EEN320 - Power Systems I (Συστήματα Ισχύος I)

Part 1: Introduction
[Link]

Dr Petros Aristidou
Department of Electrical Engineering, Computer Engineering & Informatics
Last updated: March 17, 2025
 Electric power systems

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 Electric power systems

What is their purpose?

1 Transfer electric energy from point A to point B

2 Do it safely (don’t kill anyone)
3 Do it reliably (continuous supply, no interruptions)
4 Do it environmentally friendly
5 Do it at a low cost and accessible to all

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 (3) - U.S. Northeast Blackout 2003

NYC before blackout, ©Nat. Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin. NYC after blackout, ©Nat. Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin.

The outage on Aug, 14 2003 affected about 10 mio. people in Ontario,

Canada and 45 mio. in the Northeastern and Midwestern United States
Estimated cost: US$ 4 to 10 billion
A power plant in Eastlake, Ohio switched offline during high electrical
demand
This put a strain on high-voltage power lines, which later switched out of
service when they came in contact with trees
The resulting cascading effect ultimately forced the shutdown of more
than 100 power plants

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 (3) - Italy Blackout 2003

Italy and Switzerland after blackout, ©Reuters

Outage on Sept, 28 2003 struck mainland Italy and parts of Switzerland

affecting 56 mio. people
The power line supplying electricity to Italy from Switzerland was
damaged by storms and switched off
Two 400 kV power lines between France and Italy switched off due to
sudden increased demand
Cascading effect disrupted power supply to Italy from France and
Switzerland, control of the grid was lost in the next 4 seconds and lines
tripped one by one

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 (3) - Disruption in European electric grid 2006

Norwegian Pearl, ©Pink Dispatcher

The outage on Nov, 4 2006 affected 15 mio. households in parts of

Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Spain and Portugal
Triggered by badly assessed switching off a transmission line over river
Ems to allow safe passage of a cruise ship
Further automatic switching off of transmission lines split the European
transmission grid into three independent parts (West, North-East,
South-East) leading to power imbalances in each area
The power imbalance in the Western area lead to a large frequency drop
causing outages for consumers
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 (3) - Disruption in European electric grid 2006

According to the UCTE report on the disturbance

The imbalance between supply and demand as a result of the splitting was
further increased in the first moment due to a significant amount of tripped
generation connected to the distribution grid
Generally, the uncontrolled operation of distributed generation (mainly wind
and combined-heat-and-power) during the disturbance complicated the
process of re-establishing normal system conditions
These statements also show that smarter control methods for distributed
generation could contribute to system stability

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 (3) - A bit closer to home

Karagiannis, et al. ”Power grid recovery after natural hazard impact”, tech. rep., 2017

The Cyprus outage of 2011 affected all of the population on the island,
leading to reduced supply and scheduled outages over a prolonged
period of time
Triggered by an explosion at Evangelos Florakis Naval Base that
destroyed the Vasilikos Power Plant
Almost 60% of the island’s power generating capacity was destroyed
Estimated economic losses from power interruption1 around 840 million
euros per year
1
T. Zachariadis, A. Poullikkas, The costs of power outages: A case study from Cyprus, Energy Policy, 2012
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 (4) - Environmental aspects

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 (4) - Two major problems with fossil fuels

1) Energy generation from fossil fuels highly contributes to greenhouse gas

emissions & climate change!
2) Fossil fuels are finite!

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 (5) - Cost of energy and development

Source: UNDP Human Development Index (2013); World Bank, World Development Index (2013)

Human Development Index: statistic composite index of life expectancy,

education, and per capita income indicators
First part of the curve almost linear!

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 (5) - Cost of energy and development

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 Electric power systems

Why is it hard to do all 5?

World’s largest and most complex engineered systems

Modern industrialized societies heavily rely on use and steady supply of
electric energy
Power systems are expected to be very reliable
Even a single failure can have catastrophic consequences for society!
In addition: power systems continuously subjected to large variety of
disturbances and contingencies (lighting, hurricanes, human errors,. . . )
→ Rather complex and sophisticated industrial processes behind electric
energy supply!

