Processes &

Measurements

Prepared by: Rowena Grace A. Loquire

intensity and
duration of weather land use
rainfall (temperature)

Soil initial soil

Characteristics moisture content
(initial wetness)

entrapped air and

depth of the ground vegetal cover provides protection
against rain drop
water table impact and helps to
increase filtration
 Observation in
Infiltrometers pits and ponds

Artificial rain
Placing a catch basin simulators
below a laboratory
sample

Hydrograph Analysis
• A double ring infiltrometer is composed of two rings (22.5 to 90 cm
diameter) are driven into the ground by a driving plate and hammer,
to penetrate into the soil uniformly without tilt or undue disturbance
of the soil surface to a depth of 15 cm

• After driving is over, any disturbed soil adjacent to the sides tamped
with a metal tamper.

• Point gauges are fixed in the center of the rings and in the annular
space
between the two rings.
• Water is poured into the rings to maintain the desired
depth (2.5 to 15 cm with a minimum of 5 mm) and the
water added to maintain the original constant depth at
regular time intervals (after the commencement of the
experiment) of 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 60 min, etc. up to a
period of at least 6 hours is noted and the results
are plotted as infiltration rate in cm/hr versus time in
minutes.
• By noting the depression in the level
of water in the pits and ponds and
deducting the loss due to
evaporation, an idea about the
infiltration rates in such soils can be
obtained.
• By placing a catch basin called a lysimeter under a laboratory
sample or at some depth below the land surface, the infiltrating
water can be measured and the infiltration rate
in the soil can be obtained.
 • On a small area of land of 0.1 to 50 m2, water is applied by
artificial showers at a uniform rate. The resulting surface runoff
is measured and the infiltration capacity of the soil is
determined.
• By knowing accurately, the varying
intensities of rainfall during a storm
and the continuous record of the
resulting runoff, the infiltration
capacity can be determined.
using Horton's
Equation:
using Horton's
Equation:
where:
fo = initial rate of infiltration
capacity
fc = final constant rate of
infiltration at saturation
k = a constant depending
primarily upon soil and
vegetation
e = base of the Napierian
logarithm
Fc = shaded area in Fig 3.6
t = time from beginning of the
storm
• The infiltration curve
expresses the rate of
infiltration (cm/hr) as a
function of time.
• The area between the rainfall
graph and the infiltration
curve represents the rainfall
excess, while the area under
the infiltration curve gives the
loss of rainfall due to
infiltration
1. φ-index (phi-index) -
defined as that rate of rainfall above which the rainfall
volume equals the runoff volume. The φ-index is relatively
simple and all losses due to infiltration, interception and
depression storage (storage in pits and ponds) are
accounted for; hence
provided i > φ throughout the storm. The bar graph showing the
time distribution of rainfall, storm loss and rainfall excess (net rain
or storm runoff) is called a hyetograph. Thus, the φ-index divides
the rainfall into net rain and storm loss.
2. W-index - The W-index is the average infiltration rate during the
time rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration capacity rate.
• The W-index attempts to allow for depression storage, short
rainless periods during a storm and eliminates all rain periods
during which i < fp. Thus, the W-index is essentially equal to the
φ-index minus the average rate of retention by interception
and depression storage, i.e., W < φ. Information on infiltration
can be used to estimate the runoff coefficient C in computing
the surface runoff as a percentage of rainfall.
3. fave index = In this method, an average infiltration loss is
assumed throughout the storm, for the period i > f.
Example: The rates of rainfall for the successive 30 min period of a 3-
hour storm are: 1.6, 3.6, 5.0, 2.8, 2.2, 1.0 cm/hr. The corresponding
surface runoff is estimated to be 3.6 cm. Establish the φ-index. Also
determine the W-index.
Example: The rates of rainfall for the successive 30 min period of a 3-hour storm are: 1.6, 3.6, 5.0, 2.8, 2.2, 1.0 cm/hr. The corresponding surface runoff is
estimated to be 3.6 cm. Establish the φ-index. Also determine the W-index.
Example: The rates of rainfall for the successive 30 min period of a 3-hour storm are: 1.6, 3.6, 5.0, 2.8, 2.2, 1.0 cm/hr. The corresponding surface runoff is
estimated to be 3.6 cm. Establish the φ-index. Also determine the W-index.
• Due to complex conditions antecedent and during the rain, and
complex catchment characteristics, the use of infiltration method is
usually limited to small areas with well-established values of
infiltration.
• The rainfall in excess of a particular value of φ-index for the entire
pattern of storm rainfall is called supra rain. Allowance for a real
variation of rainfall and f-capacity is made by dividing into sub areas
in the case of large areas. The mean hourly net rains over the whole
catchment can be obtained as
Where:
A1, A2 = are sub-areas
Pnet1, Pnet2 = net rains in sub-areas
Σ A1 = A = total area of the catchment
Example: Hourly rainfalls of 2.5, 6, and 3 cm occur over a 20-ha area
consisting 4 ha of φ = 5 cm/hr, 10 ha of φ = 3 cm/hr, and 6 ha of φ =
1 cm/hr. Derive hourly values of net rain.
Example: Hourly rainfalls of 2.5, 6, and 3 cm occur over a 20-ha area consisting 4 ha of φ = 5 cm/hr, 10 ha of φ = 3 cm/hr, and 6 ha of φ = 1 cm/hr. Derive
hourly values of net rain.
• Green and Ampt (1911)
presented an approach
that is based on
fundamental physics
and also gives results
that match empirical
observations.
They use the following
simplification of
infiltration reality:
• is a way to model how water moves into the soil when it rains,
especially when the soil is initially dry. It's used to estimate how
much water can be absorbed by the soil before it starts to run
off.

