🟦 What is Politics?

Politics = the activity of making, preserving, and changing the general rules under which
people live.

📌 It involves:

 🟥 Conflict: Different opinions, needs, and interests

 🟩 Cooperation: Working together to influence or uphold rules

🧠 Think of it as a continuous process, not just about solving problems but about managing
disagreements.

🟨 Why Is Politics Inevitable?

🌍 Because of:

 Diversity – We are all different

 Scarcity – There is never enough for everyone

💬 This makes politics a natural part of human life.

🟧 The Problem with the Word “Politics”

📣 It's a loaded word:

 Often seen as dirty, biased, or dishonest

 People associate it with:
o 🧨 Disruption
o 🤥 Lies and manipulation
o 📉 Corruption

💬 “Politics is nothing more than a means of rising in the world” – Samuel Johnson (1775)

🟩 Different Definitions of Politics

Politics is seen as:

View Example
🟢 Power Who has control
🔵 Government Institutions & officials
🟡 Collective decisions Voting, policies
 View Example
🔴 Allocation of resources Budgets, services
⚫ Manipulation Deceit, control

✅ The textbook definition includes all these:

Politics is the making, preserving, and amending of general social rules.

🟫 Key Question: Where Does Politics Happen?

 Is it only in government?
 Or in all areas of life (like homes, schools, workplaces)?

This leads to the idea that politics is an:

🟪 Essentially Contested Concept

🔄 A term with multiple legitimate meanings that people continue to debate.

🟦 Two Broad Ways to Define Politics

According to Hay (2002) and Leftwich (2004), definitions of politics fall into two
categories:

🟨 1. Politics as an Arena (Location-Based)

Politics is defined by where it happens

🧭 Examples:

 Parliaments
 Governments
 Public institutions

🟧 Political behaviour is political because of context or setting (e.g., “in politics” = holding
office)

🟩 2. Politics as a Process (Activity-Based)

Politics is defined by what it involves

⚙️Political behaviour = any behaviour with:

 Power relations
 Decision-making
 Negotiation
 Conflict resolution
🟫 Politics can occur in any social setting—not just in government (e.g., family, workplace,
school)

🧠 Why This Debate Matters

 It reveals deep intellectual and ideological disagreements in political theory.
 Each approach leads to different definitions of politics and different schools of
thought.

📊 Figure 1.1 — Approaches to Defining Politics

Politics as an Arena Politics as a Process
🔹 The art of government 🔸 Power and the distribution of resources
🔹 Public affairs 🔸 Compromise and consensus
🧠 Leads to: 🧠 Leads to:
- Behaviouralism - Feminism
- Rational-choice theory - Marxism
- Institutionalism - Post-positivist approaches

Classical View: Politics as the Art of Government

“Politics is not a science … but an art.” – Otto von Bismarck

This view sees politics as:

 The exercise of control and authority

 The making and enforcement of collective decisions

📜 Historical Roots – Ancient Greece

 Word “politics” comes from polis = city-state

 Athens was a key example – politics was about citizens managing public life

🔎 Modern understanding:

Politics = what concerns the state

🧭 Common Uses Reflect This View

 “In politics” = holds public office
  “Entering politics” = joining state affairs

🎓 Academic Reflection
 Traditional political science often focused on:
o Government
o Authority
o State institutions

To study politics = to study the state, government, and power

🧠 David Easton’s Definition of Politics

📘 “Politics is the authoritative allocation of values.” — Easton (1979, 1981)

🔹 What does this mean?

 Authoritative = decisions made by institutions with legitimate power (e.g.,

government)
 Allocation of values = distributing benefits, rewards, or penalties based on societal
needs
 Emphasizes policy-making and government response to public pressures

🟦 Politics as Policy
Politics = the creation of formal, binding decisions for society

🧾 Examples:

 Laws passed in Parliament

 Budget allocations by Treasury
 Penalties imposed for breaking rules

Where does this happen?

 Cabinet rooms
 Government departments
 Parliaments and legislatures
 Executed by politicians, civil servants, lobbyists

🟥 Critiques of Easton’s Definition

1. Too Narrow: Politics = Only the State

 Excludes most of society:

o ❌ Families
o ❌ Businesses
o ❌ Community groups
o ❌ Schools

➡️These are seen as non-political because they don't "run the country"

2. Party Politics Focus

Politics is reduced to people with ideological agendas in formal political parties

🧍‍♂️Politicians = “political”
👩‍💼 Civil servants = “non-political” (unless biased)
⚖️Judges = non-political, unless influenced by personal opinions

3. Overlooks Global Politics

🌍 This definition ignores:

 International organizations (e.g. UN, IMF)

 Globalisation's impact on domestic policies
 Transnational issues like climate change, migration, trade wars

💬 Why People Dislike Politics

 Politics is seen as corrupt, self-serving, and dishonest
 Politicians = “power-hungry hypocrites”
 Common phrases:
o “Office politics”
o “Politicking”

➡️This contributes to anti-politics sentiment

⚠️Anti-Politics
Disillusionment with formal politics

🛑 Symptoms include:
  Low voter turnout
 Protest votes (support for anti-system parties)
 Civil disobedience and direct action (e.g., marches, occupations)

🧾 Historical Influence: Machiavelli’s The Prince

A realist approach to politics: power = manipulation, cunning, cruelty

📚 Niccolò Machiavelli (1532):

 Leaders may need to be ruthless to keep power

 Politics is not about morality, but about effectiveness

Key Concepts
Term Definition
A society organised by political authority (Aristotle: rule by the many for the
Polity
good of all)
Policy A formal decision that creates a course of action for a group or society
Anti-
Disillusionment with political institutions; leads to non-participation or activism
politics

POLITICS: POWER, PUBLIC AFFAIRS

& PERCEPTIONS

⚖️1. Politics as a Corrupting Force

“Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.” – Lord Acton (1834–
1902)

🔍 Key Idea:

 Individuals are naturally self-interested

 Political power gives room for exploitation and personal gain

🧍‍♂️Politicians are often viewed as:

🔺 Venal
🔺 Ambitious
🔺 Dishonest
📌 Yet: Politics is inevitable. Without it, society might collapse into chaos.

