Trends:

1. First outer valence

electron -> easy to
remove
2. 8 electrons
progressively require
more energy to remove
3. Last 2 electrons,
close to nucleus, more
energy to remove

Ionisation Energy

Atomic structure

Relative charge & mass

Prinicipal Quantum Shells, Sub-shells and Orbitals

Electron (-)
Sub - shells
Angle of deflection = Principal Quantum Shell (n) 1. Organised in s,p,d,f
Neutron (neutral)

Proton (+)
2. subshells within same
Note: Value of k same for ∠a > ∠b quantum shell have
all ions in electric field 1. Prinicipal quantum number n = 1,2,3 -> order of distance different energy levels eg
Start drawing the deflection only when beam has entered the
Electrons electric field from nucleus 4s < 4p < 4d < 4f
deflected by larger 1. X > Y 2. n -> determine energy level of electrons
extent -> charge of 2. not include mass of negligible electron 3. n increase -> attraction between electron and nucleus
same magnitude, decrease, higher energy of electron
mass lower than 4. principal quantum shell divided into s, p, d and f
protons subshells
5. max number electron in quantum shell -> 2n^2 eg n = 3,
max # electron = 2* 3^2 = 18
Charge of ion of n

Neutron #
Electronic Configurations

Energy of Principal Quantum Shells, Sub-shells and Orbitals

Electron shells of periodic elements Writing Electronic Configurations
Types of Notation Rules for Electronic Configuration
Valence Electrons 'Electrons-in-box' Diagram Atomic Orbitals
Full electronic configuration Rule 1: The Aufbau Principle (Building -Up Principle)
1. s subshell -> Group 1 & 2 Noble Gas Core Configuration
1. Each box -> represent orbital 1. Region of space -> 95% probability of finding
1. Use Aufbau Principle Rule 2: Pauli Exclusion Principle electron there
2. p subshell -> Group 13 &18 1. first few electron shells -> sub noble gas notation eg [Ne]
2. sum of superscript = total # of electrons
2. Boxes -> drawn in order of principal 1. Electrons -> placed in orbital of lowest energy
2. orbitals in same sub-shell -> equivialent in
2. Followed by remaining electron configuration quantum number first, followed by orbital of higher energy and so on 1. Each orbital -> hold max 2 electrons
3. d subshell -> transition elements 3. qn ask full electron configuration -> cant use noble gas eg 16S : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
3. Electrons -> represent by half arrows 2. Paired electrons in orbital-> opposite spin
energy, differ in orientation in space eg 2px and
Characteristics of Orbitals
core configuration total # electron = 2+2+6+2+4 = 16 2py
4. f subshell -> lanthanides & actinides 4. Fill orbitals singly before pairing 3. 2 electrons in orbital -> paired electrons
4. 1 electron in orbital -> unpaired electron
3. each orbital -> max 2e- each, opposite spin
5. Label subshell

P Orbitals D orbitals
S Orbitals 1. d sub-shell -> 5 orbitals with same
1. S Orbitals -> spherical in shape 1. p Orbitals -> dumbbell shaped, energy level (degenerate)
1. Further the principal shell, subshell and orbital from 2. N, prinicpal quantum shell # orbital has 2 lobes of equal size 2. dxy, dxz, dyz orbitals -> 2 dumb-bell
nucleus -> higher energy of electrons increases, orbital size increase eg 2. p orbitals -> px, py, pz same size shapes pointing between two axes eg
2. For same value of n, energy increase in order, s < p < 3s > 2s >1s and shape, different orientation in dxy orbital -> two dumb bell shapes in
Electronic Configuration of Ions d<f 3. distance from nucleus 3s > 2s >
space ( along x, y and z axis) plane between x and y
3. For same subshell with same principal quantum 1s
3. n increase, orbital size increase 3. d x^2 - y^2 orbital -> 2 dumb bell
1. Anions -> +ve charge ion -> electrons gained number n, same energy eg 2px, 2py and 2pz same
eg 3p > 2p
2. Cations -> -ve charged ion -> electrons lost Rule 3 : Hund's Rule energy shapes along x and y axis
3. Anions 4. Same principal quantum shell n, different subshell, 4. dz^2 orbital -> 1 dumbbell shape
Co: [Ar] 4s2 3d7 1. Electrons added to same subshell -> along z axis, doughnut around middle
Step 1: electronic config of atom eg O: 1s2 2s2 2p4 different energy eg 3d > 3p > 3s
occupy degenerate(same energy) orbitals 5. Exceptions :
Step 2: charge of ion -> # of electrons -> add to next orbital
eg O-2 charge (-2) -> add 2e to [O]:1s2 2s2 2p4 -> [O-2] 1s2 2s2 2p6
singly and with the same spin before pairing
Note: 2. minimise inter-electronic pairing
4. Cations
Step 1: electronic config of atom eg Mg: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
1. energy level of 4s < 3p, electron fill
Step 2: charge of ion -> # electrons -> remove from outermost shell 3s -> 3p -> 4s -> 3d -> 4p
eg Mg+4 charge (+4) -> remove 2e from 3s2 then 2e from 2p6 -> 2. After 4s and 3d orbitals fully filled ->
1s2 2s2 2p4 energy of 4s > 3d orbital, 3s -> 3p -> 3d
-> 4s
3 Exceptions: Aufbau Prinicple -> does Note: When drawing orbitals, x, y and z axis need to
not apply to Cr and Cu element be show

