ATOMIC STRUCTURE – CLASS 11 – EXAM-FOCUSED
SHORT NOTES (2–3 Pages)
Use: Last■minute revision for JEE/Boards. Crisp theory + formulas + traps.
1) Evolution of Models & Key Experiments
• Thomson: Atom as a uniform positive sphere with electrons embedded (plum pudding).
• Rutherford (α■scattering): Most α passed straight; few large deflections ⇒ nucleus is tiny, massive,
positive; atom is mostly empty. Limitation: cannot explain stability/spectra.
• Bohr (for H■like species): Quantized orbits explain line spectra; fails for multi■electron atoms and
fine structure.
• Wave■mechanical model: Electrons described by wavefunctions (Ψ); only probabilities are definite
→ orbitals, not orbits.
2) Bohr Model – Essentials (Hydrogen■like only)
• Quantized angular momentum: mvr = nh/2π
• Energy change via photons: ∆E = hν
• Radius of nth orbit: r■ = 0.529 × (n²/Z) Å
• Energy of nth level: E■ = −13.6 (Z²/n²) eV
• Velocity: v■ ∝ Z/n ; Frequency of revolution f ∝ Z²/n³ (qualitative)
• Limitations: No multi■electron accuracy; no Zeeman/Stark/fine structure; violates uncertainty if
treated literally as fixed paths.
Hydrogen spectrum: 1/λ = RH(1/n■² − 1/n■²). Series: Lyman (UV, n■=1), Balmer (visible, n■=2),
Paschen (IR, n■=3), Brackett (n■=4), Pfund (n■=5).
3) Dual Nature & Uncertainty (Why orbits → orbitals)
• de Broglie: Matter has wavelength λ = h/mv. Wave nature explains standing waves only for certain
motions (quantization).
• Heisenberg Uncertainty: ∆x·∆p ≥ h/4π ⇒ precise path impossible; electrons described by probability
distributions.
4) Schrödinger Equation & Orbitals – Theory You Must State
• Schrödinger equation gives wavefunction Ψ; |Ψ|² = probability density. Solutions for H■like species
yield energy levels and orbitals characterized by quantum numbers.
• Orbit vs Orbital: Orbit = fixed circular path (Bohr, not realistic). Orbital = 3D region of high probability
(wave■mechanical).
5) Quantum Numbers – Full, Exam■Favoured Theory
Principal (n = 1,2,3…): Shell; size & (for H■like) energy. Max e■ in shell = 2n². Orbitals in shell = n².
Azimuthal/Subshell (■ = 0→n−1): Subshell type & shape. 0=s, 1=p, 2=d, 3=f. Orbitals in subshell =
2■+1. Capacity = 2(2■+1) (=4■+2).
Magnetic (m■ = −■…+■): Orientation; gives number of orbitals in a subshell (degeneracy).
Spin (ms = ±½): Inherent spin; max 2 e■ per orbital with opposite spins (Pauli).
Handy table: s: 1 orbital → 2 e■; p: 3 → 6 e■; d: 5 → 10 e■; f: 7 → 14 e■.
Nodes: Total = n−1; angular = ■; radial = n−■−1.
Shapes: s spherical; p dumbbell (px, py, pz); d clover (dxy, dyz, dxz, dx²−y²), and dz² (doughnut).
Penetration & Shielding: For a given n: s > p > d > f (penetration). Higher penetration ⇒ lower
energy; explains 4s vs 3d filling.
6) Filling of Orbitals & Electron Configuration
• Aufbau: Increasing (n+■); if tie, lower n first (e.g., 4s before 3d).
• Pauli Exclusion: No two electrons have identical 4 quantum numbers.
• Hund’s Rule: In degenerate orbitals, singly occupy with parallel spins before pairing.
• Order (till 7p): 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f <
6d < 7p.
Exceptions (stability): Cr: [Ar] 3d■4s¹; Cu: [Ar] 3d¹■4s¹ (Mo, Ag, Au similar) due to half/full■filled d
and exchange energy.
Ionization of transition metals: Remove ns electrons before (n−1)d (e.g., Fe → Fe²■ loses 4s e■).
7) Energy Levels & Spectra
For H■like species, energy depends only on n (degenerate across ■). In multi■electron atoms, e–e
repulsion splits energies; ordering follows penetration and (n+■) rule.
Rydberg: 1/λ = RH(1/n■² − 1/n■²). Photon energy hc/λ equals level difference ∆E.
8) Photoelectric Effect (one■liner theory)
hν = hν■ + (1/2)mv²; emission only for ν ≥ ν■. Supports photon concept and quantization.
9) Rapid Formula & Facts Box (Most Repeated)
• Max e■ in shell: 2n²; subshell capacity: 4■+2; orbitals in shell: n²; orbitals in subshell: 2■+1.
• Nodes: total n−1; radial n−■−1; angular ■.
• Hydrogen■like: r■ = 0.529 Å × (n²/Z); E■ = −13.6 eV × (Z²/n²).
• Series regions: Lyman■UV, Balmer■visible, Paschen■IR.
• TM cation rule: remove ns before (n−1)d.
10) Typical Traps & Tips
• H■like degeneracy: same n ⇒ same energy (not true in multi■electron atoms).
• 4s fills before 3d but ionizes before 3d.
• p has 3 orbitals (capacity 6 e■), not 6 orbitals.
• Check quantum number validity (e.g., n=2 ⇒ ■ ∈ {0,1}; m■ within −■…+■).
• Only Balmer lines are visible to naked eye.
Practice: 10 MCQs immediately after this sheet to lock retention.