What’s the solution?

Create checks and balances to limit abuse of power, rather than eliminate politics
altogether.

🌍 2. Politics as Public Affairs

A broader view: Politics = public life, not just government

🧠 Origin: Aristotle
“Man is by nature a political animal”

📌 Goal of politics: Achieving the 'good life' and a just society

Politics = an ethical activity, the “master science”

🌐 PUBLIC vs PRIVATE SPHERE

Public Sphere 🏠 Private Sphere
Institutions of the state Institutions of civil society
Government, courts, army, police Families, community groups, churches
Funded by public tax Privately managed or voluntary
Focus: collective organization Focus: personal/family life

🧱 Traditional boundary: State vs Civil Society

📚 Edmund Burke’s "Little Platoons" = families & local groups form society’s foundation

💪 Concept Focus: POWER

💬 “Power is the ability to achieve a desired outcome.”

Types of Political Power:

🔹 “Power to” – Achieve something (e.g. build, grow, unite)

🔸 “Power over” – Influence or control others, even against their will
🟥 Can be used to reward, punish, or manipulate
🧠 Key Thinker: Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527)
📖 Author of The Prince (1532)
🎯 Focused on realpolitik and the manipulation of power
👑 Inspired by Cesare Borgia
⚠️Gave rise to the term “Machiavellian” = cunning, ruthless, and strategic politics

🎨 Suggested Visual Style for Poster/Slides:

 Background: Clean white or parchment tone
 Colours:
o 🟦 Blue for Public Sphere
o 🟥 Red for Power & Corruption
o 🟩 Green for Ethical Politics / Aristotle
o ⚫ Black for Machiavellian themes
 Icons:
o 👥 People (public vs private)
o ⚖️Scales (justice and law)
o Government building (state)
o 🔐 Lock (checks and balances)
o 🧠 Brain (ethics/philosophy)

POLITICS: The Public/Private Divide &

Civil Society

⚖️1. Defining the Public vs. Private Spheres

🌐 Public Sphere 🏠 Private Sphere
Run by the state (gov, army, courts, police) Run by individuals/groups (families, clubs)
Funded through taxes Funded privately
Focus: collective/public interests Focus: personal or group interests
Example: lawmaking, public policy Example: domestic life, religion, hobbies

📌 Politics is traditionally limited to the public sphere.

🧱 2. Civil Society: The Middle Ground

🔹 Defined as the space between the state and the individual
🔹 Includes:
  🏢 Businesses
 🤝 Trade unions
 🎭 Clubs & cultural groups
 Community organizations

🟢 Public in function (they operate openly & are accessible)

🔴 Private in origin (created by citizens, not government)

📌 Sometimes seen as non-political, but often deeply connected to power and policy.

🔄 3. Re-thinking the Public/Private Divide

💬 Key Idea: Politics is not just what happens in parliament — it also happens in everyday
life.

🔄 SHIFT:

🟩 The economy, workplace, and community spaces are increasingly seen as political arenas.

👩‍🦰 4. Feminist Critique: “The Personal is Political”

⚠️Traditional view excludes women lived experiences by keeping them in the “private”
sphere.

📌 Feminist thinkers argue:

 👩‍👦 Family roles and housework are political

 🧠 Gender roles are socially constructed, not “natural”
 🚫 Excluding the personal/private means ignoring gender inequality

🔍 How Male Power is Maintained (According to Radical

Feminists):
🧒 Social conditioning:
Children are taught to conform to gender roles
→ e.g., "boys lead," "girls nurture"

🧹 Domestic labour:
Women are burdened with unpaid home responsibilities
💬 Sexual/personal conduct:
Expectations and norms often favour men

📘 CONCEPT: CIVIL SOCIETY

💡 Originally: ‘a political community’

Now means:

A non-governmental space of private initiative and group activity

✅ Includes:

 📊 Businesses
 🧑🏽‍🤝‍🧑🏽 Interest groups
 🏡 Families
 🌍 Global civil society (NGOs, transnational movements)

🎨 Suggested Visual Layout Ideas:

 Use dual-colour columns for Public vs Private (e.g., 💙Blue vs 💛Yellow)
 Use feminist pink/purple for personal-is-political critiques
 Add icons for:
o ⚖️Government
o 🏠 Home life
o 💬 Speech bubbles (for debate)
o 🔄 Arrows (for shifting boundaries)
o 👩‍🦰 Women figures (gender focus)

🟡 PUBLIC vs 🔵 PRIVATE: Two Views of the Divide

(Figure 1.2 Explained Visually)

🔷 PRIVATE SPHERE (Non-political / Personal Realm)

 🏠 Family
 🧹 Domestic life
 💑 Personal relationships
 🎨 Private identity
 Home & leisure
"The personal is political" – Feminist challenge: argues private experiences reflect broader
power structures (e.g., patriarchy)

🟡 PUBLIC SPHERE (Political / Collective Realm)

 Politics
 💼 Commerce & work
 Art & culture
 Participation & citizenship
 💬 Free and open debate

Seen as noble by classical thinkers. Participation here is tied to freedom, learning, and the
common good.

