Fluid Mechanics

Module 5
Bachelor’s Degree Course
BAE303 / BAS303

Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj

kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link]
 Syllabus

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 Compressible Flows Gas Dynamics
❑ In high speed flows, the pressure changes are quite large and hence there will be
change in density of the fluid flowing, which is considered as compressible flows.
❑ As a convention, we consider flows with Mach number > 0.3 as compressible
flows
Even in the compressible flows, the following laws of conservation
must be valid:
1. Conservation of mass - > 𝜌AV = constant
2. Conservation of energy
3. Conservation of momentum
Definition:
−𝑑𝑝 −𝑑𝑝 Where 𝑒𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝟑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛.
Bulk Modulus, K = 𝑑𝑉ൗ = 𝒎
𝑉 𝑒𝑣 𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 ,
𝒌𝒈

K=
−𝑑𝑝
=
+𝑑𝑝 Because, 𝑑𝑉Τ𝑉 = −𝑑𝜌ൗ𝜌 ,
𝑑𝑉ൗ 𝑑𝜌
𝑉 ൗ𝜌 as the volume reduces density increases.
𝜌𝑑𝑝
K= 1
𝑑𝜌 , is called compressibility factor
𝐾
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 Compressible Flows
Isentropic Flows:
• In fluid dynamics, an isentropic flow is a fluid flow that is both adiabatic and reversible.
• Constant entropy is called Isentropic.

Adiabatic Process – No Heat transfer

Cp Specific Heat capacity at constant pressure:

The amount of heat that must be added to one kg of mass of the substance in order to
cause an increase of one degree in temperature at constant pressure.
Cv Specific Heat capacity at constant volume:
The amount of heat that must be added to one kg of mass of the substance in order to
cause an increase of one degree in temperature at constant volume.

𝑪𝒑
Ratio of specific heats,  = 𝑪 𝑪𝒑 = 𝑪𝒗 + R  = 1.4 for air at low speeds
𝒗

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 Equation of State
The equation of state gives the relation between pressure temperature, and specific
volume of a gas.

1
P𝑉 Charles's law and Boyle’s law
𝒎𝟑 1
VT Here, 𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒌𝒈
= 𝜌

PV = RT Here, for P -> It is the absolute pressure

1 R is the gas constant

P 𝜌 = RT R = 287 J/kg·K.

P = 𝜌RT This is the equation of state

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 Enthalpy and Entropy
Entropy:
Entropy is the measure of the disorder, randomness, or uncertainty of a system. It is
the measure of a system's thermal energy per unit temperature that is unavailable for
doing useful work. SI Unit joules per kelvin (J⋅K−1)

Every action that happen in this universe has positive entropy change. That is,
entropy keeps increasing.
For practical purposes, few cases we assume entropy change as zero, or as an
isentropic process. (Iso + Entropy)

Enthalpy: (Joules or in SI Units -> kg⋅m2⋅s−2 )

The enthalpy h, of a thermodynamic system is defined as the sum of its internal
energy and the product of its pressure and volume

h = e + pv It is given by, h = 𝐶𝑝T

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 Speed of Sound
Let the sound wave be traveling in one direction as shown below. Let the observer also travel
along with the sound wave. The sound travels at M=1.0; velocity and density changes across
the wave are shown below. The changes in the flow properties are considered very small.

𝜌, V 𝜌 +d𝜌, V+dV

Sound Wave
Across the sound wave, we apply the mass conservation.
𝜌AV = constant 𝜌1A1V1 = 𝜌2A2V2

∵ A1 = A 2 𝜌V = 𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝑉 + d𝑉

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 Speed of Sound
𝜌V = 𝜌 + 𝑑𝜌 𝑉 + d𝑉
𝜌V = 𝜌𝑉 + V𝑑𝜌 + 𝜌d𝑉 + 𝑑𝜌d𝑉

The changes in density and velocity are very small, hence product of them
is also very small and considered as zero.  𝑑𝜌d𝑉 = 0

Vdρ + 𝜌d𝑉 = 0 Datum changes are absent, then

the Euler eqn becomes as ∶
−𝜌d𝑉
V= 1 𝑑𝑝
dρ + 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0

