Engineering Physics MST Notes
1. Quantum Physics & Nanotechnology
Quantum Theory
Postulates of Quantum Mechanics:
1.
Wave Function: The state of a quantum system is completely
described by a wave function ψ(x,t), which is a complex function of
position and time. The probability of finding a particle in a small
volume element dV is given by ∣ψ∣2dV.
2.
3.
Operators: Every observable physical quantity (like position,
momentum, energy) is associated with a linear, Hermitian operator.
4.
5.
Eigenvalue Equation: The possible outcomes of a measurement of an
observable are the eigenvalues of its corresponding operator. The
measurement collapses the system into the corresponding
eigenstate.
6.
7.
Expectation Value: The average value (or expectation value) of an
observable is given by ⟨ A⟩ =∫ψ∗ A^ψdτ.
8.
9.
Time Evolution: The time evolution of the wave function is governed
by the time-dependent Schrödinger equation: iℏ ∂t∂ψ =H^ψ.
10.
Wave-Particle Duality
Concept: This principle states that particles like electrons and
photons exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties.
de-Broglie Matter Waves: Louis de Broglie proposed that any
moving particle has an associated wave. The wavelength (λ) is
related to its momentum (p) by the de-Broglie relation.
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Formula: λ=h/p=h/(mv)
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Relativistic Case: For a particle with kinetic energy K, the
wavelength is λ=h/2mK .
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Electron: For an electron accelerated by a potential difference V, its
kinetic energy is eV, and the wavelength is
λ=h/2meV =1.226/V nm.
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Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
Concept: It's impossible to simultaneously measure two
complementary physical properties of a particle, such as position
and momentum, with perfect accuracy. The more precisely one is
measured, the less precisely the other can be known.
Formulae:
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Δx⋅ Δpx ≥ℏ /2 (Position and Momentum)
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ΔE⋅ Δt≥ℏ /2 (Energy and Time)
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ΔLz ⋅ Δϕ≥ℏ /2 (Angular Momentum and Angular Position)
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Numerical:
1.
Question: An electron is confined to a box of 1.0×10−10 m. What is
the minimum uncertainty in its velocity?
2.
Solution: Given Δx=1.0×10−10 m. Use Δx⋅ Δp≥ℏ /2.
Δp=mΔv⟹Δv≥ℏ /(2mΔx)=(1.054×10−34)/(2×9.1×10−31×10−10)
≈5.79×105 m/s.
2. Nanotechnology
Introduction to Nanotechnology
Definition: The manipulation of matter on an atomic, molecular,
and supramolecular scale, typically at dimensions of 1 to 100
nanometers (nm).
Quantum Confinement Effect: As the size of a material is reduced
to the nanoscale, its electronic properties change due to the
confinement of charge carriers (electrons and holes). This leads to
discrete energy levels, causing changes in properties like bandgap
and color.
Classification of Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are classified based on their dimensions.
0D (Zero-dimensional): All dimensions are confined to the
nanoscale (e.g., Quantum Dots, Buckyballs).
1D (One-dimensional): Two dimensions are confined to the
nanoscale (e.g., Nanowires, Nanotubes, Nanofibers).
2D (Two-dimensional): One dimension is confined to the nanoscale
(e.g., Graphene, Nanosheets, Thin Films).
3D (Three-dimensional): Nanoscale structure in all three
dimensions (e.g., Nanocomposites, Nanoporous materials).
Methods of Synthesis
Top-Down Approach: Starts with a bulk material and breaks it
down into nanoscale structures. Think of it as carving away
material.
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Example: Ball Milling: A mechanical process where a large material
is ground into nanoparticles using high-energy balls in a mill.
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Bottom-Up Approach: Builds nanostructures from atomic or
molecular components. Think of it as assembling from the ground
up.
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Example: Sol-Gel Method: A chemical process where a colloidal
solution (sol) is prepared and then allowed to gel, forming a
network of particles, which are then processed to form the final
nanomaterial.
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3. Recent Inventions & Applications
Quantum Computing: Uses quantum mechanics to perform
calculations, solving complex problems far faster than classical
computers.
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Applications: Weather forecasting (complex atmospheric models),
Cryptography (breaking and creating secure codes).
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Edge Computing: Processes data closer to the source (the "edge" of
the network), reducing latency.
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Applications: IoT (faster sensor data processing), Driverless Cars
(real-time decision-making), Healthcare (remote patient
monitoring).
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Carbon Nanomaterials: Nanostructures based on carbon atoms.
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Applications: Carbon-based Nano Additives to enhance material
properties (e.g., strength, conductivity).
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Semiconductor Nanodevices: Miniaturized electronic components.
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Applications: Nanomanipulators (for precise manipulation at the
nanoscale), Nano-transistors (for denser, faster circuits).
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Green Nanotechnology: Using nanomaterials to solve environmental
problems.
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Applications: Bioremediation and Biotransformation of soil,
wastewater, and oil spills using nano-catalysts.
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Nanocomposites: Materials with a nanoscale filler dispersed in a
matrix.
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Applications: Coatings, Additives, Catalysts, and lighter, stronger
Structural Components.
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Nano-sensors: Extremely small sensors.
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Applications: Enabling Contamination Detection, Environmental
Measurements, Remote Sensing, and Communication.
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Nanoencapsulation: Encapsulating substances within a
nanostructure.
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Applications: Drug Delivery (targeted delivery), Bioimaging,
Theragnosis (diagnosis and therapy), Immunization.
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Nanomaterials for Water Treatment: Using nanomaterials to filter
and purify water.
Nanotechnology for Energy Harvesting: Improving energy efficiency.
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Applications: Electrodes for batteries and supercapacitors, and
Solar Cells with higher efficiency.
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