🧱 STRUCTURES WITHIN EACH SPHERE

STATE CIVIL SOCIETY
📜 Government institutions 🏢 Businesses
⚖️Courts, police, parliament 🤝 Trade unions, clubs, NGOs
💼 Public policy and services Families, faith groups, communities

💡 WHY PUBLIC PARTICIPATION MATTERS

— According to Key Political Thinkers —

🧠 Aristotle

“Man is by nature a political animal.”

Participation in the polis (city-state) = a virtuous and meaningful life.

Hannah Arendt

🔑 Politics = highest form of human activity

Because it involves interaction between free & equal citizens in the public realm.

📘 The Human Condition (1958):

Politics affirms individuality and gives life meaning.
📢 Jean-Jacques Rousseau

🟨 Only direct, continuous political participation binds the state to the “general will.”
Citizenship = collective power.

📘 John Stuart Mill

🧠 Political involvement = a tool for education, morality, and intellect.

Being involved in public life shapes better, freer individuals.

🟢 POLITICS AS COMPROMISE & CONSENSUS

💬 "The art of the possible"

🎯 What It Means:

Politics is not just about who rules, but how decisions are made — through:

 🤝 Compromise
 🫱🏽‍🫲🏿 Conciliation
 🧠 Negotiation

⚖️Instead of violence or coercion.

Key Thinkers & Ideas

📜 Aristotle

Advocated for “polity” — a mixed government balancing democracy and aristocracy.

📚 Bernard Crick – In Defence of Politics (1962/2000)

Defined politics as:

“The activity by which differing interests... are conciliated by giving them a share in power
in proportion to their importance...”

🌍 What Politics Looks Like Here:

 Political Method Features
Electoral democracy Debate, voting, negotiation
⚖️Liberal rationalism Faith in reason, dialogue, institutions
🫂 Pluralism Power shared between diverse social groups
🚫 No violence Rejects coercion, force, or dictatorship

💡 TWO TYPES OF CONSENSUS:

🔄 Procedural Consensus 🎯 Substantive Consensus
How decisions are made What decisions are about
Involves consultation and bargaining Agreement on core values and policy goals
People agree on the process People agree on the big picture

⚠️Criticism of Crick’s View:

 🌍 Too Western-focused:
Only applies well to pluralist democracies
 ❌ Ignores one-party states, authoritarian regimes
 🧩 Assumes society leans toward agreement — not always true

🌟 Why This View Still Matters:

 ✅ More peaceful than military conflict

 ✅ Encourages civic engagement
 ✅ Fosters tolerance & cooperation
 🧩 BUT: Real consensus requires effort, listening, and compromise

🔴 POLITICS AS POWER
"Politics is everywhere — in homes, offices, streets, and states."
— Adrian Leftwich, What is Politics? (2004)

🌍 What Does This Mean?

Unlike other definitions that tie politics to the state, government, or the public sphere, this
view sees politics as universal and embedded in all relationships where power is present.

🧠 KEY IDEA:
“Politics is at the heart of all collective social activity — formal and informal, public and
private.”

👀 Where Does Politics Happen?

💬 Personal 🏢 Institutional 🌐 Global

Family Workplaces UN & Diplomacy
Friendships Schools International Trade
Religion NGOs Conflict & Peacekeeping

⚡️Defining Feature: Power

The struggle over power — who gets what, when, how — is what makes something
political.

🧩 Why It Matters:

🔎 Focus ✅ Implication
Not just what decisions are made But who has the power to make them
Not just governments But any situation involving authority
Not just public policies But also, interpersonal dynamics

📈 Link to Populism & Modern Shifts

🧨 Populism: A Style That...

 🛑 Rejects compromise
 📢 Emphasizes conflict and division
 👥 Claims to speak for “the people” against elites
 💬 Simplifies complex issues into "us vs them"

Example: Donald Trump's election marked a shift away from consensus politics toward
conflict-driven populism.

📉 Consequences of Populist Politics:

❗ Populism says... 💥 Result

“Only we represent the people!” Marginalizes minority voices
“Compromise is weakness.” Political deadlock and division
“Consensus is corruption.” Trust in institutions declines
“We must fight the elites.” Encourages populist authoritarianism
🎭 The Three ‘Faces’ of Power
“Power is not just about what gets decided — but also about what gets ignored, and how
we’re made to think.”

🟢 1. Power as Decision-Making

📘 Key Thinker: Robert Dahl (1961) – Who Governs?

➤ What it means:

 A influences B to do something B would not otherwise do.

 Focuses on visible decisions and overt conflicts.

🔧 Tools used (from Boulding, 1989):

 The Stick: Force or threat (e.g. police, military, sanctions)

 The Deal: Mutual benefit or negotiation (e.g. laws, contracts, diplomacy)
 The Kiss: Loyalty, duty, or obligation (e.g. patriotism, family ties)

🧠 Example:

 A government passes a law after pressure from activists.

 A boss gives a bonus in exchange for extra hours (deal).

🟠 2. Power as Agenda-Setting (Non-Decision Making)

📘 Key Thinkers: Bachrach & Baratz (1962)

➤ What it means:

 Power is also the ability to prevent issues from being discussed.

 This is about keeping things off the table, not just deciding what's on it.

🔧 How it's used:

 Lobbying, censorship, or framing the debate to exclude certain views.

🧠 Example:

 Big companies pressure politicians not to talk about climate regulations.