−𝑑𝑝 −𝑑𝑝
Recall Euler ′ s equation: 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑉 = 2
 𝑉
𝑑𝑝 Using it in eqn 1,
+ gdz + 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0
 −𝜌 −𝑑𝑝
V= . 𝑑𝑝
dρ 𝑉 V2 = 3
dρ
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 Speed of Sound
On a physical basis, effects of heat transfer and friction are negligible and
2
𝑑𝑝 following the suggestion of Laplace, the changes across the wave are
V =
dρ considered Isentropic.
The speed in this case, it is the speed of Sound denoted by ‘c’

𝑑𝑝
c=
dρ 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐
For Isentropic process,
𝑝 𝑝
= Constant Take log 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠, log 𝜌𝛾 = logA log𝑝 − 𝛾 log𝜌= logA
𝜌𝛾 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛

Taking differentials:
𝑑𝑝 𝑑ρ 𝑑𝑝 𝑑ρ 𝑑𝑝 𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝜌RT
−𝛾 =𝟎 =𝛾 =𝛾 =𝛾 = 𝛾RT
𝑝 ρ 𝑝 ρ 𝑑ρ ρ 𝑑ρ ρ

Substituting it, the speed of sound is given by, c= 𝛾RT

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 Speed of Sound
Expressions for speed of sound:
Recall,
𝑑𝑝
Bulk Modulus, 𝐾 = 𝜌𝑑𝑝 c=
𝑑𝜌 dρ 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐
𝐾 𝑑𝑝 𝐾
= c=
𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝜌 c= 𝛾RT

This is the speed of sound as a function of bulk

modulus and density 𝐾
c=
𝜌
Recall, P = 𝜌RT and c = 𝛾RT

𝑃 𝑃 𝛾𝑃 𝛾𝑃
Rearranging, =𝑇 c= 𝛾R c= c=
𝜌R 𝜌R 𝜌 𝜌

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 Problems
1. Calculate the Mach number at a point on a jet propelled aircraft, which is flying at
1100 km/hour at sea-level where air temperature is 20 C. Take 𝛾 =1.4 and R=287 J/Kg K
Ans: M=0.89

2. Find the sonic velocity for the following fluids:

1. Crude oil of specific gravity 0.8 and bulk modulus of 153036 N/cm2
2. Mercury having a bulk modulus of 2648700N/cm2
Hint: Density = Sp gr X 1000
Ans: C=1383, C=1395.55 m/s

3. Find the speed of sound wave in air at sea-level where the pressure and temperature
are 10.1043 N/cm2 (abs) and 15 C respectively.
Take R=287J/kgK and 𝛾 =1.4
Ans: C=340.17 m/s

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 Propagation of Pressure Waves
(Disturbances)-Mach Cone
1. Stationary sound source 2. Moving sound source, M<1

• At the first second, the sound is heard • At the first second, the sound is heard inside
inside the circle of radius ‘c’. the circle of radius ‘c’, and it shifts forward at
• Anyone ahead and behind the source can the speed u, along with the source
hear it depending on which circle they are • Some of them ahead and several at the rear
inside. can hear the sound.
• The circle doubles its radius every second • The circle doubles its radius every second,
and the speed is subsonic
Note: Both Moving sound source and sound source encountering a head wind, both are same.
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 Propagation of Pressure Waves
(Disturbances)-Mach Cone
3. Moving sound source, M=1

•At the first second, the sound is heard inside

the circle of radius ‘c’, and it shifts forward at
the speed c, along with the source
•Only the source and anyone behind the
source can hear the sound
•The circle doubles its radius every second,
and the speed is sonic
•The sound cannot get ahead of the source
and it travels along.

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 Propagation of Pressure Waves
(Disturbances)-Mach Cone
4. Moving sound source, M>1

•Super sonic speed, the source of the sound

Zone of Silence itselves cannot hear the sound when it is made.
•None that are ahead or with the source can hear
the sound when it is made.
•The region outside the cone cannot hear the
sound, and it is called zone of silence.
•The source can be seen, as light travels faster
than the sound
Zone of Action •The sound cannot get ahead
of the source and it travels at
Mach Angle its rear.
 c
𝑐 1
V Sin  = 𝑉 = 𝑀  = sin−1
1
𝑀

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 Equations
Density,  is NOT a constant
Continuity Equation Euler’s Equation
𝒅𝒑
 * A * V = Constant 
+ gdz + 𝑽𝒅𝑽 = 𝟎

