Slope-Finding Functions

Topic #2.1: What a Derivative Tells Us

By the end of this reading, you will know what a derivative is. You won’t know how to find one
yet, but you will know what you have if you are given one!

Let’s say that we were given a function such as f(x) = x3 – 4x.

We know it isn’t a linear function so when we graph it, we are not surprised to see the curves. And if you
can imagine a tangent line “surfing” along the curve, the slope of the tangent line would clearly be
changing as you went along. Watch this video to see what we mean.

If you wanted to know the slope at a given point, you could estimate it by drawing the tangent line and
then finding the slope of that tangent line (as we have seen in the last module).

But there is an alternative to that method that is useful and quick. When you have the rule for a function,
there is a way to derive a formula for a new function that will give you the slope of the original function’s
tangent line at any x-value you choose. Since it is derived from the original function, this new function is
called “the derivative” of the original function.

For example, if the original function is:

f(x) = x3 – 4x

The derivative is written:

f ’(x) = 3x2 – 4

The symbol f ’(x) is pronounced “f-prime of x” and it is the most commonly used symbol to represent the
derivative of the function f.

TWO THINGS YOU SHOULD NOT WORRY ABOUT (YET)

1. How did we get from the function f(x) = x3 – 4x to its derivative f’(x) = 3x2 – 4?

We will show you how to “take a derivative” in the next topic reading. Once you learn a handful of
rules, the process is not difficult. It’s easier than factoring. It’s easier than long division.
2. Why would anyone want a slope-finding formula ?

Once you know how to take derivatives, we can show you a variety of ways that they are useful. In
fact, you’ll even get to use them forward and backwards! (That was supposed to be some
fore-shadowing…)

For now, our goal is simpler. We just want to be sure that you understand what it is that the
derivative formula tells us. And once again…it’s better with diagrams.

The graphs and videos in this reading were made using a web-based applet written by Paul
Seeburger, a professor of mathematics at Monroe Community College in New York.

The blue line is the original function, f(x) = x3 – 4x.

The purple line is the derivative, f’(x) = 3x2 – 4.

The red line is the tangent line. You can calculate the slope of that tangent using rise over run if you
want to, but you don’t have to. The applet does the calculation for you – look in the pink box.

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Now let’s pick a point on the graph and examine all of the lines on this diagram.

At x = –2, f(–2) = (–2)3 – 4×(–2) = –8 + 8 = 0. This means that (–2,0) is a point on the graph of f.

At that same point, the tangent line has a slope of 8 (as you can see in the pink box).

If we plug x = –2 into the derivative formula, we get f’(–2) = 3(–2)2 – 4 = 12 – 4 = 8. And then, when you
look at the graph of the derivative (in purple), you see that (2, 8) is a point on that graph. So the
derivative formula tells us the slope – at least at that one point. But does it always work?

Well, let’s look at another point: x = –1.

(If you are playing along at home, you can enter any x-value you want into the box on the lower left hand
side of the applet where it says “Trace x =”)

At x = –1, f(x) = (–1)3 – 4(–1) = 3. So (–1, 3) is a point on the graph.

Then, f’(x) = 3(–1)2 – 4 = –1. So we expect the slope of the tangent line to be –1, and it is. You can see that
(–1, –1) is a point on the graph of the derivative (again, the purple one). So once again, the derivative
formula has given the slope of the tangent line.

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Here’s one more point that is worth noticing:

Look at the value of the derivative. And then look at the shape of the graph. Where the derivative is zero,
the graph has a horizontal tangent. That little fact turns out to be a big part of one of the reasons why we
care about derivatives. They help us to find places where the graph has a maximum or (as in this case) a
minimum. We’ll be hearing more about that later.

So we have confirmed, at least for the points we checked, that for this particular function, the derivative
formula does in fact give values that match the slopes of the original function’s tangent lines.

As you saw in the video above, Professor Seeburger’s applet lets you trace along the graph. As you do, the
tangent line surfs along the curve and the applet keeps track of all of the values. Here is that video again,
this time with the derivative function and the values all visible.

So if you are skeptical, run the video and then pause it wherever you want. You’ll see that the slope of the
tangent line always matches the value given by the derivative. Derivatives really are slope-finding
formulas.

