pie calculig

UNIT 1
Introduction
function : 1 input (x +
independent variable) has exactly 1 output (y >
-

dependent variable

pass vertical line test

1 to 1 functions

pass horizontal line test closed interval

identifying degrees 2 X
,, Xz

5x0 O coordinate of the point

XI 2
(x y) ,

5 x1 1 abcissa ordinate

3x2 + 5x + 1 2
(0 0) - origin
,
variable constant

leading coefficient

term

equations of lines
monotonic ? always increasing o

X = 5
always decreasing
V

& > y= 5

quadratic equations
finding vertex : -b -
(
(
2a 4a

finding X int :
y=0
finding y int :
x = 0

quadratic formula :
x = -
b
2a
= b2 -
4ac

rate of change point of inflection

"Slope"

turning
instanteneous average
A

- M point

[ > [ >

V V
linear function forms
Ax +
general form By + C
:
= 0

mx + b
slope y-int Y
: =

By -
= AX -
C

y
- -
= X

point slope :
y -y 1 = m(X -
X, )

identifying lines with slopes

slope of lines
- sameparalea a >
-
perpendicular

Residuals ,
etc

actual -

predicted = residual
predicted -
actual = error

scrambled
~
residual plot :

o model underestimate (G residual)

1 model overestimate (G residual)

fractions that
flipping sign with have exponents

(6)" (1)3
+
=

X13 + 2

all even and odd numbers

↓ ↓
2x 2x + 1
 polynomials continuous
all polynomial functions are

L don't have breaks or jumps

domain : all values of X

range : all values of y

average rate of change

f(xz) f(x,)
=
-

Xz -
X,

positive slope >

- increases > X
- and y values increase

negative slope >

- decreases > X
- values increase, but y values decrease

linear function -
slope is constant

I
N

~
locaar um

se

·
-decrease
point of
↓ increase

4 >

4
~

Decree
crease
Down

there isn't global maximum and minimum in this case as it can't be infi-
,
nite (O isn't considered absolute maximum
(absolute)
(
all closed intervals have global maximum and minimum
concave up: rate -
-
of
change always increasing
concave down : >
-
rate of
change always decreasing

polynomial form

P(x) anXY + AnyX" an 2X

2
-

= +
--

leading term ; leading coefficient is an

the degree of the polynomial is n Clargest exponent (
 showing that a table of values models some function

the number of differences needed between equal length intervals of

the input values until a constant difference is calculated indicates the
degree of the polynomial

XY 1

10

220 1 - = -
2

342 4 -
=
- 2 difference is constant, so it's linear

464 6 -
= - 2 rate of change is constant

586 -
8 = -
2

Xy1 2

-
22

-
11321 -
13 =
G

07 13 -
7 = 68-6 = 2

1 37-3 = 4 6-4 = 2 ) difference is constant, so it's quadratic

2 3 -1 = 24 -
2= 2 rate of change isn't constant

Xy 1 2 3
/just use this technique
o -
1 until quadratic only
10 -
1 0 -
= -
1

270 -
7 = -
7 -
1+7 = 6

3267-26 = -19 - 7 + 19 =
126-12 = -
6) difference is constant, so it's cubic
46326 83 = 37 -
- -
19 + 37 = 1812 18 = - -
6 rate of change isn't constant

complex zeros and multiplicity

complex roots come in pairs

if a + bi is a root
,
then a-bi is also a root

if there is a double root (they are equal) ,

there is in multiplicity
example given : root 2 multiplicity 3 # of times it
repeats
we can State that (X-23 is part of the polynomial
multiplicity 1 >
- simple zeros

if multiplicity is even : if multiplicity is odd :

the graph will bounce the graph will cross

off the X-axis through the X-axis
1 1

ai N 7
... ~
V V

examples : find all zeros and multiplicities of p(x) = XS 2x + X

-

p(x) =
X5 2x + X
-

= X(X" 2x+ 1) -

-
=
x(xz 1)(x2 1 -
-

=
x(x 1)(x + 1)(x 1)(x + 1)
- -

zeros - 0
, 1) multiplicity 2 ; (0 -1) multiplicity,
2; (0 0) multiplicity 1
,

examples :
finding all zeros and multiplicities when one zero is given

p(x) = X + 2x3 -
9x -
20x + 44

zero given :
2 with multiplicity 2

(x-2)2_ multiplicity
+ wo

we can find the rest by dividing polynomials

(x -
2)2 =
x4 -
4x + 4

2
x 16x + 11
x2 -
4x + 4(x4 + 2x -
9x2 20x
- + 44
change
Signs-l
c -
xy + 4x 4x2 -

6x -
13x2 20x + 44
-

-
6x3 + 24x2 24x -

1(x2 -

44x + 44
-
11x 2 + 44x -
44
if the remainder
A is O , it means that

2 was actually a

root
then you could factor the result but on this case you can't , so
quadratic
,
formula

x+ 6x + 11 = 0

mais
zeros :
(0, -3 + Fi) multiplicity 1 :

e a
2 multiplicity 2

=
= 61 -
8
2

2 2
= -

-
6 + 2i -
6- 2i
2 2
-

-+ Mi -3- i
when the divisor is (x-a), you can divide with Briot instead (synthetic substitution
division)
example :
(x3 2x -
-
5x + 6) = (X -
3)
1X -
3 = 0 + X= 3
P dividend divisor
2