𝑪𝒑
For Isothermal process Ratio of specific heats,  = 𝑪
𝒗

𝑝 𝑪𝒑 = 𝑪𝒗 + R Divide by Cv
= Constant
𝜌
𝑪𝒑 𝑹 𝑹 𝑹
= 𝟏+ 𝑪  −𝟏=𝑪 𝑪𝒗 =
For Adiabatic process 𝑪𝒗 𝒗 𝒗 ( −𝟏)
𝑝
𝜌𝛾
= Constant 𝑹 𝑹+𝑹( −𝟏)
𝑪𝒑 = 𝑪𝒗 + R 𝑪𝒑 =  −𝟏 + R =  −𝟏

𝑹(1+  − 𝟏) 𝑹 𝑹
= = 𝑪𝒑 =
 −𝟏  −𝟏 ( − 𝟏)

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 Stagnation Properties
Definition:
Stagnation state is defined as a state that would be reached by a fluid if it were brought
to rest reversibly, adiabatically and without work.

Adiabatic Energy Equation: Reference: Hill & Peterson, 1992

𝑣2
h+ = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 h -> enthalpy
2
𝑣2
𝐶𝑝 𝑇 + = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑝 → 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
2
Thermal Form Kinetic Energy Form
𝑣2
ℎ0 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 + ℎ0 → 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
2

Stagnation Enthalpy
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 Stagnation Properties
𝑣2 𝑣2
ℎ0 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 + 𝐶𝑝 𝑇0 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 +
2 2 Recall
R R 𝑣2 𝐶𝑣 =
𝑅
T = 𝑇+ ( −1)
( − 1) 0 ( − 1)p 2
R 𝑣2 𝑣 2 ( − 1) 𝑅
𝑇 −𝑇 = 𝑇0 − 𝑇 = Divide with T 𝐶𝑝 =
( − 1) 0 2 2 R ( − 1)

𝑇0 𝑣 2 ( − 1) 𝑇0 𝑣 2 ( − 1) 𝑇0 𝑣 2 ( − 1)
−1= = 1+ = 1+
𝑇 2 RT 𝑇 2 𝑐2 𝑇 2 𝑐2

𝑇0 → 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑇0 ( − 1)
= 1 + 𝑀2 1
𝑇 2
𝑇 → 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 is the temperature having no
contribution from Velocity

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 Adiabatic Relations
𝑝
Recall, P = 𝜌RT and = Constant
𝜌𝛾 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛

Consider flow through any duct. Let there be two sections and one be stagnation
Rewriting the equations for stagnation and dividing each other,
𝑃0 = 𝜌0 𝑅 𝑇0 𝑃0
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝜌0 𝛾
𝑃0 𝜌0 𝑅 𝑇0
=
𝑃 𝜌𝑅𝑇 𝛾
1
𝑃0 𝜌𝛾 𝑃0 𝜌0 𝜌0 𝑃0 𝛾
𝑃0 𝜌0 𝑇0 . =1 = = 3
2 𝜌0 𝛾 𝑝 𝑝 𝜌 𝜌 𝑝
=
𝑃 𝜌 𝑇
Substituting 3 in 2,
1 1 𝛾−1 𝛾
1−𝛾
𝑃0 𝑃0 𝛾 𝑇0 𝑃0 𝑇0 𝑃0 𝛾 𝑇0 𝑃0 𝑇0 𝛾−1 4
= = = =
𝑃 𝑝 𝑇 𝑝 𝑇 𝑝 𝑇 𝑝 𝑇
1
1 𝛾 𝛾 1
𝜌0 𝑃0 𝛾 𝜌0 𝑇0 𝛾−1 𝜌0 𝑇0 𝛾−1
5
Substituting 4 in 3, = = =
𝜌 𝑝 𝜌 𝑇 𝜌 𝑇
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 Adiabatic Relations
Recall 𝛾 1
𝑃0 𝑇0 𝛾−1 𝜌0 𝑇0 𝛾−1
= =
𝑝 𝑇 𝜌 𝑇

For flow through any duct, with inlet conditions as 1 and outlet conditions as 2,
The relation between pressure, density and temperature can be rewritten as:

1
2 𝛾 1
𝑃2 𝑇2 𝛾−1 𝜌2 𝑇2 𝛾−1
= =
𝑃1 𝑇1 𝜌1 𝑇1

2
1

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 Stagnation Properties-Final
𝑇0 2
( − 1)
Recall, =1+𝑀 Using adiabatic relations,
𝑇 2