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Derivatives, Part I: The Building Blocks
Topic #2.2: Some Often Used Derivatives

In the last post, we started with f(x) = x3 + 4x and by some mysterious process, we generated a new
formula, f’(x) = 3x2 + 4. This “derivative” tells us the slope of the original function’s tangent lines.

As you enter AP Physics C, we would like you to be able to find the derivatives of some basic functions.
We will let your math teachers explain where these formulas come from, but we want you to start getting
familiar with these now.

Also, it is true that a TI-89 can find these derivative formulas for you. But the ones we will be asking you
to learn are so frequently encountered that it would be a waste of time to have to reach for a calculator.
So let’s begin:

1. Constant Functions

Suppose f(x) = c, where c is a constant. The graph of f(x) will be a horizontal line. The slope
everywhere on that line is zero. So our first rule is an easy one:

If f(x) = c then f'(x) = 0

2. Linear Functions

Suppose f(x) = kx, where k is a constant. This graph will be a line passing through the origin with
a slope, k. So this rule is also straight-forward:

If f(x) = kx then f'(x) = k

3. The Power Rule

Some examples:
f(x) = x2 → f’(x) = 2x

f(x) = x3 → f’(x) = 3x2

f(x) = x4 → f’(x) = 4x3

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4. Power Rule, Special Cases

The power rule works for negative powers and for fractional powers. So you can use it to figure out
the next two examples. But these two are worth memorizing so that you don’t have to stop to
re-derive them…

5. Two Trig Functions

Your math teacher will teach you the derivatives of the functions for all six trigonometric ratios
(and their inverse functions!) but for now, we’re just asking you to learn these two:

f(x) = sin(x) → f’(x) = cos(x)

f(x) = cos(x) → f’(x) = -sin(x)

If you would like to be convinced that the derivative of the sine function is the cosine function, play
the video linked here. Watch the tangent line surf along the sine wave (blue). Its slope changes in a
pattern that matches the values of the cosine function (pink).

6. One more interesting function

There are many, many applications of exponential growth and decay in physics. Exponential
functions are in the form:

where b is the base and x is the exponent.

Here is the graph for the case when b = 2:

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As long as the base is greater than one, exponential functions will all have this same characteristic shape.
There is, however, one special value for the base: the Euler number, e = 2.7182…

We sometimes think of e as π’s neglected cousin. They are both “transcendental” numbers, but we haven’t
heard of any middle school that holds competitions for memorizing the digits of e. That may be because π
is easier to explain: it’s the ratio of a circle’s circumference to its diameter.

But what is e? That’s a longer story… there are entire books devoted to this subject. For now, we will just
learn an interesting and important fact about e. The exponential function that has e as its base has a
special property:

At every point along the graph of the function f(x) = ex, the slope of the tangent line at
that point is equal to the value of the function at that same point (as you can see in this
video). Stop the video at any point. Compare the value of the function to the slope of the tangent
line until you can say “Aha!”

This gives us one more derivative rule:

Enough to Build on…

The basic rules you have seen in this post will get
us through most of AP Physics C where derivatives
are involved. Now, we have to learn how to apply
these rules to combinations of functions. That’s
coming next. For now, we’ll close by re-listing the
rules. Memorize them. Print them out and put
them in your notebook. Know them like you know
your times-tables.

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Derivatives, Part II: Combining the Functions
Topic #2.3: Sums, Differences, and More
In the last post, we compiled a small collection of derivative formulas, formulas which will enable you to
find slopes of tangent lines. (Why you would want to do such a thing is a discussion that is coming soon.)

You will see all of those functions in various settings as you study AP Physics C. But they don’t always act
alone. You have to be able to work with combinations of those functions in some ways that are intuitive
and other ways that are, well, less intuitive.

1. Adding and Subtracting — Just as you would guess

Suppose f(x) =x3 + x2 and you would like to find the derivative. You might be thinking:

“Wait — I have a rule for each of those terms, separately. Can I just add them? ”

In other words, is f'(x) = 3x2 + 2x ? Yes, it is. We could say this more officially:

If h(x) = f(x) + g(x) then h'(x) = f'(x) + g'(x).

But all that means is that if you have functions added together, you can use their separate
derivative formulas and then add them. And it works the same way for subtraction.

2. Multiplying by a Constant — Also as you would guess

Given f(x) = 3sin(x)…yes, it’s true: f'(x) = 3cos(x). Multiplying the original function by a constant
just multiplies its derivative by the same constant.