4 -
· -

2
if remainder is O

that (x-3)
function, and
is a

3 is
that
,
it means

factor of this
a root

...
2
-

3(x2 + 1x -
2 = xi + X -
2
quotient
even and odd functions

even y-axis of
symmetry
f(x) = f) x)-

only for polynomials : each exponent of the function is even

odd origin of symmetry

-
f(x) =
f) x)
-

only for polynomials :

each exponent of the function is odd

enc behavior
Limf(x)-
-

X -
> Co

X-e now is y ?
>

Lim f(x)
we L &

X t a

as the input values increase or decrease without bound , the values

of the leading term dominate the values of all lower degree terms

odd degrees
positive leading coefficient negative leading coefficient

↑
...... %
even degrees
positive leading coefficient negative leading coefficient

↑
... ↑
N

E " 4
-
limits H A .
. and V A.
.

horizontal asymptote - > end behavior

vertical asymptote >

-
where
y is
going

· lim f(x) = d

X 4
-
>
-

i
S

lim f(x) = - c

V
! X - 45

of denominator rational functions change VA

multiplicity in . .

E
odd degree
-

⑨ function change sign

· + to O or O to Q
· (this include multiplicity to the 1 degree) w

.2
7
even
-
degree
· function have the same sign

↑ I!
 -

Rational functions
f(x)
= p(x) q(x) polynomials
and are

9(x) +0
in other words , there is a variable in the denominator and
there is a
polynomial in numerator and denominator

f(x) = X+ 1
X -
1

a) roots f(x) = 0

when the numerator = O ; when denominator Fo

X+ 1 =
0

X = - laehecknaoe O - so it's okay !

b) y intercept X = 0

0 + 1 = -

1(0 ) ,
+

0 -
1

c) vertical asymptote den = o

can't pass through

x -

1 =
0x = 1

d) horizontal asymptote (end behavior)

it is possibleto cross the asymptote
values of large magnitudes dominated by its
In a polynomial, the input is

leading term. In . a rational function, the end behavior can be understood by

examining the quotient of the leading terms .

1 Pu < Pd
HA > y = 0

2 Pn = Pd
HA- divide leading term of numerator by denominator
 3 Pu) Pd
4A- none
,
there is a slant asymptote
divide numerator by denominator
and ignore remainder

on this case

* = 15o ... y = 2
X

e) table of signs

consider roots and VA roots :

x= -1

Vt :
X = 1

· If you
will be
plug in in the numerator any number that XX-1 ,
the result
num -
t t negative so...

den
If you plug in in the denominator any number that X(-1 ,
the result
N t -
t
will be negative so...

&
D

... but in a fraction when you divide a negative numerator

by a negative denominator the result is positive
,

repeat this step for each interval : for example, in the

second row plug in a number between -

1XX1 in the nu-

merator and denominator and divide the signs

3

+
-
t

S 2
!

-
domain
f) hole changes
What if ??
example (x 1)(X-2) the hole is 1
#(-1
ist se
: + -

+
hole !!!
(x -
3)(X 1) +

3(X 4)2 -
the hole is 4 equal-hole
multiplicity greater den
num-root
2(X 4)(x + 5)
-

greater -
VA
. .

there isn't a hole in X + 1

X -
1
graphing the example
N

L
I

I
------------- 1
- - - - - - -

-
I
S ⑧ >
root

y-int I

l
I

↓
D

vertical and horizontal asymptotes notation

vertical :
lim f(x) = - a lim f(x) = 0

1 +
-
X -
1
[
this direction X - 7
- this direction

horizontal : lim f(x) = 1 lim f(x) = 1

XX -
C X- C

slant asymptote
linear and non horizontal

occurs when the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree
of the denominator

example :

to find the slant asymptote of this rational function 8x3 + 10x + 7x + 4 divide
,

4x2 + 3x -
1

4x2 + 3x -
18x3 + 10x + 7x + 4 < divide until the degree of the remainder is

less than the onthiscase,the willbee a

quotient
degree of the divisor :
will be 6x + 5
 Binomial Theorem
use when you want to expand (X + y)" faster

Pascal's Triangle
row O
1 remember :

row 1 11 (x + a) (x + a) 1 =

rowz
=
(x + a) 1x+ 1a
+

22 (n + 1)
=

row3" 3'I # of terms (x + a)2 = 1x2 + 2x + 1a

row1"'n
4
J

1 (x + a) = 1x3 + 3x a + 3x'a + 1a

example :
expand (2x-y)1
(2x y)" - = 1(2x)4) y) -
+ 4(2x)( y)' -
+ 6(2x)2( y(2 -
4(2x))) y)3 + 1(2x) y)"
+ - -

= 1(16x4) + 4(8x3)( y) + 6(4x2)(y2)

- + 8X( y3) + y4-

= 16x" -

32x3y +
24x2y2 -
8xy3 + y4
REMEMBER : if -X
,
for example (2-X15, don't forget to
put it in

paranthesis and consider the -

and its exponent when
expanding
~
I mansformations
to know transformations rewrite
, things :
In (4-x) >
-
(n)-(x 4)) -
dilations
by a factor h
of ..