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 Uprise of renewables makes things more challenging

Solar power
Onshore wind Offshore wind
Shift energy production
from fossil to
renewable energy sources

Marine power Small hydro

Bioenergy power
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 Motivation - Smart Grid Systems

Production

Markets Storage

ICT infrastructure

Smart home Energy grid

Operation &
monitoring system - - - communication link ,
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 Motivation - Smart Grid Systems

Production

Markets Storage

ICT infrastructure

Smart home Energy grid

Operation &
- - - communication link
monitoring system ,
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 Motivation - Smart Grid Systems

Key ingredients: ICT, renewables, flexible operation & consumption

Many challenging open questions
Large investments (EU-wide 500 billion euros by around 2020)
⇒ Plenty of exciting & interdisciplinary opportunities

This course intends to provide you with a fundamental understand-

ing of the key equipment and their functionality in power systems,
so that you are well-prepared to further explore these opportunities

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 Outline

1 EEN320 - course description

2 Electric energy

3 Generation of electric energy

Power plants
Generation mix and capacity

4 Transmission and distribution of electric energy

Voltage levels and network types
Interconnected power systems
Network topologies
Substations
System operation and monitoring

5 Consumption of electric energy

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 1 Outline

1 EEN320 - course description

2 Electric energy

3 Generation of electric energy

4 Transmission and distribution of electric energy

5 Consumption of electric energy

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 1 EEN320 - Power Systems I: Learning objectives

This course intends to provide you with a fundamental understanding of the

key equipment and their functionality in electric power systems.
On completion of this course, you should be able to . . .
1 . . . explain the functioning and modelling of the main components in a
power system
2 . . . understand the principles of planning and operation of power systems
3 . . . be able to solve basic load flow calculations
4 . . . have an overview of future trends in power systems and smart grids
5 . . . appreciate, through basic case studies, the technical challenges in
both the design and the operation of power systems

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 1 EEN320 - Power Systems I: course overview

1 Introduction
2 Single-phase and three-phase AC systems
3 The per-phase and per-unit system representation
4 The power transformer
5 Introduction to rotating machines
6 Synchronous machine
7 Induction machine
8 The transmission line characteristics

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 1 EEN320 - Power Systems I: course organization and
assessment

Organization (subject to changes based on in-semester progress)

Wednesday 08:30-10:30 and Thursday 08:30-10:30
26h theory, 10h example classes, 12h laboratory2 , 4h revision
Assessment
Final exam: 60%
Mid-term exam: 20%
Lab exam: 20%
Course site: [Link] and
Moodle.

2
might change based on in-semester progress
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 1 Acknowledgments and reading material

This course and its presentation are based on

1 D. Glover, M. S. Sarma and T. Overbye, “Power System Analysis &
Design”, 6th edition, Cengage Learning, 2017
2 Chapman, S.J., “Electric machinery fundamentals”, 4th edition
McGraw-Hill, 2005
3 Κ. Βουρνάς, Γ. Κονταξής, “Εισαγωγή στα συστήματα ηλεκτρικής
ενέργειας”, εκδόσεις ΣΥΜΜΕΤΡΙΑ, 2010
Book 1 (available at the library) and the lecture notes are the official study
material. Book 3 is alternative in Greek version.

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 2 Outline

1 EEN320 - course description

2 Electric energy

3 Generation of electric energy

4 Transmission and distribution of electric energy

5 Consumption of electric energy

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 2 Energy

What is a kWh?

Watt · time(hrs)
kWh =
1000
Unit of measurement of energy
1 kWh = 1000 W · 3600 s
1 kWh = 3600000 J
1 kWh = 3.6 · 106 J

Source: [Link]

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 2 Change in energy demand

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 2 Energy consumption by source

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 2 Energy consumption by source

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 2 Energy consumption by source

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 2 Energy consumption by source

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 2 Energy consumption by source

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 2 Why electric energy?