1. Initial Wetting Front:

When rain starts falling, it doesn't immediately soak all the way
down into the soil. Instead, a thin "wetting front" forms at the
surface where the water is starting to soak in. The Green-Ampt
method focuses on this wetting front as it moves downward.
2. Saturated Soil and the Wetting Front:
As the water infiltrates, the soil directly in contact with the wetting front
becomes fully saturated (meaning it can't hold any more water). Below
this, the soil is still unsaturated and is slowly getting wetter.

3. Key Components:
The Green-Ampt method relies on a few key factors:
•Suction (or matric potential): This is the force that pulls water into the soil
from the air spaces between soil particles. When the soil is dry, this
suction is high, but it decreases as the soil becomes wetter.
•Hydraulic conductivity: This is the ability of the soil to let water move
through it. It’s higher in sandy soils and lower in clay soils
4. Infiltration Rate:
In the Green-Ampt method, the infiltration rate starts high but decreases
over time as the soil becomes wetter. Initially, the water moves into the
soil more easily, but as the wetting front progresses, the soil becomes less
able to absorb the water, and the rate slows down.

5. Final Result:
The Green-Ampt method helps estimate how deep the wetting front will
go into the soil and how much water will actually infiltrate before runoff
happens. It’s used in things like predicting stormwater runoff or managing
irrigation.
In its simplest form the Green and Ampt equation for infiltration
rate, f, can be written as:
The depth of the wetting front can be related to the cumulative amount of infiltrated water, F
[cm], by:
Example: What’s the total runoff and infiltration [cm] from a 2-hour rainfall
event with a 0.5 cm/hr intensity? When does runoff begin? The soil’s Ks
0.044 cm/hr, i = 0.25 and s = 0.50, and f = 22.4 cm (we could calculate Ks
and f if we know the soil type). What’s the infiltration rate at the end of the
storm?
• movement of water though the soil, and it's layers, by gravity and capillary
forces.
• The prime moving force of groundwater is gravity.
• Water that is in the zone of aeration where air exists is called vadose water
• Water that is in the zone of saturation is called groundwater.
• For all practical purposes, all groundwater originates as surface water. Once
underground, the water is moved by gravity.
• The boundary that separates the vadose and the saturation zones is called the
water table
• Percolation rate is the speed of the water percolates on the geologic forms. The
percolation rate is calculated for each test hole by dividing the time interval used
between measurements by the magnitude of the last water level drop. This
calculation results in a percolation rate in terms of minutes per inch or minutes
per cm.
• Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters
the soil
• Percolation is the vertical movement of infiltrated water beyond the
average depth of root-zone.
• The main factors affecting infiltration and percolation are the volume of
precipitation, base flow of the certain area, soil characteristics, soil
saturation, land cover, slope of the land and evapotranspiration.
• Precipitation is the amount and characteristics (intensity, duration, etc.)
of precipitation that falls as rain or snow .
• Base flow is the water in streams have a sustained flow, even during
periods of lack of rain. Much of this "base flow" in streams comes from
groundwater seeping into the bed and banks of the stream.
• Soil characteristics is that some soils, such as clays, absorb less water at a
slower rate than sandy soils. Soils absorbing less water result in more runoff
overland into streams
• Soil saturation is like a wet sponge, soil already saturated from previous rainfall
can't absorb much more, thus more rainfall will become surface runoff
• Land cover is that some land covers have a great impact on infiltration and
rainfall runoff.
• The slope of the land is the water falling on steeply-sloped land runs off more
quickly and infiltrates less than water falling on flat land.
• Evapotranspiration is some infiltration stays near the land surface, which is
where plants put down their roots. Plants need this shallow groundwater to
grow, and, by the process of evapotranspiration, water is moved back into the
atmosphere.
 Infiltration methods are essential in determining the rate of infiltration as
it will be used to predict erosion in a certain area and to be able to identify
the health of the soil. The methods of determining infiltration involve
Infiltrometers, Observations of pits and ponds, the use of lysimeter in a
laboratory, Artificial rain simulators, Hydrograph Analysis, Supra Rain
Technique, and Green and Ampt Infiltration Method . Horton’s Equation
can be used to calculate the Infiltration rate of the soil. There are also
indices that will help estimate the rate at which water can move through
soil which are; φ-index , W-index fave index. Percolation on the other hand,
is the movement of water though the soil, and it's layers, by gravity and
capillary forces. Percolation rate is the speed of the water percolates on
the geologic forms and there are certain steps needed when conducting a
test hole in order to compute the percolation rate.
Infiltration is important in the water cycle as it recharges ground water.
Many infiltration methods are being introduced and are all essential in
determining the rate of infiltration as it will be used to predict erosion in
a certain area and to be able to identify the health of the soil. They are
also used to assess and measure the movement of water into or out of
a system which can help inform decisions related to land use, water
conservation, and environmental protection. Percolation refers to the
process by which water or other liquids move through the soil or porous
materials. It is important as it recharges the groundwater aquifer, it
determines how well the soil can absorb water which can be use in
agriculture. It also helps in controlling runoff that is a key part in
managing to prevent flooding.
 "In the silent release of water through
transpiration, plants remind us that growth
is not always about taking in, but also about
letting go."
— Anonymous
Hygnstrom, J. R., Skipton, S. O., Woldt, W. E., (2011, May). Residential Onsite
Wastewater Treatment: Conducting a Soil Percolation Test.
https://extensionpubs.unl.edu/publication/g1472/na/html/view#:~:text=The%20
soil%20percolation%20rate%20indicates,treatment%20in%20a%20septic%20t
ank.

Plazos, D. F. Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL).