2 f(x) 1/2 f(x) 1 dilate

..
a

n= 2 reflect
n=
12 2

=
= & 3 more across graph

W W

f(2x) f((2x)
a a
2
n =
/2 n=

- & -

W W

Lateral
they don't
Limity
exist

continuity : don't have break or jumps

jump discontinuity

v
f(a) c =

c -
· lim f(x) = c

* > -
Q/ approaches "a "to the right

lim f(x) = b

-
Q I
-

X >
-
to te left

>
lim f(x) =
#
X -> a

~
 RATE OF CHANGE GRAPH RATE !!!
rate
ofchange

> X

linear functions

i ofchange
rate

-
3 X > X

rate of rate : ZERO

because rate of change is constant

quadratic functions

Y
N
rate
ofchange
~
3 X > X

rate of rate : CONSTANT

because of the second difference

behavior of rate of
interpreting change graph

r(x) increasing
positive :

negative : r(x)
decreasing
⑦ to : maximum point

- to
graph rate of
change

O to Q : minimum point
- -
graph rate of
change

maximum r(x) the fastest

: is
increasing
⑧ inflection point
minimum : r(x) is decreasing the fastest
⑧ inflection point
UNIT 2
Sequences
each number in a sequence is called a term

arithmetic sequence : has successive terms that have a constant rate of

change or common difference addition

an =
an
+
do(n k) -

the a e
kth term
of the sequence disommonse

1 determine if sequence is arithmetic

6 , 10 14 18 22
10-6 = 4 so ...
, , , Yes ! because differences are the same

+4 +4 + 4 + 4

2 substitute values into formula

geometric sequence : has succesive terms that have a constant proportional

change or a common ratio multiplication

g(n
-
k)
In =
Gr ·

the th term ↑ & Common

of the sequence ratio

1 determine if sequence is geometric

2 -6 18 -54 162
Yes !
-
6 = -
3 So ... because ratios are the same
, , , ,
2 · -
3 - -
30 -
30
-
3

2 substitute values into formula

finding d and first term

finding q and first term
given : as =
24
,
a ,0 = 3
given :
az = 6, as = - 48

24 = a
, + (3 1)d -
6 = a, q(2 -
-
1)

1)
1)d q(5
-

-
3 = - a , = (10 - -
48 =
a,
21 =
- 7d

-
d = - 3

-
exponential functions
-> can have
extraneous
solutions

f(x) =ab
b > 0; b +1
a= 0

b 1

·
>

growth
↑
REMEMBER :
a (4) means a 4 4. .......

/
. .

in a table
,
if input values increase by other # (and not 1) :

e
*
Ex then a .
4 not a. 16 X

exponential equations and percentage

Vin) = Vo : FATOR

L &

fator de desconto fator de aumento

100 % -
10 % = 90 % 100 % + 10 % = 110 %
100 1 -1007
110 1 1 =100
·

90 = 0 97 100m
=
.
.
: V

100 descontoe e 100 aumentoe

composition of functions
f(g(x)) =
(f g)(x)

inverse functions
interchange X and I
only inverse if...

1 to 1 function

y= X of symmetry
domain of f-1(x) is the range of f(x) and range of f-1(x) is the do-
main of f(x)
f 1)f(x)) mm
f(f 1(x))
Gnur
- -

= = X
= 2 7 , 828

t) for f(x)
.

if (+, 3) for f-1(x) then (S ,

,
logarithmic functions I can have extraneous
solutions

exponential and logs are inverse operations

RULES

1 logya + logp) =
logy(a c)
ba = logp)
.

= a 2
Logya -

10gz) =
logy(t)
loge =
In 3
logzb = 1

b" x(b" 1)
4
logp1 0
f(x) log
= = =

=
>
Xand g(x) = are inverse functions 5
log, a
*
logy
R a
(peteleco)
= -

exponential growth so log will 6

bloga = a

exponential decay so log will log , a = X

b" = a

log inequality
before doing ...

check argument
-
> the domain matters

it can have no solution

its domain when ... loga B =

loga C

logagenes
B= C
e

argument
base) o
base L
Tables
-

input multiplied linear -

first difference
output added gradratic -
second difference

output multiplied
exp
input added

linear of change length input interval is

average rate over any value cons-
:

tant

quadratic : the successive Ind differences of the output values over equal
constant
interval input values are

cubic : = 3rd differences

exponential :
output values have a constant ratio between them over
equal
interval input valves

logarithmic :
output values have a constant difference between them when the

input values change by equal ratios

REMEMBER !!! from exponents

alm)
=1 =...
nis se

= ava .
a ....n times

um = (m)m =
23
= =Eu