Advantages
can be used for a variety of purposes
can be converted efficiently from different primary sources
can be converted to mechanical or thermal energy with a high efficiency
can be transmitted and distributed with reasonably low losses
easy to measure and control
Disadvantages
difficult to store
danger of handling high-voltages

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 2 Electric power system overview

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 3 Outline

1 EEN320 - course description

2 Electric energy

3 Generation of electric energy

Power plants
Generation mix and capacity

4 Transmission and distribution of electric energy

5 Consumption of electric energy

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 3 Generation of electric energy

Electric energy is obtained by converting primary energy into electric

energy
Strictly speaking, energy can not be generated nor consumed
Yet we often say that electricity is being ”generated”, meaning that a
primary energy source is converted into electric energy
This process of energy generation (i.e., conversion) takes place in power
plants

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 3 Sources of electric energy - Fossils and renewables

Fossil (non-renewable) energy sources

Oil, gas, coal,. . .
Cannot be replaced on a timespan of
human significance
Limited and can eventually run out

Renewable energy sources

Sun, wind, biomass, tides,. . .
Are replaced by natural processes at
a rate comparable to their use
Unlimited

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 3 Sources of electric energy - Fossils and renewables

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 3 Sources of electric energy - Fossils and renewables

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 3 Sources of electric energy - Fossils and renewables

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 3 Electric energy VS total

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 3.1 Power plant technologies

Traditional technologies
Steam power plant: thermal energy of steam expanded in steam turbine;
steam production mainly via fossil (coal, oil) or nuclear (uranium) primary
sources
Gas turbine generation: kinetic energy obtained from burning fuel directly
to create high-pressure gas used to drive turbine; mostly natural gas
(methane) used as primary energy source; turbines similar to those used in
aircraft
Steam and gas turbine generation jointly referred to as thermal generation
Hydro power plant: potential and kinetic energy of water is used to
generate electricity via turbines
Renewable energy technologies
Wind power plants
Solar power plants
Biomass-based power plants
...

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Steam power plant (1)

©Tennessee Valley Authority

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Steam power plant (2)

Combustion of coal or gas creates high-temperature (up to 600◦ ) and

high-pressure (up to 280 bar) steam based on Rankine cycle
In nuclear power stations, nuclear fission used to create heat
That steam is passed through steam turbines; usually turbines with
several nozzles at different pressure levels (high, medium, low) →
pressure-compounded turbine
Exhaust steam cooled down in condenser
Turbine shaft connected to synchronous generator to convert
mechanical energy into electric energy
Efficiency 38-47%
Efficiency can be increased up to 60% through combined-heat-and-
power (CHP) plants
Very high power rating up to several 1000 MW

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Steam power plant (3)

Steam power plants are less flexible, compared to hydro power plants
Need to operate within certain maximum temperature gradients
→ Large time constants for variation in power output
Also, operation mostly economic within certain operating regions
→ Steam power plants usually used as base load

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Drax steam power plant

©Dave Pickersgill

Coal-fired power station in North Yorkshire (also capable of co-firing

biomass and petcoke)
Generating capacity of 3,960 MW (highest in UK)
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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Steam turbine rotor

©Siemens

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Gas power plant

Based on gas turbine cycle: burn fuel (natural gas) in compressed air,
similarly to aircraft engines
Comparable efficiency to steam power plants
Advantage: can use gas-turbine exhaust to produce steam in
conventional boiler to drive additional steam turbine
→ Combined-cycle-gas turbine (CCGT) with improved efficiency around
60%
Fast start-up and shut-down (2-3min for gas turbine)
→ Often used for peak load supply