BCE 313 Hydrology

USDA. (2008, June). Natural Resources Conservation Service. Infiltration pdf.

https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/2022-10/Infiltration.pdf
Ground water and
the flow of water
Allen P. Lira
Groundwater storage
is a part of the
hydrologic cycle,
which is the
continuous
movement of water
on Earth
 Aquifer
A water bearing geologic
formation or stratum capable
of transmitting water through
its pores at a rate sufficient
for economic extraction by
wells
 Formations that serve as good
aquifers are:
1. unconsolidated gravels, sands,
alluvium
2. lake sediments, glacial deposits
3. limestones with cavities (caverns)
formed by the action of acid waters
(solution openings in limestones and
dolomites)
4. granites and marble with fissures
and cracks, weathered gneisses and
schists
5. heavily shattered quartzites
 Specific Yield is the volume of water that is
expressed as a percentage of the total volume of
the saturated aquifer, that will drain by gravity
when the water table drops due to pumping or
drainage. Specific Retention is the percentage
volume of water which will not drain by gravity.
Porosity is a measure of the water bearing capacity
of the formation, all this water cannot be drained
by gravity or by pumping from wells as a portion of
water is held in the void spaces by molecular and
surface tension forces. Thus,
Porosity = Specific Yield + Specific Retention Or
n= Sy + Sx
 2 types of Aquifer
Confined aquifers are permeable rock units that are
usually deeper under the ground than unconfined aquifers.
They are overlain by relatively impermeable rock or clay
that limits groundwater movement into, or out of, the
confined aquifer.
Unconfined aquifer is an aquifer where groundwater is in
direct contact with the atmosphere, and the water table is
free to rise and fall
Storage coefficient, also known as
storativity, is a mathematical quantity that
measures the amount of water that can be
stored or released in an aquifer per unit of
surface area and change in hydraulic head.
The volume of water removed from an
area of an aquifer for a unit drop in
hydraulic head, it is dimensionless
quantity.
Example:
Suppose you are working on a confined aquifer with
the following characteristics:
Specific weight of water = 9,81 KN/m3
Porosity of the aquifer = 0.25 (or 25%)
Thickness of the confined aquifer = 10 mb
Bulk modulus of elasticity of water = 2.2×10^9
N/m^2
Modulus of compressibility (elasticity) of soil
grains = 7×10^8 N/m^2
The storage coefficient of an artesian aquifer
ranges from 0.00005 to 0.005, while for a
water table aquifer S = Sy = 0.05 to 0.30.
The specific yield (unconfined aquifers) and
storage coefficient (confined aquifers), values
have to be determined for the aquifers in order
to make estimates of the changes in the ground
water storage due to fluctuation in the GWT or
piezometric surface (ps) from the relation.
 What is piezometric surface?

is a term used primarily in hydrology and

environmental engineering. It refers to the
imaginary line where water pressure within ground
is equal to atmospheric pressure. This means it’s
the level to which water would risen in a well or
tube due to underground pressure.
Example:
A confined aquifer in a region has the following
data:
Area of the aquifer involved = 500,000
m^2
Fluctuation in the piezometric surface (ps)=
2m
Storage coefficient of the aquifer = 0.15
Calculate the change in groundwater storage,
ΔGWS for the aquifer.
 Darcy’s Law
Flow of ground water except through coarse gravels
and rockfills is laminar and the velocity of flow is
given by Darcy’s law (1856), which states that
‘the velocity of flow in a porous medium is
proportional to the hydraulic gradient.
Example
Problem:
A groundwater aquifer has the following characteristics:
Hydraulic conductivity = 2.5×10^−4 m/s
Hydraulic gradient = 0.02
Porosity = 0.3
Cross-sectional area of flow = 80 m^2
Calculate:
1. Darcy’s velocity v
2. Seepage velocity vs
3. Flow rate Q
 Transmissibility is the flow capacity of
an aquifer per unit width under unit
hydraulic gradient and is equal to the
product of permeability times the
saturated thickness of the aquifer. In a
confined aquifer, T = kb and is
independent of the piezometric surface.
In a water table aquifer, T = kH, where
H is the saturated thickness. As the
water table drops, H decreases and the
transmissibility is reduced. Thus, the
transmissibility of an unconfined aquifer
depends upon the depth of GWT.
Example:
An unconfined aquifer has a hydraulic conductivity k of 25
m/day and a saturated thickness H of 50 meters at a specific
location. Due to a prolonged period of drought, the
groundwater table has dropped, and the saturated thickness of
the aquifer has reduced to 35 meters. Determine the
transmissibility of the aquifer before the groundwater table
drop.
Determine the transmissibility of the aquifer after the
groundwater table drop.
Compare the two transmissibility values and explain how the
reduction in saturated thickness affects the transmissibility.
 SUMMARY
Groundwater is water found beneath the Earth's surface in soil pores, rock fractures,
and underground aquifers, originating from precipitation that infiltrates the ground and
reaches the saturated zone, where all spaces are filled with water. The water table
marks the upper boundary of this zone. Groundwater flows slowly within aquifers,
which are classified as unconfined if water moves freely or confined if enclosed by
impermeable layers that create pressure. It is recharged by surface infiltration and
discharged into springs, rivers, lakes, or wells, with movement driven by the hydraulic
gradient and the permeability of surrounding materials. Groundwater interacts with
surface water, feeding rivers and lakes (gaining streams) or being replenished by
them (losing streams). Essential for drinking, irrigation, and industry, groundwater
requires sustainable management to prevent over-extraction, contamination, and
depletion.
 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, groundwater is a vital resource that supports ecosystems,
agriculture, and human consumption, while its flow plays a crucial role in
maintaining the balance between surface and subsurface water systems.
Understanding the processes of infiltration, aquifer dynamics, and
interactions with surface water is essential for its sustainable use and
management. Proper conservation practices and responsible utilization are
critical to ensure groundwater remains available and uncontaminated for
future generations.
 “EVERY DROP
IS IMPORTANT”
BY: NATIONAL GROUNDWATER ASSOCIATION
 References:
https://youtu.be/TG49dDFozOQ?si=XjHjoGLJUNqR5jZG
(date accessed 10/11/2024)
https://groundwater.org/what-is-groundwater/ (date
accessed 10/11/2024)
SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL MANUAL (SIM)
 Hydrology
Investigations in
Determining
Subsurface Resources
Presented by Magdalina Lao
Hydrology investigations encompass various studies and
analyses to understand the Earth’s water cycle, water
resources, and hydrological processes. Hydrology
investigations are crucial for determining subsurface
resources, ensuring water security, food security,
economic development and environmental protection.
These investigations provide critical data for resource
management, risk assessment and mitigation, sustainable
development and policy-making.
 1. Water Resources