Ionisation Energy
1. Electrons placed in orbital of lowest energy level, then orbital of next energy 1. Ionisation energy -> energy required to remove 1 mole of
level and so on outermost electrons from one mole of gaseous M atoms to form
2. 1 orbital -> accomodate maximum 2 electrons, must have opposite spins one mole of gaseous M+ ions Trends in Ionisation Energy
3. electrons added to same subshell, electrons occupy degenerate(same energy) 2. M(g) -> M+(g) + e-
orbitals singly and with same spin before pairing occurs 3. Endothermic -> positive enthalpy change, +kJ/mol 1. Period -> horizontal row of elements
2. First I.E of element -> generally increase across
period
Factors affecting Ionisation energy 3. Anomaly #1: First I.E of Grp 13 < First I.E Grp 2
Charge of cation
Inter- electronic repulsion between electrons in same orbital 4. Anomaly #2: First I.E Grp 16 < First I.E l Grp 15
1. As cation charge increase -> more E to remove electron Effective Nuclear Charge Distance of outer electrons from nucleus
2. cation charge increase -> less electrons for same 1. I.E of electron in paired orbital < I.E of electron in unpaired orbital 1. Effective nuclear charge -> NET electrostatic forces of attraction on 1. Increase distance of electron from nucleus -> nuclear attraction
number of protons 2. Electrons in paired orbital -> experience inter-electronic repulsion electrons by nucleus decrease, less energy to remove electron
3. Increase in nuclear attraction -> more E to remove 3. Electrons in unpaired orbital -> less inter-electronic repulsion 2. Effective NC = Nuclear charge - shielding effect 2. Factor only applies when electron removed from same principal
3. Higher Effective NC -> net electrostatic attraction between nucleus and quantum shell, different subshell
4 Eg increasing ionisation energy of aluminium 4. -> less energy to remove paired electron
3. eg ionisation energy e in 2p < ionisation energy in 2s -> average dist
electron increase -> higher IE
from nucleus of 2p > 2s

1. Nuclear attraction -> attractive force by nucleus Shielding Effect

on outermost electrons
2. depends on -> number of protons in nucleus 1. Shielding effect -> repulsive force btw inner electrons
3. # protons increase, nuclear charge increase 2. electrons in inner shells -> shield outermost electrons
positively, attractive force from nucleus on electron from nuclear attraction from nucleus
increase 3. # inner electron shells increase -> shielding effect
increase, nuclear attraction decrease -> ionisation energy
decrease
4. electrons within same shell -> negligible shielding effect

Across a Period (Li to Ne & Ne to Ar)

Anomaly 2: First I.E Group 16 lower than Group 15 element

Anomaly 1. First I.E of Grp 13 element < First I.E of Grp 2 element
Anomaly 2:

1. First I.E of oxygen( 1310kJ/mol) lower than nitrogen(1400kJ/mol) though oxygen have higher effective
nuclear charge than nitrogen
2. Observation 1: First Ionisation Energy increase across Period
1. Eg: First I.E of boron (+799kJ/mol) < first I.E of beryllium
Across a Period: (900kJ/mol), despite boron having higher effective nuclear charge
1. Nuclear charge of elements increase -> # proton increase 2. Reason: Valence electron of boron -> 2p subshell, valence
2. Shielding effect -> remains constant ->element same # electron electron beryllium -> 2s subshell
3. As average distance from nucleus of 2p orbital is larger than 2s
shells
orbital, I.E of 2p is lower
3. Effective nuclear charge increase -> NC increase -> Shielding Effect
const
4. more E to remove valence electron