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Conventional units Cyprus

Σταθμός Βασιλικού
3 x 130 MW Ατμοηλεκτρικές Μονάδες 390 MW
1 x 38 MW Αεριοστρόβιλος 38 MW
2 x 220 MW Μονάδες Συνδυασμένου Κύκλου 440 MW
Σταθμός Δεκέλειας
6 x 60 MW Ατμοηλεκτρικές Μονάδες 360 MW
2 x 50 MW Μηχανές Εσωτερικής Καύσης 100 MW
Σταθμός Μονής
4 x 37,5 MW Αεριοστρόβιλοι 150 MW
Συνολική Εγκατεστημένη Ισχύς 1478 MW
Source: [Link]

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Hydro power plant (1)

©Tomia

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Hydro power plant (2)

Potential and kinetic energy of water in rivers and water reservoirs is

converted to electric energy by using turbines
Head = difference in height between upper reservoir and outflow level of
turbine
Different turbines used for different heads: Pelton (heads of 150 -
1500m), Francis (50 - 500m), Kaplan (run-of-river stations, heads up to
60m)
Rule-of-thumb for generated active power

P ≈ 8QH [kW]

Q: flow rate through turbine [m3 /s]

H: head [m]
Above expression includes efficiencies of hydraulic system, turbine and
generator η ≈ 0.82 [103 kg /(m2 s2 )]

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Hydro power plant (3)

Perhaps oldest form of energy conversion

Have ability to start up quickly (as little as 3 min.)
Have no energy losses when stand still
→ Often used to supply (fast-varying) peak demand
Challenge: need appropriate geographical conditions (that are difficult to
find in Cyprus)
Low running costs (water is free), but rather high capital cost of
construction

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Hydro power plant (4)

©Le Grand Portage

Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River, China

Largest hydro power plant in the world with rated power of 22,500 MW
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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Wind power plants (1)

Use kinetic energy of wind to produce electricity

Maximum theoretically achievable active power
1
PBetz = ηBetz Aρv 3
2
Active power proportional to third power of wind
speed v 3 [m/s]
A: imaginary rotor surface [m2 ]
ρ: air density [kg/m3 ]
ηBetz = 0.593: Betz constant
Enercon E70, ©Hadhuey
Practically achievable active power lower; modern
plants achieve 70-80% of PBetz at rated wind speed
Often several wind turbines gathered in a wind park

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Wind power plants (2)

Wind power generation fluctuates with wind speed variation

Often, on-shore higher fluctuations than off-shore; also, typically higher
wind speeds off-shore
→ (Fairly) recent trend: off-shore wind farms
Typical power rating: on-shore 2-5 MW, off-shore 4.6 - 8 MW per turbine

©Ad Meskens

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Solar power plants

Solar energy can be either used directly or indirectly to generate

electricity
Direct approach: Photovoltaics; conversion of solar energy into DC current;
efficiency approx. 12-20%
Indirect approach: Concentrated solar power power plants; use solar energy
to generate heat or steam to drive a turbine; efficiencies of up to 42%

©Koza1983 ©Andrewglaser

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Renewables

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Renewables Cyprus

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 3.1 Power plant technologies - Further technologies

Fuel cells
Geothermal power
Wave power
Tidal power
...

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 3.2 Generation mix and capacity - Planning

Generation costs are composed of

Investment costs (e.g. plant construction)
Operating costs (e.g. for fuel)
⇒ Optimal technology depends on its specific purpose(s)
Usual differentiation of generation technologies
Base-generation
Mid-merit generation
Peak-load generation

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 3.2 Generation mix and capacity - Operation

Base-generation (φορτίο βάσης)

High capital and low per unit operating costs
Run-time > 5000 h/y
Example: nuclear, hydro, lignite
Mid-merit generation (μέσο φορτίο)
Medium capital and medium per unit operating costs
Run-time > 4000 h/y
Example: coal
Peak-load generation (φορτίο αιχμής)
Low capital and high per unit operating costs
Run-time < 1000 h/y
Example: gas, pump storage

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 3.2 Generation mix and capacity - Example

t0 base load
run-time
t1 mid-merit
run-time
t2 peak-load
run-time
t3 time period
of load
curtailment