2. Mineral Resources

Subsurface 3. Geothermal Resources

Resources
4. Hydrocarbon Resources

Environmental and Geological

5. Investigations
 Water Resources

Groundwater Aquifer Groundwater flow

01 exploration
02 characterization
03 and transport
modeling
Identifying aquifers, Determining aquifer properties, Simulating groundwater
assessing water such as permeability and movement and contaminant
quantity and quality. storativity. transport.
 Mineral Resources

Hydrogeochemical Geophysical Geochemical

01 exploration
02 surveys
03 analysis

Analyzing water Using electrical resistivity, Analyzing water and rock

chemistry to identify seismic, and magnetic samples to identify
mineral deposits. methods to locate subsurface mineralization.
structures.
 Geothermal Resources

Hydrothermal Heat flow Geochemical

01 exploration
02 measurements
03 analysis

Identifying areas with Determining subsurface Analyzing water chemistry to

potential for geothermal temperature gradients. identify geothermal activity.
energy.
 Hydrocarbon Resources

Hydrogeological Geochemical
01 analysis
02 analysis
03 Seismic surveys

Understanding Analyzing water and rock Imaging subsurface structures

groundwater flow and samples to identify to locate potential
its impact on hydrocarbon presence. hydrocarbon reservoirs.
hydrocarbon migration.
 Environmental and
Geological Investigations
Contaminant Geological Hydrogeological
01 transport studies
02 mapping
03 risk assessment

Assessing the Identifying subsurface Evaluating the potential for

movement of pollutants geological structures and environmental impacts.
in groundwater. lithology.
 1. Drilling and coring

2. Geophysical logging

Investigation 3. Hydrological monitoring

Methods
4. Remote Sensing

5. Geospatial analysis
Investigation Methods
1.Drilling and coring

Collecting subsurface
samples for analysis.
Investigation Methods
2. Geophysical logging

Using techniues like

electrical resistivity and
gamma-ray logging.
Investigation Methods

3. Hydrological monitoring

Tracking groundwater levels,

flow, and chemistry.
Investigation Methods
4. Remote sensing

Using satellite and

airborne data to
identify subsurface
features.
Investigation Methods

5. Geospatial analysis

Integrating GIS and spatial

analysis techniques.
 1. MODFLOW

2. SEAWAT

Tools and 3. ArcGIS

Software
4. Geosoft

5. HydroGeo Analyst
Tools and Software
1. MODFLOW

Groundwater flow modeling

software.
Tools and Software
2. SEAWAT

A computer program for

simulation of three-
dimensional, variable-
density, transient ground-
water flow in porous media.
Tools and Software
3. ArcGIS

Geospatial analysis and

mapping software.
Tools and Software
4. Geosoft

Geophysical and
geochemical analysis
software.
 Tools and Software
5. HydroGeo Analyst
Groundwater and environmental
data management system that stores
and organizes data and helps you
quickly create comprehensive
analytical results that are reliable and
easy to understand.
 Summary
Hydrology investigations play a vital role in
determining subsurface resources, ensuring
sustainable management of water, mineral,
geothermal and hydrocarbon resources. These
investigations involve surface water,
groundwater, hydrogeological and hydrological
modeling studies to quantify resource
availability, assess risks and inform policy
decisions.
 Conclusion
Hydrology investigations are essential for
sustainable resource management, environmental
protection and economic development. By
integrating interdisciplinary approaches, advanced
technologies and data-driven insights, hydrology
investigations can mitigate risks, optimize resource
utilization and support climate-resilient decision-
making. Therefore, investing in hydrology research
and applications is critical for securing a water-
secure future.
 Quote of
the day
"A drop of water is worth more than a sack of gold
to a thirsty man." - Arabian Proverb
 References
International Association of Hydrological Sciences.
(n.d.). Research publications and conferences. Retrieved
(Nov. 23, 2024), from https://www.iahs.info/
International Association of Hydrogeologists. (n.d.).
AWRA resources. Retrieved (Nov. 23, 2024), from
https://www.iah.org/
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
(n.d.). Hydrological data. Retrieved (Nov. 23, 2024), from
https://www.noaa.gov/topics/data
SPECIFIC CAPACITY
3.

by: Juvy Libradilla

SPECIFIC CAPACITY
FORMULA:
The specific capacity of a well is the
discharge per unit drawdown in the well
and is usually expressed as lpm/m. The
specific capacity is a measure of the
effectiveness of the well; it decreases
with the increase in the pumping rate
(Q) and prolonged pumping (time, t).
Example

A 20-cm well penetrates 30 m below static water level (GWT). After a

long period of pumping at a rate of 1800 lpm, the drawdowns in the
observation wells at 12 m and 36 m from the pumped well are 1.2 m
and 0.5 m, respectively. Determine:
(a) the transmissibility of the aquifer.

(c) the specific capacity of the well.

Example
3. CAVITY WELL
 CAVITY WELLS The yield of the cavity well are depending on
the following:

1. For unsteady flow condition, the pumping Where:

rate Q of a cavity well is given by: s = drawdown in the observation well at a
distance r from the cavity well
Q = constant pumping rate
Ss = specific storage coefficient (for unit
aquifer thickness)
2. For steady flow condition, the pumping rate k = hydraulic conductivity
Q of a cavity well is given by: K = permeability of the aquifer
t = time since pumping began
y = depth of the cavity (at the center)
rw = radius of cavity
R = radius of influence
Width of cavity, (H-hw) = Sw = Drawdown in the well
Example
Example sol’n:

(a)

(b)

m
GROUNDWATER
PROBLEMS
1. Depletion of Groundwater Supplies - Groundwater depletion is
primarily caused by sustained groundwater pumping.