𝛾 𝛾
𝑃0 𝑇0 𝛾−1 𝑃0 2
( − 1) 𝛾−1
= = 1+𝑀
𝑝 𝑇 𝑝 2
1
1
𝜌0 𝑇0 𝛾−1 𝜌0 2
( − 1) 𝛾−1
= = 1+𝑀
𝜌 𝑇 𝜌 2

𝑇0 → 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑃0 → 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜌0 → 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

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 Compressible Flow
Bernoulli’s Equation-Adiabatic Process
1
Euler’s Equation 𝑝 𝑝 𝛾
𝑝 = 𝐾𝜌𝛾 = 𝜌𝛾 𝜌=
𝑑𝑝 𝐾 𝐾
+ 𝑉𝑑𝑉+ gdz = 0
 1
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑝 1
𝛾
𝐾 𝑑𝑝 −1
Integrating න =න = න 1 = 𝐾 𝛾 න 1 = 𝐾 𝛾 න 𝑝 𝛾 𝑑𝑝
 𝑝 𝛾
1

𝑑𝑝 𝑝𝛾 𝑝𝛾
𝐾
න + න 𝑉𝑑𝑉 + න gdz = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

−1 1 −1+𝛾
1 −1 1 +1
𝑝𝛾 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝 𝛾
𝑑𝑝 𝑉2 = 𝐾𝛾 න 𝑝 𝛾 𝑑𝑝 = 𝐾𝛾 = 𝛾
න + + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 1 −1 𝜌 −1 + 𝛾
 2 + 1
𝛾 𝛾
1 𝛾−1 1 𝛾−1 1+𝛾−1
𝑝 𝛾 𝑝 𝛾 𝛾 𝑝 𝛾 𝑝 𝛾 𝛾 𝑝 𝛾
For Adiabatic process
= 1 = 1 =
𝑝 𝛾 𝛾−1 𝛾−1 𝛾 1 𝛾−1 𝜌
𝜌 𝛾 𝜌 𝛾
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝛾
𝜌𝛾

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 Compressible Flow
Bernoulli’s Equation-Adiabatic Process
𝑑𝑝 𝛾 𝑝
න =
 𝛾−1 𝜌

Substituting in 1
𝑑𝑝 𝑉 2
න + + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
 2

𝛾 𝑝 𝑉2
+ + 𝑔𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾−1 𝜌 2
Divide g,
𝛾 𝑝 𝑉2 This is the Bernoulli’s equation for
+ + 𝑍 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 compressible flow with adiabatic process
𝛾 − 1 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

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 Problems
1. Calculate the stagnation pressure, temperature and density on an airfoil, which is having
free Stream velocity of 800 km/hr and pressure of 8X104 N/m2. Take  = 1.4,
R = 287 J/kgK and Temperature = -10 C.

2. For an adiabatic flow, A gas with a velocity of 300m/s is flowing through a horizontal pipe at
a section where pressure is 6 X 104N/m2 and temperature 40C. The pipe changes in
diameter and at this section pressure is 9 X 104N/m2. Find the velocity of gas at this section.
Take K = 1.4 and R = 287 J/kg-K. (Hint: Use Bernoulli’s equation for Compressible flows)

3. Find the Mach Number when an Aeroplane is flying at 1100 km/hour through still air
having a pressure of 7N/cm2 and temperature -5C. Wind velocity may be taken as zero. Take
R = 287.14 J/kg K. Calculate the Pressure , Temperature and Density of air at stagnation
point on the nose of the plane. Take K = 1.4.

Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj

kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 23
 Area – Velocity Relation
Equation of Mass conservation for compressible flow

AV = Constant 𝑑𝑝 𝑑 𝑑𝑝 𝑑
+ 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0 + 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0
 𝑑 𝑑 
Take log on both sides and then differentiate
𝑑 𝑑 𝑉𝑑𝑉
𝐶2 =−
log + log A + log V = log C 
+ 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0  𝐶2

d dA dV Substitute in 1
+ + =0 1
 A V 𝑉𝑑𝑉 dA dV dA 𝑉𝑑𝑉 dV
− 2 + + =0 = 2 −
𝐶 A V A 𝐶 V
Recall Euler ′ s equation:
𝑑𝑝 dA dV 𝑉2
+ gdz + 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0 = −1
 A V 𝐶2
𝑑𝑝
+ 𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 0 dA dV
 = 𝑀2 − 1
A V
Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj
kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 24
 Area Velocity – Significance
Case 1: M<1 dA dV Case 2: M>1 2
= 𝑀2 − 1
1 A V 1
2
Flow
Direction Flow Direction
2 1
1 𝐴1 , 𝑝1 , 𝑇1 , 𝜌1 2
𝐴1 , 𝑝1 , 𝑇1 , 𝜌1 𝐴2 , 𝑝2 , 𝑇2 , 𝜌2
𝐴2 , 𝑝2 , 𝑇2 , 𝜌2

