Chapter1: Components and characteristics of industrial processes adhesives and glues, which normally require the mixing of raw

e the mixing of raw materials in a

heated vessel for a period of time to form a quantity of end product. Other
Industrial process control (IPC) or simply process control is a system used important examples are the production of food, beverages and medicine.
in modern manufacturing which uses the principles of control theory and Batch processes are generally used to produce a relatively low to
physical industrial control systems to monitor, control and optimize intermediate quantity of product per year (a few pounds to millions of
continuous industrial production processes using control algorithms. pounds).
For example, heating up the temperature in a room is a process that has the
specific, desired outcome to reach and maintain a defined temperature kept
constant over time. Here, the temperature is the controlled variable, at the
same time, it is the input variable since it is measured by a thermometer and
used to decide whether to heat or not. The desired temperature is called the
set-point. The state of the heater, for example, the setting of the valve
allowing hot water to flow through it; is called the manipulated variable since
it is subject to control actions.

There are many different types of process control systems.

Three of the most common are: Batching

processes
1. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC)
2. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) Continuous process : often, a physical
3. Distributed Control System (DCS) system is represented though variables
those are smooth and uninterrupted in time. The control of the water
PLC is used to read a set of digital and analog inputs, apply a set of logic temperature in a heating jacket, for example, is a form of continuous process
statements, and generate a set of analog and digital outputs. Using the control. Some important continuous processes are the production of fuels,
previous heating example, the room temperature would be an input to the chemicals and plastics. Continuous processes, in manufacturing, are used to
PLC. The logical statements would compare the set-point to the input produce very large quantities of product per year, millions to billions of
temperature and determine whether more or less heating was necessary to pounds.
keep the temperature constant. A PLC output would then either open or
close the hot water valve, an incremental amount, depending on whether
more or less hot water was needed.

SCADA (an acronym for supervisory control and data acquisition) is a control
system architecture comprising computers, networked data communications
and graphical user interfaces for high-level supervision of machines and
processes.

A distributed control system (DCS) is a computerized control system for a Continuous reject process
process or plant usually with many control loops, in which autonomous
controllers are distributed throughout the system, but there is no central Hybrid processes : Applications having elements of discrete, batch and
operator supervisory control. continuous process control are often called hybrid applications.

1.1. What is a process control?

Process control is an engineering discipline that deals with architectures,

mechanisms, and algorithms for controlling the output of a specific process.
This can be as simple as making the temperature in a room kept constant or
as complex as manufacturing an integrated circuit.

In practice, the industrial processes are different in behavior, architecture and

characteristics. So, they can be characterized as one or more of the
following forms: Product line processes as a hybrid process

1. Discrete processes.
2. Batch processes. 1.2. What does a control system do?
3. Continuous processes.
4. Hybrid processes. 1. Measurement process for the variable to be controlled, or
collecting data from the controlled plant. This is done by sensors
Discrete process : it can be found in many manufacturing, motion and or data acquisition cards.
packaging applications. Robotic assembly, such as that found in automotive 2. Comparison between the measured variable and a reference
value, doing some calculations to get the change in the variable,
production, can be characterized as discrete process control. Most discrete or data processing for the collected data. This is done by
manufacturing involves the production of discrete pieces of product, such as comparators, or through running of an algorithm or program.
metal stamping.
3. Making a final decision in order to maintain the sensed variable within a
desired range, or sending some control signals to the controlled plant. This is
done via the system actuators or final control elements.
The following sample of examples illustrates the process manual control
steps and the corresponding automatic process control scheme.

1. Level process control :

Batch process : where some applications require that specific quantities of

raw materials be combined in specific ways for particular durations to Manual level process control
produce an intermediate or end result. One example is the production of steps
 c. Adding a percentage extra capacity for the equipment sizing : this is
to allow the plant equipment to respond to all expected disturbances or
system variables by merely adding a percentage extra capacity in
accordance to the anticipated changes.
If the previous considerations are not correct, or the plant design is not
accurate, the control may not be possible and the plant operation through
manipulating the final control elements may not be achieved.

Automatic level process control 1.5. How can control be done?

system
1. In simple process control, it can be done using the human feedback.
2. In complex processes the feedback actions are automated by sensing,
calculating, manipulating the controlled variables by communicated parts of
the control system. Currently, most automatic control is implemented using
electronic equipment at some levels of current or voltage to represent the
2. Heating process control : values to be communicated.
3. So, one can say that, the process control is done automatically using
instrumentation and computation that perform all the features of feedback
control without requiring or allowing the human intervention.
Manual heating process control
steps 1.6. Where can control be implemented?

In order to operate an industrial process on a minute-to-minute basis, a lot of

information from much of the process has to be available at a central location
which known as the control room or control center. Such control scheme is
generally known as SCADA system where :
1. Sensors and control elements are located in the process.
2. Signals which are mostly electronic or communications with the control
center to be viewed to the operator.
3. Distances between the process and the control center ranges from few
hundred feet to a mile or more.
4. In some processes, small control panels are used nearby the equipment
to allow access to them.

Automatic heating control system

So, the final goal of the control is to maintain or adapt desired conditions in a
physical system or an industrial process by adjusting selected variables in
that system. This can be done by making a use of an output signal of the
system to influence an input signal of the same system, which called
feedback control.

1.3. Why is control necessary?

The control and dynamic operation is an important factor in an industrial

process design. In other words, the industrial processes need some degree
of control for two main reasons :
1. The first one is to maintain the controlled conditions or variables in a
physical system or an industrial process at the desired values when small or
large disturbances occur.
2. The second reason is to respond to changes in the desired values by Local and centralized control equipment
adjusting the selected variables in the process. The response is based on
the analysis of the process operation and objectives.
Finally, the process control will assure the following issues:

a. Safety.
b. Environmental protection.
c. Equipment protection.
d. Smooth plant operation.
e. Product quality.
f. Profit optimization.
g. Monitoring and diagnosis

These issues are usually translated into values of the system or process
variables such as temperature, pressure, flow rate, liquid level, speed of a
motor or conveyor, displacement … and so forth which are to be controlled.

1.4. Why is control possible?

If the plant or the industrial process equipment is not properly designed, the
control system will perform poorly, inadequately or might be impossible.
Therefore, when designing an industrial process or a plant,several
considerations must be accounted such as:

a. Providing adequate equipment : which means including adequate

rapidly responded sensors for the process variable and appropriate final
control elements so that the control actions can be taken in real time?
Moreover, such sensors and final control elements should be shielded and
protected against the surrounding effects due to the process operation.
b. Expected changes in the plant variables : which concerns about the
anticipation of the expected changes in the process disturbances or the
desired values of the controlling variables and providing or adding adequate
equipment during the plant design? So, the adequate design calculations
must be based on the expected changes.