Some of the negative effects of groundwater depletion:

Lowering of the Water Table
Increased Costs
Reduced Surface Water Supplies
Land Subsidence

2. Contamination due to Human Activities - Some contaminants in

groundwater occur naturally. But in recent decades, contaminants have
increasingly been introduced into aquifers because of human activity.
3. Natural Ground Quality - Much of the world’s groundwater is crystal
clear, and pure enough to drink right out of the ground. Rocks and sediment
are natural filters capable of removing suspended solids these solids get
trapped in tiny pores or stick to the surfaces of clay flakes. In fact, the
commercial distribution of bottled groundwater (“spring water”) has become
a major business worldwide. But dissolved chemicals, and in some cases
methane, may make some natural groundwater unusable.
 Summary
This topic examines three key concepts related to groundwater: specific capacity,
cavity wells, and low groundwater levels. Specific capacity is a measure of how much
water a well can produce in relation to the drop in water level during pumping,
indicating the well’s efficiency. Cavity wells are drilled into areas with natural cavities
or voids, allowing for higher water storage but may face challenges due to the irregular
nature of these formations. Low groundwater levels result from overuse or insufficient
recharge, leading to issues like reduced water availability and well failure.
Understanding these concepts is crucial for maintaining sustainable groundwater
resources.
 Conclusion
The concepts of specific capacity, cavity wells, and low groundwater levels
are essential for understanding the dynamics of groundwater use and
management. The specific capacity helps assess the efficiency of wells, while
cavity wells offer an alternative way to tap into groundwater through natural
underground voids. However, over-extraction of groundwater, leading to low
groundwater levels, can cause significant problems, including reduced water
availability and land subsidence. Effective groundwater management and
conservation practices are crucial to maintaining sustainable access to this
vital resource for future generations.
 "Groundwater is nature’s hidden
reservoir, but its sustainability lies in
our hands. Use it wisely, protect it
fiercely, and ensure its flow for
generations to come."
Reference
https://mgebrekiros.github.io/books/Hydrology_Principles.pdf

https://www.kau.edu.sa/files/0000562/subjects/ehg315.pdf

https://www.epa.gov/report-environment/ground-
water#:~:text=Stressors%20that%20can%20deplete%20aquifers,th
ousands%20of%20years%20to%20replenish.
THANK YOU!
GROUNDWATER
EXPLORATION
By: Joylyn Lanus
 Groundwater exploration is the process of
investigating and understanding the availability,
quality, and movement of water stored beneath the
Earth's surface. It's a crucial endeavor for ensuring
sustainable water supplies for populations and
industries worldwide. This exploration involves a
multidisciplinary approach, integrating geological,
hydrological, and geophysical techniques to paint a
comprehensive picture of the subsurface
environment.
More than 99 percent of the world's liquid
freshwater resources are groundwater,
which is essential for maintaining life and
a variety of human endeavors. However,
because to the influence of subsurface
geology and climatic circumstances,
groundwater availability and distribution
vary greatly throughout the world.
Understanding the characteristics of
groundwater systems is essential for:

· Sustainable Management
· Optimizing Well Placement
· Protecting Water Quality
· Addressing Water Stress
 METHODS EMPLOYED IN
GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION
Groundwater exploration employs a
diverse set of techniques to gather
information about the subsurface. These
methods fall into two main categories:

1. Surface-Based Exploration
2. Subsurface Exploration
 1. Surface-Based Exploration

· Geologic and Hydrologic Studies: Analyzing existing geological and hydrological data,
including topographic maps, well logs, and published literature, provides a foundational
understanding of the area's geological formations, groundwater flow patterns, and potential
aquifer locations

· Geophysical Methods: These non-invasive techniques use physical properties of the

subsurface to create images and maps. Common methods include:

Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI): Measures the electrical conductivity of the ground
to identify different geological layers, including potential aquifers
Electromagnetic Methods: Utilize electromagnetic waves to detect variations in
electrical conductivity, providing information about the subsurface structure and
groundwater conditions
Magnetic Methods: Measure variations in the Earth's magnetic field to identify
geological structures, such as faults, which can influence groundwater flow
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR): Directly measures water content in the subsurface,
providing a more accurate assessment of groundwater availability
· Remote Sensing: Satellite and aerial
imagery can be used to analyze land cover,
vegetation patterns, and surface water
features, providing insights into potential
groundwater recharge areas and surface
water-groundwater interactions.
2. Subsurface Exploration:

· Exploratory Drilling: Drilling test wells allows for direct observation

of the subsurface geology, collection of water samples for analysis,
and conducting hydraulic tests to assess aquifer properties
· Borehole Geophysics: Geophysical logging techniques are used to
analyze the physical properties of the rock formations encountered
during drilling, providing information about the depth, thickness, and
permeability of aquifers
· Hydro chemical Analysis: Analyzing the chemical composition of
groundwater samples provides insights into the origin, age, and
potential contamination of the water
· Isotope Analysis: Using stable and radioactive isotopes, scientists
can determine the age of groundwater and trace its movement
through the subsurface.
 GROUNDWATER
EXPLORATION IN
THE PHILIPPINES
The Philippines boasts an extensive groundwater reservoir, covering an estimated
50,000 square kilometers. These resources are located in various rock formations
across the country, including:

· Northeast Luzon
· Central Luzon
· Laguna Lake Basin
· Cavite-Batangas-Laguna Basin
· Southeast Luzon.
· Mindoro Island
· Negros Island
· Northeast Leyte
· Ormoc-Kananga Basin
· Agusan-Davao Basin
· Occidental Misamis Basin
· Lanao-Bukidnon-Misamis Basin
Challenges and Concerns