✓ The area is decreasing in the flow direction, ✓ The area is increasing the flow direction,
means dA is -ve (as shown in figure) means dA is +ve (as shown in figure)
✓ Subsonic, M < 1 , means 𝑀2 − 1 < 0 ✓ Supersonic, M > 1 , means 𝑀2 − 1 > 0
✓ The terms 𝑀2 − 1 becomes -ve ✓ The terms 𝑀2 − 1 becomes +ve
✓ Velocity V is positive left to right ✓ Velocity V is positive left to right
✓ The value dV must then be +ve. ✓ The value dV must be also be +ve.
✓Means the subsonic velocity must ✓Means the supersonic velocity must also
increase in the direction of flow increase in the direction of flow
(acceleration) (acceleration)
Case 3: M=1 -> Sonic flow, dA=0, meaning constant area duct
Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj
kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 25
 Nozzle
The goal of a nozzle is to increase the velocity (kinetic energy) of the flowing medium at
the expense of its pressure (and internal energy)

Case 1:M<1 Case 2: M>1

Convergent – Subsonic Nozzle

Convergent Divergent Supersonic Nozzle

CD-Nozzle
de Laval nozzle or also bell nozzle
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kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 26
 Supersonic Nozzle of Rocket
Supersonic Nozzle

Area keeps increasing in the

direction of flow

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kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 27
 Subsonic Nozzle

Subsonic Nozzle

Area keeps reducing in

the direction of flow

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kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 28
 Adiabatic Relations - Continued
𝑣2
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦, ℎ0 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 + This refers to critical state, which is M=1
2
𝛾𝑅 𝑣2 𝐶02 𝐶 ∗2 𝐶 ∗2
ℎ0 = 𝑇+ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = = +
𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1 𝛾−1 2

𝐶2 𝑣2 𝐶02 2+𝛾−1
𝐶𝑝 𝑇0 = + = 𝐶 ∗2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1

𝐶02 𝐶2 𝑣2 𝐶02 𝐶 ∗2 𝛾 + 1
= + = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1
When V = C = V* = C* Across two sections (1 & 2) of a duct, it can be written as:
Critical speed of sound
𝐶 ∗ = 𝛾𝑅𝑇 ∗ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑀 = 1 𝐶02 𝐶12 𝑢12 𝐶22 𝑢22 𝐶 ∗ 2 𝛾 + 1
= + = + = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
Characteristic 𝑣 𝛾−1 𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1 2 2 𝛾−1
𝑀 ∗=
Mach Number, 𝐶∗
Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj
kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 29
 Adiabatic Relations - Continued
Let us consider, 2 2
1ൗ 1ൗ ∗ 𝛾+1 − 𝛾−1
𝐶 2
𝑢 𝐶 𝛾+1 2 ∗2 𝑀 𝑀
=
+ = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1
𝛾−1 2 2 𝛾−1
Divide by 𝑢2 ,
2
2
𝐶ൗ
2
𝐶ൗ ∗ 2 𝑀 = 2
𝑢 1 𝑢 𝛾+1 1ൗ ∗
+ = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑀 𝛾+1 − 𝛾−1
𝛾−1 2 2 𝛾−1
2 2 Re-arranging,
1ൗ 1ൗ ∗ 𝛾+1
𝑀 𝑀 1 2
= − 𝑀2 =
𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1 2 𝛾+1൘
− 𝛾−1
𝑀∗ 2
2 2
1ൗ 1ൗ ∗ 𝛾+1 Inverting
𝑀 𝑀 1
= −
𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1 2 𝛾 + 1 𝑀2
𝑀∗ 2 =
2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀2

Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj

kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 30
 Normal Shock-Relations