There is an intuitive way to see why this must be true:

Consider a function, g(x) = a * f(x), where a > 0. How does the graph of g(x) compare to the graph of
f(x)? [SAT fun fact!] It is vertically stretched or vertically compressed, depending on whether a is
greater or less than one. Now, how would that affect the tangent line? A vertical stretch by a factor,
a, will increase the slope of that tangent line by that same factor, a.

Here is an illustration of what we mean:

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 On the left, you see the graph of f(x) = √x and its tangent line at x = 1. The slope of that tangent
line is .5.

And on the right, you see the graph of f(x) = 3√x and its tangent line, also at x = 1. The graph has
been stretched vertically by a factor of 3. And sure enough, the tangent line is 3 times as steep, or
1.5.

We’ll call that a “proof” and state the rule officially:

if g(x) = a·f(x) then g'(x) = a·f'(x).

3. Multiplying and Dividing Functions: NOT what you would expect

Well…it’s a bad news/good news kind of thing…

Bad news: you can’t just multiply the derivatives. In other words, if h(x) = f(x)·g(x), it would be
convenient if h'(x) = f'(x)·g'(x). But, alas. Though we don’t yet know what the rule is, we know
enough to see what it isn’t.

All we have to do is let f(x) = x3 and let g(x) = x2. Then h(x) = f(x)·g(x) = x5 .

We also already know the derivatives: f'(x) = 3x2 and g'(x) = 2x. When you multiply them, you get.
3x2· 2x = 6x3 but we already know that h'(x) = 5x4. So the product of the derivatives did not match
the derivative of the products. That’s the bad news. And a similar argument can be constructed to
show that quotients don’t work that way either.

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So what’s the good news?

1.​ There are rules that handle these situations. They are called the product rule and the quotient
rule. We are sure that your math teacher will be happy to teach them to you.

2.​ This is where we pause and remind ourselves what this summer assignment is for. We are trying
to get you ready for your year of AP Physics C. We may need the product rule and the quotient rule
before the year is over, but we won’t need them right away. By the time we do need them, you will
have seen them in math class.

On the other hand, there is one more way to combine functions that we will need almost immediately. So
to start the next module, we are going to look at something called “the chain rule”.

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 Module #2 Practice Problems
Directions: Solve the following problems on a separate sheet of paper. Organize your solutions,
show all work, and write neatly.

1.​ In your own words, what do we achieve when we “find the derivative” of a function?

2.​ Find the derivative of the following functions:

5 4
a.​ 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 5𝑥
b.​ 𝑓(𝑥) = 23. 40
𝑥
c.​ 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑒
d.​ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) − 4
e.​ 𝑣(𝑡) = 15𝑡 + 2
3 4
f.​ 𝑥(𝑡) = 4𝑡 − 5𝑡 + 7𝑡
12
g.​ 𝑎(𝑡) = 𝑡

h.​ 𝑎(𝑡) = 9. 8 𝑡
3
3.​ A particle’s position is given by 𝑥(𝑡) = 4𝑡 − 2𝑡, where x is measured in meters and t is measured
in seconds.
a.​ Velocity is the rate of change of position with respect to time. Determine an expression for the
velocity of the object, v(t).
b.​ Find the velocity of the particle at time t = 3 seconds.
c.​ Find the time at which the particle stops momentarily (hint: what is an object’s velocity when it
is stopped?)
d.​ Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. Determine an expression for
the acceleration of the object, a(t).
e.​ Find the particle’s acceleration at time t = 6 seconds.
2
4.​ The distance in meters that a particle moves in time t is given by the equation 𝑥(𝑡) = 180𝑡 − 5𝑡 . At
what time does the particle momentarily come to rest?

5.​ A particle is launched vertically upwards. Its height can be modeled using the equation
2
𝑦(𝑡) = 50𝑡 − 5𝑡 , where y is measured in meters and t is measured in seconds. How fast is the
particle moving when it first reaches a height of 75 meters?

2
6.​ A particle’s position in meters is given by 𝑥(𝑡) = 180𝑡 − 5𝑡 , where t is measured in seconds. Find
the particle’s acceleration for each instant where its velocity is zero.

Click here to check your answers to Module #2 Practice Problems

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