Source: Weedy et al., Electric Power Systems

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 3.2 Generation mix and capacity - Cyprus

Source: [Link]

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 4 Outline

1 EEN320 - course description

2 Electric energy

3 Generation of electric energy

4 Transmission and distribution of electric energy

Voltage levels and network types
Interconnected power systems
Network topologies
Substations
System operation and monitoring

5 Consumption of electric energy

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 4 Electric power system overview

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 4 Transmission and distribution of electric energy

Often, economic, geographic, environmental or technological reasons

impede generation of all demand closed to load centres (cities, industrial
sites)
Therefore, large share of electric power is generated far away from load
centres
→ Need (electric) infrastructure to transport electricity from generators to
loads
This infrastructure is called a power network

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 4.1 Voltage levels and network types

Optimal economic interconnection of different generators / end-users /

networks mainly depends on
Distance
Amount of power to be transmitted
Consequently, most power systems worldwide consist of
Transmission network: global power network over large distances; works
at high voltages
Distribution network: local electricity network to deliver power to
end-users; works at medium and low voltage
Voltage usually transformed several times to lower values the closer to
end-user
These voltage transformations are performed in substations
Above low voltage (LV) level, power transfer is usually three-phase

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 4.1 Electric power systems - Standard structure (1)

©MBizon
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 4.1 Electric power systems - Standard structure (2)

Source: J. Machowski et al, ”Power system dynamics: stability and control”, John Wiley & Sons, 2011
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 4.1 Early history of electric power systems

First
N. Tesla three-phase
F. J. Spague presents paper AC
produces on two-phase transmission
DC motor AC induction line
for Edison and synchronous (12 kV, 179 km)
Systems motors Germany
1884 1888 1891
— — — — — — —
1882 1886 1889 1893
T. Edison W. Stanley First First
develops develops single-phase three-phase
first DC steam commercially AC AC
powered electric practical transmission transmission
station, transformer line line in USA
New York, USA (4 kV, 21 km) (2.3 kV, 12 km)
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Oregon, USA California,69/
USA99
 4.1 Early history of electric power systems

1878: T. Edison began work on electric light and designed concept of

central power station serving lighting in its neighbourhood
Opening of Pearl Street Station (DC, 30 kW, 110 V, lighting for 59
customers, 2.5 m2 area) marks beginning of electric utility industry
Beginning of fast growth of electric utility industry until today
Development of transformer alleviated voltage issues encountered with
longer transmission lines
War of currents: Edison promoted direct current (DC), while
Westinghouse (US entrepreneur and engineer) promoted alternating
current (AC)
Change of voltage levels via transformers and circuit breakers exploiting
zero-crossings, along with Tesla’s AC motors pushed AC systems

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 4.1 Early history of electric power systems
Tesla came to the correct conclusion that motors operated most
efficiently at 60 Hz and 240 volts
Edison admitted the superiority of AC and built his own systems running
the lines at 110 volts (adopting the same voltage used in his DC
systems)
When the German company AEG built the first European generating
facility, its engineers decided to fix the frequency at 50 Hz, because the
number 60 didn’t fit the metric standard unit sequence (1, 2, 5)
AEG had a virtual monopoly and its standard spread to the rest of the
continent
But the order imposed by the metric system was at odds with physics.
Not only is 50 Hz 20% less effective in generation, it is 10–15% less
efficient in transmission and it requires up to 30% larger windings and
magnetic core materials in transformer construction
Today only a handful of countries (Antigua, Guyana, Peru, the
Philippines, South Korea and the Leeward Islands) follow Tesla’s advice
and use the 60 Hz frequency together with a voltage of 220–240

Source: J. Christopher Westland, Global Innovation Management, 2ed, Red Globe Press, 2016
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 4.1 Early history of electric power systems: Cyprus

