DC Series Motor (Special High Torque Applications)
• Construction: Similar to shunt motor, but field winding is connected in series with
armature.
• Characteristics:
o Very high starting torque.
o Speed decreases with increase in load.
• Applications: Cranes, hoists, electric traction, elevators.
• Speed Equation:
N ∝ 1 / Φ (Flux increases with load, so speed decreases)
2. DC Shunt Motor with Compound Characteristics
• Compound Wound Motor: Field winding has both shunt and series windings.
• Types:
o Cumulative compound (series aids shunt field) → High starting torque, good
speed regulation.
o Differential compound (series opposes shunt) → Not common.
3. DC Servo Motor
• Purpose: Used in automatic control systems to achieve precise control of speed or
position.
• Construction: Usually permanent magnet field or separately excited type.
• Features:
o Quick response.
o Operates at variable speed.
• Applications: Robotics, CNC machines, feedback control systems.
4. Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC) Motor
• Construction: Uses permanent magnets instead of field windings.
• Advantages:
o Smaller size, light weight.
o No field copper losses.
• Disadvantages:
o Limited capacity (small ratings).
o Permanent magnets can lose strength with high temperature.
• Applications: Toys, wipers, blowers, portable devices.
5. DC Series Generator
• Construction: Field winding in series with armature.
• Characteristics: Output voltage rises sharply with load (used only for special
applications).
• Applications: Series arc lighting, boosting in feeders.
6. DC Compound Generator
• Types:
o Cumulative compound generator: Voltage rises with load.
o Differential compound generator: Voltage drops rapidly with load.
• Applications: Power supply where constant voltage is needed under varying loads.
7. Separately Excited DC Generator
• Field winding supplied from an independent DC source.
• Provides constant field flux independent of load.
• Used in laboratories and excitation systems.
8. Important Formulas
1. EMF Equation (for all DC machines):
E = (P × Φ × Z × N) / (60 × A)
where:
P = number of poles
Φ = flux per pole (in Weber)
Z = total armature conductors
N = speed (rpm)
A = number of parallel paths in armature winding
2. Torque Equation:
T = (P × Z × Φ × Ia) / (2π × A) (in N·m)
9. Previous Year Questions (PYQ) – Verified
Q1. (SSC JE Electrical 2018)
A DC series motor is best suited for:
a) Lathes
b) Cranes
c) Fans
d) Centrifugal pumps
Answer: b) Cranes
Q2. (RRB JE Electrical 2015)
Which DC motor has the best speed regulation?
a) Series motor
b) Shunt motor
c) Compound motor
d) Universal motor
Answer: b) Shunt motor
Q3. (KPSC JE Electrical 2021)
In a PMDC motor, field is produced by:
a) Series winding
b) Shunt winding
c) Permanent magnets
d) Separate excitation
Answer: c) Permanent magnets
Q4. (SSC JE Electrical 2017)
The armature torque of a DC motor is directly proportional to:
a) Field flux only
b) Armature current only
c) Product of field flux and armature current
d) Square of armature current
Answer: c) Product of field flux and armature current
Q5. (RRB SSE Electrical 2014)
Which of the following is a special-purpose DC motor used in control systems?
a) Shunt motor
b) Servo motor
c) Series motor
d) Compound motor
Answer: b) Servo motor
Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC) Motor
1. Introduction
A Permanent Magnet DC motor is a type of DC motor where the magnetic field is produced
by permanent magnets instead of field windings. This eliminates the need for separate
excitation for the field.
2. Construction
A PMDC motor consists of:
• Stator (Field System):
Made of permanent magnets fixed to the inner surface of the stator frame. These
magnets produce a constant magnetic field.
• Rotor (Armature):
Laminated core with armature windings placed in slots. Connected to a commutator.
• Commutator:
Segmented copper rings mounted on the rotor shaft, connected to the armature
windings.
• Brushes:
Carbon brushes in holders, making contact with the commutator to supply DC current.
3. Working Principle
• When DC supply is given to the armature via brushes and commutator, current flows
through the armature conductors.
• The armature is placed in the magnetic field of permanent magnets.
• A force is exerted on the armature conductors due to Lorentz force law (F = BIL).
• This force produces torque, causing the armature to rotate.
• The commutator ensures that the torque always acts in the same direction.
4. Features
• No field winding → Reduced size and weight.
• No field copper losses → Higher efficiency for small motors.
• Flux is constant (decided by magnet strength).
5. Advantages
1. Smaller size for the same output power.
2. Higher efficiency due to absence of field winding losses.
3. Simple construction and lower maintenance.
6. Disadvantages
1. Limited to low power applications.
2. Permanent magnets can lose strength over time or due to high temperature.
3. Fixed flux → Speed control by flux variation is not possible.
7. Applications
• Windshield wipers
• Electric toys
• Portable fans
• Tape recorders and CD players
• Small pumps
• Blowers
8. Important Formulas
1. Back EMF:
E = V – IaRa
where:
V = supply voltage
Ia = armature current
Ra = armature resistance
2. Speed Equation:
N ∝ (V – IaRa) / Φ
In PMDC motors, Φ is constant → N ∝ (V – IaRa)
3. Torque Equation:
T ∝ Φ × Ia
Since Φ is constant → T ∝ Ia
9. Previous Year Questions (PYQ) – Verified
Q1. (SSC JE Electrical 2017)
In a PMDC motor, the magnetic field is produced by:
a) Series winding
b) Shunt winding
c) Permanent magnets
d) Separate excitation
Answer: c) Permanent magnets
Q2. (RRB JE Electrical 2015)
Which of the following is NOT an advantage of PMDC motors?
a) No field winding loss
b) Simple construction
c) High power rating
d) High efficiency for small ratings
Answer: c) High power rating
Q3. (KPSC JE Electrical 2019)
In a PMDC motor, speed control by varying field flux is:
a) Possible
b) Not possible
c) Depends on armature resistance
d) None of these
Answer: b) Not possible
Q4. (SSC JE Electrical 2016)
In PMDC motors, flux is:
a) Constant
b) Directly proportional to load
c) Inversely proportional to armature current
d) Zero
Answer: a) Constant