While the Philippines possesses substantial groundwater resources, several

challenges and concerns threaten its sustainability:

· Over-extraction: Unsustainable pumping rates, particularly in densely

populated areas, can lead to groundwater depletion, lowering water tables
and potentially causing land subsidence .
· Saltwater Intrusion: Over-extraction in coastal areas can lead to saltwater
intrusion, contaminating freshwater aquifers and rendering them unusable .
· Pollution: Industrial and agricultural activities can contaminate groundwater
with pollutants, posing risks to human health and ecosystems .
· Fragmented Management: The lack of a unified and coordinated approach
to groundwater management across different agencies can lead to
inefficiencies and conflicts over water use.
GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES IN THE PHILIPPINES

TO ADDRESS THESE CHALLENGES AND ENSURE THE SUSTAINABLE USE OF GROUNDWATER, THE PHILIPPINES EMPLOYS
VARIOUS EXPLORATION TECHNIQUES:

· GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC STUDIES: ANALYZING EXISTING GEOLOGICAL AND HYDROLOGICAL DATA, INCLUDING
WELL LOGS, TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS, AND PUBLISHED LITERATURE, PROVIDES A FOUNDATIONAL UNDERSTANDING OF
THE SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY AND GROUNDWATER FLOW PATTERNS.

· GEOPHYSICAL METHODS: NON-INVASIVE TECHNIQUES LIKE ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY IMAGING (ERI),

ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS, AND SEISMIC SURVEYS ARE USED TO CREATE IMAGES OF THE SUBSURFACE,
IDENTIFYING POTENTIAL AQUIFERS AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES INFLUENCING GROUNDWATER FLOW.

· EXPLORATORY DRILLING: DRILLING TEST WELLS PROVIDES DIRECT OBSERVATION OF THE SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY,
ALLOWING FOR THE COLLECTION OF WATER SAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS AND CONDUCTING HYDRAULIC TESTS TO ASSESS
AQUIFER PROPERTIES.

· HYDROCHEMICAL ANALYSIS: ANALYZING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GROUNDWATER SAMPLES PROVIDES

INSIGHTS INTO THE ORIGIN, AGE, AND POTENTIAL CONTAMINATION OF THE WATER
THE FUTURE OF GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

THE PHILIPPINES IS ACTIVELY WORKING TO IMPROVE ITS GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT

STRATEGIES, FOCUSING ON:

· STRENGTHENING INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS: DEVELOPING A UNIFIED AND COORDINATED

APPROACH TO GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT ACROSS DIFFERENT AGENCIES IS CRUCIAL TO
ADDRESS THE FRAGMENTED MANAGEMENT ISSUE.
· PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE EXTRACTION: IMPLEMENTING REGULATIONS AND MONITORING
SYSTEMS TO ENSURE SUSTAINABLE EXTRACTION RATES AND PREVENT OVER-EXPLOITATION IS
ESSENTIAL.
· ENHANCING WATER CONSERVATION: PROMOTING WATER CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN
HOUSEHOLDS, INDUSTRIES, AND AGRICULTURE CAN REDUCE THE DEMAND FOR GROUNDWATER AND
HELP PRESERVE THIS VITAL RESOURCE.
· INVESTING IN TECHNOLOGY: ADOPTING ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES LIKE REMOTE SENSING,
GEOPHYSICAL IMAGING, AND NUMERICAL MODELING WILL ENHANCE GROUNDWATER EXPLORATION
AND MANAGEMENT CAPABILITIES .
 SUMMARY

Groundwater exploration is a critical component of

water resource management in the Philippines,
particularly as the country continues to face
challenges like population growth, industrialization, and
climate change. While groundwater remains a vital
resource, its sustainable management will require
improved exploration, monitoring, and regulation to
avoid depletion and contamination in the future.
 CONCLUSION

The Philippines faces a complex challenge in

managing its groundwater resources. However,
through a combination of scientific exploration,
responsible management practices, and
technological advancements, the country can
ensure the sustainable use of this vital resource
for future generations
 QUOTES
“IF THERE IS MAGIC
ON THIS PLANET, IT
IS CONTAINED IN
WATER.”
— Loren Eiseley,
American Anthropologist
 REFERENCE

Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., & Sheriff, R.E. (1990). Applied Geophysics.
Cambridge University Press.
Clark, I., & Fritz, P. (1997). Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology. CRC Press.
Beauchamp, E.M., & Wilson, R.C.L. (2009). Groundwater exploration and
management: A review. Hydrogeology Journal, 17(1), 1-17.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-008-0417-6
Veerayya, T.N. (2010). Groundwater Exploration in Arid and Semi-Arid Regions
Using Remote Sensing. ISRO Technical Report.
Cruz, R.V., et al. (2013). Hydrogeology of the Philippines: Status and Challenges.
Philippine Geosciences Journal.
Aquino, C. et al. (2016). Groundwater Exploration and Management in Central
Luzon, Philippines. Journal of Hydrogeology.
THANK
YOU
 QUIZ

1. The process of investigating and understanding the

availability, quality, and movement of water stored
beneath the Earth's surface.
2-3. 2 Methods Employed in Groundwater
Exploration
4-5 Give 2 example of Groundwater Exploration
Techniques in the Philippines.
 ANSWER

1. Groundwater Exploration
2-3. Surface-Based Exploration and Subsurface Exploration
4-5 Geologic and Hydrologic Studies
Geophysical Methods
Exploratory Drilling
Hydrochemical Analysis
Basic Probability
PRESENTED BY: DAVE NORMAN INFIESTO
 Probability
• is simply how likely something is to
happen.