 A university never considers student debt reform because donors disapprove.
🔴 3. Power as Thought Control (Ideological Power)

📘 Key Thinker: Steven Lukes (2004) – Power: A Radical View

➤ What it means:

 Power works by shaping what people think they want, often unconsciously.
 The most subtle form — people don’t even realise they’re being controlled.

🔧 Methods:

 Propaganda
 Education systems
 Advertising
 Religious or cultural norms
 Media framing

🧠 Example:

 An ad convinces people that a luxury car = success.

 A political party shapes national identity so people support harsh immigration laws.

🧩 Summary Table
Face of Power Key Feature Method Example
1. Decision-
Getting others to act Force, deals, loyalty Passing a law, striking a deal
making
2. Agenda- Controlling what is Lobbying, Blocking debate on consumer
setting discussed suppression rights
3. Thought Shaping perceptions Media, ideology, Making people want what
control and beliefs advertising benefits the powerful

📌 Why This Matters

Understanding the 3 faces of power helps reveal:

 Why some issues are never discussed

 How power can be invisible
 Why people may support ideas that go against their own interests

This concept is crucial for unpacking how media, politics, culture, and capitalism operate
in both democratic and authoritarian societies.

Politics as Power: A Summary

🔑 Core Idea

Politics = Power

The ability to get what you want, especially over scarce resources.

💡 Harold Lasswell’s famous question:

Politics = Who gets what, when, how?

⚔️Politics is about:

 Conflict and Diversity

 Scarcity of resources (needs > resources)
 Power struggles

Feminist Perspective
 Politics extends beyond government to all power relations
 Radical feminist slogan:
“The personal is the political”
 Kate Millett’s definition:
Politics = Power-structured relationships

One group controls another

Marxist Perspective
 Politics as state power:
o State = tool of class oppression
o Politics, law, culture = “superstructure” built on economic base
 Politics = reflection of economic class struggle
 Lenin’s phrase:
“Politics is the most concentrated form of economics”
 Economic inequalities = political power inequalities
 Civil society = arena of class conflict
⚠️Negative view:

 Politics = oppression & domination

 Feminists: Patriarchy subordinate’s women
 Marxists: Capitalism exploits workers

✊ Politics as emancipation:

 Marx: Proletarian revolution will overthrow exploitation

 Feminists: Sexual revolution to end gender oppression

🌈 Politics as struggle but also hope

 Power can dominate or liberate

 Politics is not fixed; it can be transformed

🧪 The Empirical Tradition in Politics

From Observation to Science: How Politics Became an Evidence-Based
Discipline

🔍 What is the Empirical Tradition?

Focuses on what is, not what should be
→ Based on observation, experience, and evidence

Normative Empirical
Prescriptive Descriptive
Asks what ought to be Describes what is
Values, ethics, ideology Facts, behaviour, systems

Historical Roots of Empirical Thought

Thinker Contribution
Aristotle Classified constitutions
Machiavelli Realistic view of power & statecraft
Montesquieu Sociological theory of law & government

These laid the foundation for Comparative Government and Institutional Analysis.
📘 Philosophical Foundations: Empiricism
“Knowledge comes from experience.”

Philosopher Idea
John Locke Knowledge must be tested through experience
David Hume Truth is derived from observation & senses

➡️Led to Positivism:

The belief that social sciences should use the same methods as the natural sciences.

Philosophical vs. Empirical Traditions

In this lesson, the different approaches to studying politics will be discussed. The first two
of these are the philosophical and empirical methods. These two methods are juxtaposed
against one another.

The philosophical method is an approach to what politics should be and the study of how
people assert their ideals. The empirical method is about what politics are actually about.
To put it differently, the philosophical method studies politics from a prescriptive
perspective, and the empirical method approaches it from a descriptive perspective
(Heywood, 2025).

The difference between these two perspectives is that the prescriptive perspective
details the nature of a phenomenon and its place in the world. Whereas the descriptive
perspective defines a phenomenon as its observable self at a certain time.

The type of political issues that would be studied under the philosophical method would
be issues that are normative (what are appropriate values and conduct). For example:
what is the most appropriate political system, or what should be the values of an ethical
politician, would be typical issues that are studied.

For the empirical method, the typical issues that are studied would be what are the
different types of political systems that exist, or how does the voting system of South
Africa differ from the voting system of the United Kingdom? The empirical method is thus
concerned with observing and experimenting with political phenomena in order to
acquire data and understanding of those phenomena.

🔬 Positivism Explained
 Championed by Auguste Comte (1798–1857)
 Demanded that philosophy and politics follow scientific methods
 Focused on objectivity, measurement, and testing
⚙️Behaviouralism: The Rise of Political Science
📈 Gained momentum in the mid-19th century

 Pushed for quantifiable, systematic, and measurable analysis of political behaviour

 Political science courses launched in Oxford, Paris, etc.

🌟 Quick Definitions
Term Meaning
Empirical Based on observation and experience
Positivism Belief that all knowledge must be derived from scientific methods
Behaviouralism Focuses on studying actual behaviour of political actors rather than ideas

🧠 Bonus: Key Thinker – Plato

Aspect Detail
Era 427–347 BCE
Legacy Father of political philosophy
Famous Work The Republic & The Laws
Beliefs Justice = rule by philosopher kings. Anti-democracy, pro-elite rule.
Influence Christianity, Western political thought, authoritarian traditions

FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT: RESEARCH ESSAY AND REFLECTIVE

JOURNAL

RESEARCH ESSAY

Question 1

🔍 Step-by-Step Guide to Approach the Question

1. Understand the Question

You're being asked to:

 Identify two political approaches that can analyse the topic.