1903: First generators to serve the needs of the Commission and the
general hospital in Lefkosia
1912: First generation company in Lemesos – Electrofotistiki Eteria
Lemesou (The Limassol Electric Light Company)
1913: Nicosia Electricity Company
1922: Municipal Electricity Authorities of Ammochostos, Larnaka and
Pafos
1927: Municipal Electricity Authority of Kyrenia
1952: Electricity Authority of Cyprus merged 28 companies serving 6
major towns and 22 smaller townships and villages (total 28)
1972: Full electrification of the island (527 towns and villages). From
20,000 consumers in 1952 to 180,000 in 1973 and 576,000 in 2018

Source: [Link]
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 4.1 Development of demand & generation

Globally:
From 1890 to 1975 electric energy consumption raised in average 7% in
industrialised nations
This is equivalent to doubling the energy demand every 10 years!
Likewise, size of generation units increased
Main incentive: economy of scale
Lower installation costs per kW
Lower operating costs per kWh

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 4.1 Voltage levels today

Country high voltage (HV) medium voltage (MV) low voltage (LV)
UK 400 kV (275 kV) 132 kV - 11 kV 400 / 230 V
Germany 380 kV 110 - 10 kV 400 / 230 V
US 765 - 345 kV 230 - 4 kV 480 / 120 V
Nigeria 330 - 132 kV 33-10 kV 415/240 V
Cyprus 132 - 66 kV 22-11 kV 400/230 V

The above voltage magnitudes refer to the line-to-line voltage VLL of the
corresponding three-phase system
√
The line-to-ground voltage VLG is given by VLL = 3VLG

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 4.1 Example of Cyprus

Source: [Link]
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 4.2 Interconnected power systems - Motivation

Interconnection of power systems

has advantages in reliability and
economy
Power support in emergencies
Cross-border power transfers
and trading
→ Fundamental prerequisite for
international electricity market
Two power systems can be
coupled via
Synchronously = AC connection
(e.g., continental Europe)
Asynchronously = DC
Synchronous grids in Europe, ©Kimdime
connection (e.g., UK)

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 4.2 Interconnected power systems - ENTSO-E

European
Network of
Transmission
System
Operators for
Electricity
(ENTSO-E)
41
transmission
system
operators
34 countries,
450 mio.
people
1,000 GW
generation
capacity
Source: ENTSO-E
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 4.2 Commercial electricity flows in Europe May-July 2014
[GWh]

Source: European Commission, Quarterly Report on European Electricity Markets

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 4.2 Interconnected power systems - China

2 transmission
system
operators:
State Grid
Corporation &
China
Southern
Power Grid
> 360 GW
generation
capacity

Source: [Link]
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 4.2 Interconnected power systems - China

2 transmission
system
operators:
State Grid
Corporation &
China
Southern
Power Grid
> 360 GW
generation
capacity

Source: [Link]
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 4.2 Interconnected power systems - WAPP

West African
Power Pool
(WAPP)
14 countries

Source: [Link]
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 4.2 Interconnected power systems - NERC

North American
Electric Reliability
Corporation (NERC)
8 regional reliability
entities
> 1, 000GW installed
capacity

©Bouchecl
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 4.3 Network topologies - Some key facts

Simple point-to-point connections are not suitable to provide reliable

power supply, as a single line failure leads to blackout
→ Need network topology, where power can be transmitted over alternative
path if a power line fails
This creates redundancy and, hence, increases reliability
Most common criterion to define redundancy of a power network is (N-1)
criterion

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 4.3 Network topologies - (N-1) criterion

After loss of one single element (e.g. line, transformer, power station)
1 Network must be able to continue service
2 No network element is overloaded
(N-1) criterion is standard security criterion worldwide for power system
planning and operation
Defines network redundancy with respect to equipment outages
Higher security indices: (N-2), (N-3),...