➢ Normal shock is an irreversible occurrence in 1D-Supersonic flow

➢ It is characterized by abrupt changes in fluid particles.
➢ It is formed by coming together (coalescence) of weak pressure pulses
➢ Shock front is normal (90)to the flow
➢ The thickness over which the fluid properties change is very small
(of the order of two to three mean free paths; mean free path at STP is ~10-5cm)

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 Normal Shock-Relations

The equations of state and conservation for unit area of shock wave are, respectively

Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj

kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 32
 Normal Shock-Relations
Recall
𝑝1 + 𝜌1 𝑢12 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌2 𝑢22 𝐶12 𝑢12 𝐶 ∗ 2 𝛾 + 1
+ =
𝛾−1 2 2 𝛾−1
Divide by continuity equation,
𝛾 + 1 ∗2 𝛾−1 2
𝜌1 𝑢1 = 𝜌2 𝑢2 𝐶12= 𝐶 − 𝑢1
2 2
𝑝1 𝑝2
+ 𝑢1 = + 𝑢2 2
𝛾 + 1 ∗2 𝛾−1 2
𝜌1 𝑢1 𝜌2 𝑢2 𝐶2 = 𝐶 − 𝑢2
2 2
𝑝1 𝑝2 Substituting, 𝐶12 𝐶22
− = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 − = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝜌1 𝑢1 𝜌2 𝑢2 𝛾𝑢1 𝛾𝑢2
Recall 𝛾𝑃 𝛾 + 1 ∗2 𝛾−1 2 𝛾 + 1 ∗2 𝛾−1 2
c= 𝐶 − 𝑢 + 𝐶 − 𝑢 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝜌 2𝛾𝑢1 2𝛾𝑢1 1 2𝛾𝑢2 2𝛾𝑢2 2

𝐶12 𝐶22 𝛾 + 1 ∗2 𝛾−1 𝛾 + 1 ∗2 𝛾−1

− = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 𝐶 − 𝑢1 + 𝐶 − 𝑢2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
𝛾𝑢1 𝛾𝑢2 2𝛾𝑢1 2𝛾 2𝛾𝑢2 2𝛾

Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj

kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 33
 Normal Shock-Relations
𝛾+1 2 𝛾−1 Rewriting
𝑢2 − 𝑢1 𝐶 ∗ − 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
2𝛾𝑢1 𝑢2 2𝛾 1
𝑀2∗ = ∗
𝑀1
Divide by 𝑢2 − 𝑢1
Recall
𝛾 + 1 ∗2 𝛾−1
𝐶 − =1 ∗2
𝛾 + 1 𝑀2
2𝛾𝑢1 𝑢2 2𝛾 𝑀 =
2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀2
Solving for 𝐶 ∗ , we obtain
𝛾 + 1 𝑀22 1
=
𝐶 ∗ 2 = 𝑢1 𝑢2 This equation is called the 2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀22 𝛾 + 1 𝑀12
Prandtl relation and is a 2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀12
useful intermediate relation Re-arranging
for normal shock waves
Rewriting 𝛾−1 2
1+ 𝑀1
𝑢1 𝑢2 𝛾
1= ∗ ∗ 1 = 𝑀1∗ 𝑀2∗ 𝑀22 =
𝐶 𝐶 𝛾−1
𝛾𝑀12 − 2
Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj
kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 34
 Normal Shock-Relations
Continuity equation, 𝜌1 𝑢1 = 𝜌2 𝑢2

𝜌2 𝑢1 𝑢12 𝑢12 𝜌2 𝑢1 𝛾 + 1 𝑀12

= = = ∗ 2 = 𝑀∗12 = =
𝜌1 𝑢2 𝑢1 𝑢2 𝐶 𝜌1 𝑢2 2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀12

For Pressure relation,

𝜌2 𝑢22
𝑝1 + 𝜌1 𝑢12 = 𝑝2 + 𝜌2 𝑢22 𝜌1 𝑢12 − 𝜌2 𝑢22 = 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝜌1 𝑢12 1−
𝜌1 𝑢12
𝜌2 𝑢22 𝜌2 𝑢1
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝜌1 𝑢12 1− Using, =
𝜌1 𝑢12 𝜌1 𝑢2
𝑢1 𝑢22 𝑢2
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝜌1 𝑢12 1− 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = 𝜌1 𝑢12 1 − Diving 𝑝1 , and  &  𝛾
𝑢2 𝑢12 𝑢1