 Apply each to the topic of the National Dialogue and trust-building in SA.
 Critically compare the two and argue which is better at analysing the issue.
 Use evidence from the article and political theory.

2. Understand the Issue: What is the Article About?

The main issue discussed in Swanepoel’s article is the need for rebuilding trust between
South Africans (citizens, institutions, and leadership) and how a National Dialogue could
serve as a platform for unity, truth, and renewal in the wake of political, economic, and social
fragmentation.

Key themes include:

 Declining public trust in government and institutions

 Polarization and division
 The role of civil society in healing and reconciliation
 Democratic accountability
 Nation-building

3. Choose Two Approaches to Studying Politics

Choose from the six main approaches:

Approach Focus Area

Institutional Structures (e.g. government, law)
Behavioural Individual/citizen behaviour
Post-positivist Power, discourse, ideology
Normative Ethics, justice, what “ought” to be
 Approach Focus Area
Feminist Gendered power and marginalization
Marxist/Classical Political Economy Economic and class analysis

Best Two for This Question:

1. Post-positivist approach – focuses on power relations, discourse, and hidden

ideologies, perfect for understanding trust, reconciliation, and political narratives.
2. Institutional approach – focuses on governmental structures and policies, relevant
for analysing the role of formal institutions in the National Dialogue.

4. Apply Each Approach to the Issue

A. Post-Positivist Approach

 What it studies: Power relations, political discourse, underlying ideologies, historical

injustices, identity.
 Application:
o It would analyse how power has been abused or misused, leading to distrust.
o Investigate the narratives used in public discourse (e.g., how “national
dialogue” is framed).
o Explore the legacies of apartheid, corruption, and exclusion, which have
fractured trust.
 Evidence: Swanepoel mentions the “abuse of power, corruption, and poor leadership”
as root causes of distrust — a core concern for this approach.

B. Institutional Approach

 What it studies: Structures of government, institutions, constitutions, formal policies.

 Application:
o It would focus on how the National Dialogue is organized, who leads it
(government, NGOs, civil society), and the legal/institutional frameworks
for implementation.
 o Would assess whether public institutions like Parliament or Chapter 9 bodies
are credible or part of the trust problem.
 Evidence: The article discusses restoring institutional trust and holding leaders
accountable through institutional means — this suits the institutional approach.

5. Compare the Two Approaches: Which is Better?

❗Your Argument:

The post-positivist approach is more appropriate because trust is not just lost due to poor
structures, but due to deep-seated historical injustices, emotional and psychological
wounds, and disempowerment. It focuses on the real roots of distrust, not just how the
state is structured.

Support:

 Trust is an intangible, emotional issue that involves identity, justice, and belonging
— best understood through discourse, lived experiences, and ideological critique.
 Structural reform means little if citizens do not feel heard or valued.
 Swanepoel emphasizes reconciliation and inclusion, not just state reform.

✅ Final Structure of Your Essay

1. Introduction
o Define the issue (decline of trust in SA; National Dialogue)
o Mention the two approaches and what you aim to do
2. Explain the Issue
o Summarize the main points from the article
3. Apply Post-Positivist Approach
o What it studies
o How it explains the trust issue
o Evidence from the article
 4. Apply Institutional Approach
o What it studies
o How it analyzes the problem
o Evidence from the article
5. Comparison & Argument
o Argue which is more effective and why
o Support with logic and article evidence
6. Conclusion
o Reiterate your position and final insights

Question 2

🧠 How to Approach the Ideology-Based Question

1. Understand the Article First

Title: "After the Bell: Why we abandon BEE at our peril"

Author: Stephen Grootes
Main idea: Grootes defends Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (B-BBEE),
warning that abandoning it would be dangerous because:

 Economic inequality from apartheid persists.

 There’s rising frustration over unfulfilled promises of transformation.
 BEE is flawed but remains necessary for economic justice and stability.

2. Choose a Relevant Ideology

Pick an ideology covered in your course that gives a strong viewpoint on economic justice,
inequality, and systemic transformation. The best ideologies to choose from are:
 Ideology Reason it fits
Marxism Focuses on class inequality, economic exploitation, and redistributive justice
Liberalism Focuses on equal opportunity, individual rights, and limited state interference
Socialism Supports state intervention for social justice and wealth redistribution
Conservatism Emphasizes gradual change, tradition, and limited reform

Recommended Choice: Marxism or Socialism, because they directly address structural

inequality, economic power, and the legacies of apartheid capitalism, which BEE attempts
to correct.

3. Structure Your Answer

Here’s how to tackle each part of the question step by step:

🟩 A. Identify the Primary Problem

What is the primary problem in the article, and why is it a problem?

 Problem: Persistent economic inequality between Black and White South Africans;
pressure to abandon BEE before meaningful transformation is complete.
 Why it’s a problem:
o Racialised wealth still dominates.
o Abandoning BEE could reverse progress and fuel social unrest.
o Black youth are disillusioned due to lack of access to economic opportunity.

🧾 Evidence from the article: Grootes argues that the frustration from a lack of real
empowerment will “explode” if the system fails to produce justice.

🟥 B. Present the Ideological Perspective

If you choose Marxism:

“From a Marxist perspective, the problem is rooted in economic class exploitation
entrenched by apartheid capitalism. BEE, although flawed, is an attempt to redistribute
economic power. Its abandonment would protect the interests of the capitalist elite and
maintain the status quo.”

🟦 C. State the Ideal Resolution from that Ideology

What would be the best solution to this problem according to Marxism?