• A probability is a number that reflects the

chance or likelihood that a particular event
will occur.
 Probability
• Probability can be expressed as
proportions that range from 0 to 1 or can
be expressed as percentages from 0% to
100%.
 Probability
Role of Probability in Hydrology
Hydrology is essential for predicting hydrologic
events, assessing risks, and modeling. Probability is
applied in hydrology, and it involves frequency
estimation, correlation analyses, and regionalized
hydrologic frequency estimates.
 Probability
Topics to be discussed:

• Basic Probability •Conditional Probability

• Dependent Events
• Independent Events
•Total Probability
•Complementary Probability
 Basic Probability
• The probability of an event A = P(A). P(A) can be
estimated using an observed set of data. A sample of
“n” observations have “n A” values in the range of
event A, and P(A) is estimated to be nA/n. As “n”
approaches ∞, P(A) becomes more accurate.
 Total Probability
If the sample space (1 represents the whole
space) is completely divided into non-
overlapping events (i.e. A1 or A2 or A3, etc.).
Total Probability

P(Event) = Σ P(Event |
Condition_i) * P(Condition_i)
A river basin is divided into three sub-basins: A, B, and C.

What is the probability of a major flood occurring in the

entire basin in a given year?
Solution:
P(Major Flood) = P(Major Flood | A) * P(A) + P(Major Flood | B) * P(B)
+ P(Major Flood | C) * P(C)

= (0.3 * 0.2) + (0.2 * 0.15) + (0.4 * 0.1)

= 0.06 + 0.03 + 0.04
= 0.13

Therefore, the probability of a major flood occurring in the entire basin

in a given year is 0.13 or 13%.
 Conditional Probability
Two events, A and B. The overlap is the event that
both occur (A∩B or A intersects with B). P(B|A) is
the conditional probability that event B will occur
given that event A has already occurred.
 Conditional Probability
Independent Probability:
Two events, A and B, are independent if the occurrence
of one event does not affect the probability of the
other event occurring.

P(C and D) = P(C) * P(D)

In a different region, the probability of a drought (event C)
in a year is 0.2. The probability of a landslide (event D) in
the same year is 0.1. If these events are independent,
what is the probability of both a drought and a landslide
occurring in a year?
Solution:
P(C and D) = P(C) * P(D)

Substituting the given values:

P(C and D) = 0.2 * 0.1 = 0.02

Therefore, the probability of both a drought and a landslide occurring

in a year is 0.02 or 2%.
 Conditional Probability
Dependent Probability:
Two events are dependent if the occurrence of one
event affects the probability of the other event
occurring.
 Conditional Probability
P(A and B) = P(B|A) * P(A)

Where:
•P(A and B) is the probability of both A and
B occurring
•P(B|A) is the probability of B given A
•P(A) is the probability of A
A hydrological study in a specific region shows that the
probability of heavy rainfall (event A) in a given month is
0.3. If it rains heavily, the probability of a flood (event B)
in the same month is 0.6. What is the probability of both
heavy rainfall and a flood occurring in a given month?
Solution:
P(A and B) = P(B|A) * P(A)

Substituting the given values:

P(A and B) = 0.6 * 0.3 = 0.18

Therefore, the probability of both heavy rainfall and a flood occurring

in a given month is 0.18 or 18%.
 Complementary Probability
• the complementary probability of an event is the
probability that the event does not occur.

P(B) =1- P(A)

The values of annual precipitation in College Station, TX,
from 1911 to 1979 are shown in Table 11.1.1 and plotted
as a time series (below). What is the probability that the
annual precipitation R in any given year will be less than
35 inches? Greater than 45 inches? Between 35 and 45
inches?
Solution:
There are n = 69 data. Let A be the event R>45.0 inches. The
numbers of values in the previous table falling in these ranges
are na=23 and nb=19. Therefore,

P(A) = P(R<35.0) = 23/69= 0.33

P(B) = P(R>45.0) = 19/69= 0.28
P(35.0≤R≤45.0) = 1-P(A)-P(B) = 1-0.33-0.28 = 0.39
 Summary
• Basic probability is a way to measure how likely an event
will occur.
• Total probability is breaking down an event into smaller,
more specific events.
• Conditional probability measures an event’s likelihood to
occur given that another event has already occurred. It
has two types, dependent and independent probability.
• Complementary probability is how unlikely an event is to
occur.
 Conclusion
The concept of basic probability is essential in hydrology. It
enables us to provide and make informed decisions about
the events that may occur. The results of the
measurements can help us in designing hydraulic structures
and drainage systems, managing water resources, and
assessing climate change impacts. Moreover, it can also
help hydrologists and engineers to improve hydrological
models.
 Quote of the night
“Thousands have lived
without love, not one without
water.”

-W.H. Auden
 References
Maity, R. (2018). Basic concepts of probability and statistics. In
Springer transactions in civil and environmental engineering (pp.
7–51). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8779-0_2

Beard, L. R. (1962). Statistical methods in hydrology.

https://doi.org/10.21236/ada052593

Jain, S. K., Singh V. P. (2019). Engineering

Hydrology: An Introduction to Processes, Analysis, and Modeling
(1st Ed.)
 RETURN PERIOD AND
DESIGN STORMS

Reporter: Christian Jay M. Galindo

 RETURN PERIOD
A return period, also known as a recurrence interval or repeat interval, is an average
time or an estimated average time between events such as earthquakes, floods,
landslides, or a river discharge flows occur.

FORMULA: Example:
The return period of a flood might be 100
𝑇 = 1/𝑃 years; otherwise expressed as its
probability of occurring being 1/100 or
Where: T = Return Period 1% in any 1 year.
P = Probability
 RETURN PERIOD
Example:
Based on the observation and analysis made by Mr. C, he had determined that
more than 21.7 mm of annual rainfall will result in a net economic loss for his corn crop.
Based on the Table, what is the frequency of this event to re-occur?
 How to get the probability of
1.
occurrence?
Rank Data from largest to smallest. Input no. of ranks.
 How to get the probability of
2. Get
occurrence?
prob. Of occurrence,
Fa(%). Insert to the table.
𝐹𝑎 % = 100(2𝑛 − 1)/2𝑦
n= rank of each event
y =total number of
event
 How to get the probability of
3. Get each year’s return period.
occurrence?
𝑇 = 100/𝐹𝑎
 DESIGN STORMS
Design storm is a representation of a rainfall event, developed to aid in the
design and evaluation of hydrological infrastructures and systems. It simulate
the potential impacts of rainfall over a specific duration and intensity.
- For example, the term "10-year design storm" represents a rainfall event with a
10% probability of being equaled or exceeded in any given year.