𝑝2 − 𝑝1 𝜌1 𝑢12 𝛾 𝑢2 𝑝2 𝛾𝑢12 𝑢2 𝑝2 2
2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀12
= 1− −1= 2 1− − 1 = 𝛾𝑀1
𝑝1 𝑝1 𝛾 𝑢1 𝑝1 𝐶1 𝑢1 𝑝1 𝛾 + 1 𝑀12
Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj
kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 35
 Normal Shock Relations
2
𝑝2 2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀 1
= 1 + 𝛾𝑀12 Simplifying,
𝑝1 𝛾 + 1 𝑀12

𝑝2 2𝛾
=1+ 𝑀12 − 1
𝑝1 𝛾+1

For Temperature relation, we use equation of state P = 𝜌RT

𝑇2 𝑝2 𝜌2
=
𝑇1 𝑝1 𝜌1

𝑇2 ℎ2 2𝛾 𝛾 + 1 𝑀12
= = 1+ 𝑀12 −1
𝑇1 ℎ1 𝛾+1 2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀12

Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj

kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 36
 Normal Shocks

After the normal shock, the

flow is always subsonic.

Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj

kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 37
 Oblique Shock

After the Oblique shock, the

flow is supersonic, with reduced
Mach number..

Explain the supersonic airfoil

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 Super Sonic Airfoil

Double wedge airfoil.

Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj

kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 39
 Bow Shock

Space Shuttle

Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj

kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 40
 Transonic Flow
Critical Mach Number:
It is the lowest Mach number at which the airflow over any part of the aircraft reaches
the speed of sound.

After the normal shock, the flow is always subsonic.

Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj

kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 41
 All Equations
𝜌𝑑𝑝
Bulk Modulus, K = 𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑣2
𝑑𝜌
𝑪𝒑 → ℎ0 = 𝐶𝑝 𝑇 +
Ratio of specific heats,  = 𝑪 ; 𝑪𝒑 = 𝑪𝒗 + R 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2
𝒗
𝑹 𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 Relations:
𝑹 𝛾
𝑪𝒑 = 𝑪𝒗 =
( − 𝟏) ( −𝟏) 𝑃2 𝑇2 𝛾−1
=
Equation of State -> P = 𝜌RT 𝑃1 𝑇1
Enthalpy, h = e + pv; h = 𝐶𝑝 T 1
𝜌2 𝑇2 𝛾−1
=
𝛾𝑃 𝐾 𝑑𝑝 𝜌1 𝑇1
Speed of Sound, C = 𝛾RT = = =
𝜌 𝜌 dρ 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐
Stagnation Relations:
𝑝 𝑇0 2
( − 1)
𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠, = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 1+𝑀
𝜌 𝑇 2
𝛾
𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑝 = Constant 𝑃0 ( − 1) 𝛾−1
= 1 + 𝑀2
𝜌𝛾 𝑝 2
1
𝐶∗ = 𝛾𝑅𝑇 ∗ , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑀 = 1 𝜌0 ( − 1) 𝛾−1
= 1 + 𝑀2
𝜌 2
Thean Mani Rajan Kanagaraj
kanagaraj_aeronautical@[Link] Fluid Mechanics - BAE303 42
 All Equations
Bernoulli’s equation for 𝛾 𝑝 𝑉2
+ + 𝑍 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
compressible flows, 𝛾 − 1 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
1 Normal Shock Relations
Mach Angle,  = sin−1 𝑀
Characteristic 𝑣 𝛾−1 2
Mach Number, 𝑀∗ = 1+ 𝑀1
𝐶∗ 𝛾
𝑀22 =
𝛾−1
Prandtl Relation, 𝐶 ∗ 2 = 𝑢1 𝑢2 𝛾𝑀12 − 2
2 𝑝2 2𝛾
𝑀2 = =1+ 𝑀12 − 1
𝛾+1൘ 𝑝1 𝛾+1
− 𝛾−1
𝑀∗ 2
𝛾 + 1 𝑀2
𝑀 ∗2 = 𝜌2 𝑢1 𝛾 + 1 𝑀12
2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀2 = =
𝜌1 𝑢2 2 + 𝛾 − 1 𝑀12
𝐶02 𝐶12 𝑢12 𝐶22 𝑢22 𝐶 ∗ 2 𝛾 + 1
= + = + = = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝛾−1 𝛾−1 2 𝛾−1 2 2 𝛾−1
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