 Ideal resolution: A complete economic restructuring that transfers ownership of

industries and wealth to the working class, especially the historically oppressed.
 BEE alone is not enough—Marxism would argue for more radical redistribution
(land reform, nationalization, wealth tax, etc.)

🟨 D. Explain How the Solution Would Be Achieved

How can the ideal solution be achieved, from a Marxist view?

 Through state intervention and class-conscious policy reform, such as:

o Nationalizing monopolies (e.g., mining, banking)
o Collective ownership and worker cooperatives
o Stronger labour rights and union power
o Policies that disrupt racialised capital accumulation

🧾 Support with theory:

 Reference Karl Marx: “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of
class struggles.”
 Use SA examples: The mining sector, where most Black workers remain in low-
income positions despite 30 years of democracy.
🟫 E. Conclude with Evaluation

 Acknowledge that BEE is imperfect, but from a Marxist lens, abandoning it is a

bourgeois move that protects elite interests.
 The struggle for equality must go beyond symbolic inclusion, and address who
owns the means of production.

✅ Final Essay Structure

1. Introduction
o Introduce the article
o State your chosen ideology (e.g. Marxism)
o Preview your argument
2. What the problem is
o Explain the economic inequality and pressure to abandon BEE
3. Ideology’s view of the problem
o Marxist interpretation: economic power imbalance, elite dominance
4. Ideal solution
o Radical transformation, redistribution, worker empowerment
5. How to achieve the solution
o State-led economic reforms, nationalization, union organizing
6. Conclusion
o Why this ideology gives the best insight
o Reinforce need for transformation, not abandonment

REFLECTIVE JOURNAL

Question 1

✅ STRUCTURE & STRATEGY TO ANSWER THE

QUESTION
🔹 1. Choose a Chapter That Speaks to You

Pick a chapter from the module that:

 You understand well

 Has theories or arguments that resonated with you (positively or negatively)
 Has clear relevance to South African politics (important for the last part)

Good examples: chapters on political ideologies, democracy, political power, media and
politics, or governance.

🔹 2. Use This Clear Structure in Your Journal Entry

🟦 A. Overview of the Chapter (Understanding the Content)

🎯 Objective: Show that you understand the chapter.

 Start with what the chapter is about overall.

 Mention the key topics, concepts, or theories introduced.
 Use your own words—this is not a textbook summary, but your understanding.
 Keep it concise but specific (approx. 1 paragraph).

Example Start:

This chapter focuses on the concept of political power and how it functions in different
political systems. It explores both formal and informal sources of power, including legal
authority, coercion, ideology, and influence...

🟩 B. Highlights of the Chapter (Most Intriguing Argument or Theory)

🎯 Objective: Show critical thinking and engagement.

  Identify the argument or theory you found most interesting.
 Explain why it stood out to you — Did it challenge your thinking? Did it relate to
real-world politics? Was it new to you?
 Critically analyse it—don’t just say "it was interesting," but why it’s important and
what it reveals about politics or society.
 Reference examples (from the text or real life).

Example Start:

One highlight in this chapter was the theory of ideological hegemony as proposed by Antonio
Gramsci. This idea intrigued me because it explains how power is maintained not just
through force, but through consent and cultural dominance...

🟥 C. Critique of the Chapter (What You Disagree With)

🎯 Objective: Show independent thinking and your ability to question.

 Point out a theory, argument, or assumption you disagree with or found problematic.
 Explain why—does it ignore context? Is it outdated? Biased?
 Be respectful but critical—back your disagreement with logic or evidence.
 This shows you’re not just absorbing content but engaging with it critically.

Example Start:

However, I found the argument that liberal democracy always leads to better governance
somewhat idealistic. In the South African context, democratic structures exist, but corruption,
inequality, and elite capture still undermine governance...

🟨 D. Application to South African Politics (Personal Reflection)

🎯 Objective: Show relevance and apply theory to your own society.

  Ask yourself: What can I take from this chapter and apply to understanding South
African politics?
 Reference current issues like:
o Service delivery
o Corruption and governance
o Youth disillusionment
o Racial inequality
o Role of media, protest, or public discourse
 Be specific and reflective. Think about how this knowledge could help us
understand or improve SA politics.

Example Start:

What I’ve learned in this chapter can be applied to the current challenges of accountability in
South Africa. The discussion on informal power shows how political elites often operate
outside formal institutions, which reflects how political deals happen behind closed doors
despite public oversight...

✍️Writing Style Tips

 Use first person ("I found...", "I believe...") — this is reflective writing.
 Maintain academic tone — clear, reasoned, and thoughtful.
 Keep each section around 1–2 paragraphs (unless otherwise specified).
 Reference specific theories or scholars where relevant.
 Use current examples to make your argument relatable and relevant.

🧠 What is Rational Choice Theory?

Rational Choice Theory is based on economics and assumes that:

📌 People make decisions by calculating what they will gain or lose — and then choose the
option that benefits themselves the most.
This is called self-interested behaviour. Whether it's a voter, a politician, or a government,
RCT says everyone behaves in ways that maximize their own benefit and minimize their
losses.

⚖️How it works: The Cost-Benefit Analysis

Think of it like this:

 "If I vote for this party, will I get better services or lower taxes?"
 "If I support BEE, will it help me politically or economically?"
 "If I oppose it, will I lose votes or funding?"

Each decision is a kind of calculation, like:

Benefits – Costs = Net Gain

🎮 Game Theory in Rational Choice

RCT often uses game theory — a way to model how people make decisions when others are
also making decisions. Some examples:

1. Prisoner’s Dilemma:

 Two people can either cooperate or betray each other.