Design Turn off refers to the point which a certain hydrological design stops
operating after fulfilling its purpose during hydrological events like rainfall.
GRAPH:

DESIGN STORM
30
25 24.2
25 21.7 22
20
19.2 18.5 20 17.5
16 14.8

Depth
14.6
15
10
5
0

duration
Where can we use Design Storm data?
Infrastructure
01 02
Design Urban Planning
Drainage pipes, manholes, Assessing the impact of new
culverts, detention systems, etc. developments on the existing
drainage systems.

Flood Risk Water Quality

03 04
Assessment Compliance
Help in assessing and mitigating The water quality design storm
flood risks cause by development that must be managed and
projects. treated with stormwater control
measures(SCMs)
SUMMARY
The return period tells us when might be the next
rainfall with the same magnitude will occur. It is
usually presented through a percentage. The design
storm is a representation of a certain rainfall/s that
will help in designing infrastructures, drainage
systems, irrigation and more.
Conclusion

It is very important to understand and to learn about the

topics for managing the potential risk of natural hazards
(rainfall and floods) and in making hydrological systems
to provide a sustainable work.
Quote:

Thinking about design is hard, but

not thinking about it can be
disastrous
 References:
The vital role of design storms in civil engineering and stormwater management. (2023, November 9). - Contech
Engineered Solutions.
https://www.conteches.com/knowledge-center/learn/the-stormwater-blog/the-vital-role-of-design-storms-in-civil-
engineering/#:~:text=In%20civil%20engineering%20and%20stormwater%20management%2C%20a%20design%20stor
m%20refers,1.

NR J. (2015, January 20). return period calculation (hydrology analysis) [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FrnV_mGMH5k

return period to be used for hydrologic design, Victor M. Ponce. (n.d.). https://ponce.sdsu.edu/return_period.html
Quiz
1. Calculate the probability of occurrence of the
Annual rainfall depth of 19.2 mm in the given
Data.(2pts)
Quiz
2. Calculate the return period of the 25mm depth in
the given Data.(3pts)
 REGRESSIONAND
CORRELATIONIN HYDROLOGY

Reporter: Christian B. Guillen

THE METHOD OF LEAST SQUARES

∑ ∑
∑ ∑ ∑ ²
•

•
³
RISK ESTIMATION
BY: FHEBIE M. BANGCAILAN
 Risk Estimation
in Hydrology
• Hydrological risk estimation
involves assessing the risk of
hydrological hazards, such as
flooding and erosion, by
analyzing historical data and
applying statistical methods to
calculate event probabilities,
which informs the planning of
water resource projects and
infrastructure.
Importance of Risk Estimation

Informed Decision Risk Reduction

Making Strategies

Prioritization of
Public Awareness
Resources
1. Informed Decision Making
• Risk estimation helps guide
water resource
management, flood
mitigation, and
infrastructure development
decisions.
2. Risk Reduction Strategies
• Understanding risks allows
for the implementation of
effective strategies to
minimize potential damage
and protect human life.
3. Prioritization of Resources
• Risk assessment helps allocate
resources efficiently by
focusing on areas with the
highest risk potential.

4. Public Awareness
• Communicating risk
information effectively to the
public enables informed
decisions and preparedness.
Types of
Hydrological
Events

1.Floods 2. Droughts

3. 4. Storm
Landslides surges

5. Water scarcity
 Risk Analysis
Water-control design involves consideration of risks. A water-control
structure might fail if the magnitude for the design return period T is
exceeded within the expected life of the structure. This natural, or inherent,
hydrological risk of failure can be calculated using:

Where:
= probability that X will occur at least once in n years
1
P(X ≥ xT ) = T = return period
T
n = expected life of the structure
Example: What will be the risk involved for a hydraulic structure
having a design life of 100 years if it is designed for: (i) 50-year
return period flood, and (ii) 1000-year return period flood?

Solution:
(i) n = 100 years, T = 50 years, and the risk (R) involved may
be computed by as:

1 𝑛 1 100
R=1- 1 − = 1- 1 −
T 50

R = 0.867 = 87%
Solution:

(ii) n = 100 years, T = 1000 years and the risk involved is:

1 100
R=1- 1 −
1000

R = 0.095 = 9.5%
 Summary

Hydrological risk analysis identifies potential threats like floods,

droughts, landslides, water pollution and storm surges. It involves
hazard identification, vulnerability assessment, exposure analysis,
probability estimation and consequence analysis. Water-control
structures must account for potential risks, considering the likelihood
of extreme events exceeding design capacity within their lifespan.
 Conclusion

Risk estimation in hydrology is an interdisciplinary approach that

combines scientific analysis with practical applications. By
understanding the probabilities and impacts of hydrological events,
communities can better prepare for and mitigate the effects of these
natural hazards, ultimately improving resilience and safety.
Hydrological risk estimation is like preparing
for a flood—you never know whether you
need a small boat or a life raft.
References
Stevens, P. M. (1988, May). Hydrologic Risk. US Army Corps of Engineers.
Retrieved from
https://www.publications.usace.army.mil/Portals/76/Publications/Engineer
Pamphlets/EP_1110-2-7.pdf?ver=2013-08-22-104439-217

Ojha, C. S. P., Berndtsson, R., & Bhunya, P. K. (2008). Engineering

Hydrology. Oxford University Press.

Chow, V. T., Maidment, D. R., & Mays, L. W. (1988). Applied Hydrology.

Mc-Graw Hill, Inc.