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 4.3 Network topologies - 1) Radial network

Several independent network branches

G Often used in rural areas

Overhead lines or cables (depends on
country and load density)
Advantages
Simple operation
Low investment costs
Easy to analyse and predict
Disadvantages
Voltage sags at branch ends by high
loading
Simple failures can lead to blackouts
for end-users (not N-1 secure)

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 4.3 Network topologies - 2) Loop network

G
Equipment rated such that operation can
be maintained also if fault on ring occurs
Often has circuit breaker in middle of ring
Advantages
Higher reliability against failures (”quasi”
N-1 security)
Disadvantages
Higher costs: larger conductor, such that
all loads can be fed from one end
Slightly higher complexity

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 4.3 Network topologies - 3) Meshed network

G
Multiple (redundant) conductors
Used in areas with high load density
Often underground cables used
Advantages
Very reliable (N-1 secure)
Outage/failure of one line
Even voltage profile
Low losses
Disadvantages
Network analysis and design more
complex
Too large meshed networks can be
difficult to re-start after blackout
G

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 4.4 Substations

Substations connect different voltage levels in a power system

Main tasks
Nodes of power network that connect different voltage levels with each other
via power transformers
Switching station at which different lines leaving or entering substations can
be connected and disconnected
Measuring, monitoring and control of local variables (e.g., voltage, current,
protection, meters)
Separation of distribution from transmission network

©David Neale

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 4.5 System operation and monitoring - Control center
System monitoring and operation takes place in control centers
Depending on size of network, there may be one or more control centers
Control centers obtain data from several measuring points (e.g.,
substations) in network via supervisory-and-data-aquisition (SCADA)
system

Source: [Link]
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 4.5 System operation and monitoring - Power quality

For proper functioning of many appliances, it is essential that not only

required amount of power is supplied, but also that it is provided with a
certain power quality
Power quality is measure for ”fitness” of electrical power delivered to
consumers
It comprises the following criteria
Continuity of service
Variation in voltage magnitude
Frequency stability
Unbalances and harmonic content
Control and compensation equipment ensures that (usually) deviations
from nominal voltage amplitude and frequency remain within ±10% of
their respective nominal values at customer’s point of connection

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 5 Outline

1 EEN320 - course description

2 Electric energy

3 Generation of electric energy

4 Transmission and distribution of electric energy

5 Consumption of electric energy

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 5 Typical load composition

Typical load sectors

Industrial
Commercial
Offices
Schools
Shops etc.
Residential (domestic)
Refrigerators
Freezers
Heating
Air condition etc.

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 5 Cyprus winter 2007 representative daily load curve

Source: [Link]

Base load: approx. 350 MW / Daily fluctuation: approx. 350 MW

(December curve)
Peak occurs in the evening (18:30), high lighting and heating demand

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 5 Cyprus summer 2007 representative daily load curve

Base load: approx. 600 MW / Daily fluctuation: approx. 400 MW (July

curve)
Peak occurs at noon, high air-conditioning demand
On average 40% higher demand in summer
Source: [Link]
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 5 Comparison of daily load curves

Source: IEC, Electrical Energy Storage

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 5 Some important facts...

On demand-side...
Load demand exhibits long-term (e.g. seasonaly) and short-term
variations (e.g. daily)
Irregular events: extreme weather, special events (e.g. World Cup final)
Exact load demand never known beforehand

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 5 Some more...

On generation- and infrastructure-side...

Up to today, electric energy can not be stored in significant quantities
(e.g. GWh)
Electric equipment (generation plants, substations, power lines, ...) is
often used for decades
Planning, construction and commissioning of new equipment also often
takes decades
Investment costs are fairly high
Starting-up large power stations can take up to several days

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 5 ...and their consequences for power system operation

(Most) Energy has to be produced at the moment it is demanded

Need to estimate load demand in advance (load forecast)
Need to plan power generation based on demand forecast
Need of real-time adjustments (controls)
Installation of new equipment requires careful technical and economic
planning

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 5 Summary

Electric power systems highly complex and nonlinear

Electric power can not be stored
→ Generation needs to match load in real time!
Key infrastructure
Power generators
Loads
Transmission network
Distribution network
Substations with power transformers to connect networks at different voltage
levels
System operator

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