 If both betray, both lose.
 If both cooperate, both benefit.
 But the fear of betrayal leads both to act selfishly, and both end up worse off.

💡 It shows how self-interest can backfire when people don’t trust each other.

2. Zero-Sum Game:

 If I win, you lose. One person’s gain is another’s loss.

 Example: Competing for limited government contracts.

3. Positive-Sum Game:

 Everyone wins if they cooperate.

 Example: Policies that benefit multiple groups, like inclusive economic growth.

🧩 Rational Choice in Politics

Rational Choice Theory is used to explain things like:

Situation Rational Choice Explanation

A politician supports a
Because it will win them votes or favour
policy
A government drops a Because the costs outweigh the benefits (e.g., public backlash,
policy budget issues)
A party forms an alliance Because working together offers more benefits than going alone

📌 Assumption of Rationality
RCT assumes that all actors are rational — that they:

 Have clear goals

 Can weigh up costs and benefits
 Make choices that maximize their personal gain

⚠️But critics say this doesn’t always match real life — emotions, ethics, pressure, and
mistakes also shape decisions.

🟨 In Summary:
Concept Meaning
Rational choice People act in their own self-interest
Cost-benefit analysis Weighing up what you gain vs what you lose
Game theory Models how decisions affect and are affected by others
Zero-sum game One gains, one loses
Positive-sum game All can benefit if they cooperate

What is New Institutionalism?

New Institutionalism is a way of studying politics by looking at how rules, norms, and
structures within institutions influence people’s behaviour.

📌 It focuses less on what an institution does (like in old institutionalism), and more on how
the institution’s internal rules, values, and traditions shape behaviour.

🔁 Key Difference from Old Institutionalism:

Old Institutionalism New Institutionalism

Focuses on formal structures (e.g., who
Focuses on rules, norms, and traditions
reports to whom)
 Old Institutionalism New Institutionalism
Describes how institutions work (procedures, Explores why people act a certain way
authority lines) within institutions
More about procedures More about influence of culture and norms

🔐 Key Concepts in New Institutionalism

🧩 1. Formal Rules

 These are written rules – like laws, policies, constitutions, codes of conduct.
 Example: Parliament must follow certain procedures to pass a law.

🧠 2. Informal Norms

 These are unwritten traditions or cultural expectations.

 Example: MPs may be expected to toe the party line even if the rules don’t say so.

3. Institutional Culture

 Institutions develop their own values, attitudes, routines.

 These shape how individuals behave, even if the law says otherwise.

💬 For example: If the norm in a department is to delay projects until a minister gives a bribe,
that becomes the real way things work.

🧠 How Does It Work?

New Institutionalism asks:

❓Why do individuals or organisations act the way they do?

And the answer is often:

👉 Because the rules, norms, and values of the institution they’re in shape and limit their
behaviour.

People may not just act based on personal beliefs or logic (like in Rational Choice Theory),
but rather because of institutional expectations.

🔍 Real-Life Examples
 Institution Formal Rules Informal Norms
Government department Laws and policies Corruption is tolerated or expected
Political party Constitution and manifesto Loyalty to leader > public interest
University Code of conduct Unwritten bias toward senior staff

🧠 Summary Table
Concept Simple Explanation
New Institutionalism Study of how rules and norms inside institutions shape behaviour
Formal rules Written laws, policies, procedures
Informal norms Traditions, habits, cultural practices
Institutional behaviour Actions driven by what’s considered "normal" in the institution
Institutional culture The personality or values of the institution

🔍 What Are Critical Approaches?

Critical approaches are ways of studying politics that challenge the status quo and speak
on behalf of the marginalised. They don’t accept that the world is neutral or objective –
instead, they believe that power, bias, and inequality shape everything.

They include:

 Marxism
 Feminism
 Critical Theory
 Green Politics
 Constructivism
 Post-structuralism
 Post-colonialism
(📚 Heywood, 2025)

💡 Two Main Features of Critical Approaches:

1. Challenge the Existing Order

 They criticise power structures, governments, patriarchy, capitalism, colonial

legacies, environmental destruction, etc.
 They advocate for those who are marginalised.
o Feminism → women
o Green politics → the environment
o Post-colonialism → formerly colonised societies
o Marxism → the working class

2. Post-Positivist (No “Objective Truth”)

  They reject the idea that there is one unbiased, scientific truth about society.
 They argue that everything is shaped by human ideas, culture, and context —
including the way we study politics.
 Therefore, even traditional theories are seen as biased (often favouring powerful
elites).

🧠 Example: A feminist would argue that traditional political theories ignore or devalue
women’s voices, not because it’s “objective,” but because they were created in a male-
dominated society.

🔬 How Is This Different from Other Approaches?

Traditional Approach Critical Approach
Focus on facts, laws, institutions Focus on power, inequality, and ideas
Believes in objective truth Believes all truth is socially constructed
Studies the system Questions the system
Tries to explain Tries to challenge and change

🧠 Why Use Critical Approaches?

 They help uncover hidden assumptions, biases, and power imbalances in traditional
theories.
 They highlight voices and issues that are ignored or silenced.
 They show how politics is not neutral but often benefits certain groups over others.

🔎 Example: Post-colonialism examines how colonialism still shapes global politics today,
even long after independence.

⚖️BUT: Critical approaches have their own biases

Since they reject objectivity, they’re also built on assumptions and can be subjective. They
may:

 Over-emphasise conflict
 Be seen as ideological or activist rather than neutral
 Be criticised for lacking clear solutions or practical application

🧾 Summary Table
 Concept Explanation
Critical approaches Theories that challenge power and speak for the marginalised
Examples Feminism, Marxism, Green politics, Post-colonialism
Focus Inequality, power structures, marginalised voices
Post-positivist No objective truth – everything is shaped by culture, bias, and power
Strength Uncovers hidden injustices and gives voice to the excluded
Weakness Also based on assumptions and may lack neutrality

Let me know if you’d like help choosing which theory to apply to a case study, or want to
compare critical theory to something like Rational Choice or New Institutionalism.

You said:

Critical Approaches 5.1. Characteristics of Marx’s Political Philosophy Politics from a

Marxist perspective offers a distinct analysis rooted in the theories of Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels. It emphasizes the role of economic structures, class struggle, and the
dynamics of capitalism in shaping political systems and policies Marxists believe that society
is fundamentally divided into classes based on their relationship to the means of production.
The primary classes under capitalism are the capitalist class and the working class Politics
from a Marxist perspective provides a framework for understanding the interconnectedness of
economic structures, class relations, and political power. It critiques the capitalist system as
inherently exploitative and seeks to envision and achieve a society based on equality and
communal ownership
ChatGPT said:

Here's a clear and concise explanation of Critical Approaches through the lens of Marx’s
Political Philosophy, using your notes:

🟥 Critical Approaches: Marxism

📌 5.1 Characteristics of Marx’s Political Philosophy

Marxism is one of the foundational critical approaches in political theory. Developed by

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, it challenges the capitalist status quo and focuses on
economic power, class conflict, and the inequality built into political and economic
systems.

🔑 Core Ideas of Marxist Political Thought

1. Class Struggle is Central

 Society is divided into two main classes under capitalism:

 o Capitalist class (bourgeoisie): owns the means of production (factories, land,
resources).
o Working class (proletariat): sells their labour to survive.
 Politics is not neutral – it reflects the interests of the ruling (capitalist) class.

2. The Economy Shapes Politics

 Political institutions, laws, and ideologies are built on economic foundations.

 According to Marxists, what looks like "fair" political decision-making is actually
shaped by capitalist interests.

3. Capitalism is Exploitative

 Workers produce wealth, but that wealth is taken by capitalists (profit).

 This exploitation creates inequality and injustice, which Marxists argue is structural
– built into the system.

4. Revolution is Necessary

 Marxists believe gradual reform isn't enough.

 A revolution is needed to overthrow capitalism and replace it with a system based on:
o Equality
o Collective ownership of resources
o Classless society

🧠 Why Marxism is a Critical Approach

Feature Explanation
Critiques the system Marxism sees capitalism as a system of oppression and inequality.
Focuses on the It supports the working class, who are exploited by the capitalist
marginalised class.
Marxism argues that political ideas and systems are not neutral – they
Post-positivist
are shaped by material interests and ideology.

📚 Summary

Concept Description
A critical political theory focusing on class struggle, capitalism, and economic
Marxism
power
Key concern How the capitalist system creates and maintains inequality
Goal To create a classless, equal society based on communal ownership
Method Revolution and structural change, not reform
Let me know if you'd like a short comparison between Marxism and other critical theories
like feminism or post-colonialism – or how to apply Marxism to a political case study.

You said:

Critical Approaches 5.2. Post-structuralism - Additional reading Post-structuralism in politics

offers a critical framework that challenges traditional notions of power, identity, and social
order. It emphasises the fluid, contingent, and constructed nature of political phenomena,
opening up new ways of thinking about resistance, agency, and change. While its complexity
and perceived relativism present challenges, post-structuralism continues to provide valuable
insights for understanding and critiquing contemporary political issues (Larrson 2020).
ChatGPT said:

Here's a clear and structured summary of Post-Structuralism as part of Critical

Approaches in political theory:

🟪 Critical Approaches
5.2 Post-Structuralism – Additional Reading Summary

📌 What is Post-Structuralism in Politics?

Post-structuralism is a critical theoretical framework that questions and deconstructs

traditional assumptions about:

 Power
 Identity
 Knowledge
 Social order

It argues that political reality is not fixed, but rather shaped by language, discourse, and
social practices — all of which are fluid and constructed.

🔑 Key Features of Post-Structuralism

Concept Explanation
Unlike traditional views where power is held by a few, post-structuralists
Power is
(especially Michel Foucault) argue that power is diffuse and exists in
everywhere
everyday interactions, institutions, and language.
Identity is not There is no single, stable identity. Identities (e.g. gender, race, nationality)
fixed are shaped by social norms and can shift over time.
Truth is What we call “truth” is actually a product of dominant discourses — it's
 Concept Explanation
constructed constructed, not discovered.
Language The words and narratives we use create political meaning, rather than
shapes reality simply describing it.
Resistance is Since power works through discourse, people can resist by challenging
possible dominant narratives and meanings.

🧠 Why Post-Structuralism is a Critical Approach

Feature Explanation
Critiques the status
Challenges the idea of stable, objective truths in politics.
quo
Supports the Opens space to explore voices and perspectives excluded by
marginalised dominant ideologies.
Rejects the notion of an objective political reality; everything is
Post-positivist
shaped by interpretation and context.

⚠️Challenges of Post-Structuralism

 Complexity: The language and concepts can be dense and abstract.

 Relativism: Critics argue that if everything is relative, it becomes hard to make strong
moral or political claims (e.g. about justice or rights).

📚 Summary

Concept Description
Post- A critical theory that examines how language and discourse construct
Structuralism political reality
View of power Everywhere, not just at the top
View of identity Fluid and socially constructed
On challenging dominant narratives and uncovering hidden power
Focus
relations
Value Offers new ways of thinking about resistance, agency, and change