Conscience

A conscience is a cognitive process that elicits emotion and rational associations based on an
individual's moral philosophy or value system. Conscience is not an elicited emotion or thought
produced by associations based on immediate sensory perceptions and reflexive responses, as in
sympathetic central nervous system responses. In common terms, conscience is often described
as leading to feelings of remorse when a person commits an act that conflicts with their moral
values. The extent to which conscience informs moral judgment before an action and whether such
moral judgments are or should be based on reason has occasioned debate through much of
modern history between theories of basics in ethic of human life in juxtaposition to the theories of
romanticism and other reactionary movements after the end of the Middle Ages.

Vincent van Gogh, 1890. Kröller-Müller

Museum. The Good Samaritan (after
Delacroix (https://commons.wikimedia.or
g/wiki/File:The_Good_Samaritan_(Delacroi
x_1849).jpg) ).

Religious views of conscience usually see it as linked to a morality inherent in all humans, to a
beneficent universe and/or to divinity. The diverse ritualistic, mythical, doctrinal, legal, institutional
and material features of religion may not necessarily cohere with experiential, emotive, spiritual or
contemplative considerations about the origin and operation of conscience.[1] Common secular or
scientific views regard the capacity for conscience as probably genetically determined, with its
subject probably learned or imprinted as part of a culture.[2]
Commonly used metaphors for conscience include the "voice within", the "inner light",[3] or even
Socrates' reliance on what the Greeks called his "daimōnic sign", an averting (ἀποτρεπτικός
apotreptikos) inner voice heard only when he was about to make a mistake. Conscience, as is
detailed in sections below, is a concept in national and international law,[4] is increasingly conceived
of as applying to the world as a whole,[5] has motivated numerous notable acts for the public good[6]
and been the subject of many prominent examples of literature, music and film.[7]

Views

Although humanity has no generally accepted definition of conscience or universal agreement about
its role in ethical decision-making, three approaches have addressed it:[8]

1. Religious views

2. Secular views

3. Philosophical views

Religious

Seated Buddha, Gandhara, 2nd

century CE. The Buddha linked
conscience with compassion for
those who must endure cravings
and suffering in the world until
right conduct culminates in right
mindfulness and right
contemplation.

In the literary traditions of the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita, conscience is the
label given to attributes composing knowledge about good and evil, that a soul acquires from the
completion of acts and consequent accretion of karma over many lifetimes.[9] According to Adi
Shankara in his Vivekachudamani morally right action (characterised as humbly and
compassionately performing the primary duty of good to others without expectation of material or
spiritual reward), helps "purify the heart" and provide mental tranquility but it alone does not give us
"direct perception of the Reality".[10] This knowledge requires discrimination between the eternal and
non-eternal and eventually a realization in contemplation that the true self merges in a universe of
pure consciousness.[11]

In the Zoroastrian faith, after death a soul must face judgment at the Bridge of the Separator; there,
evil people are tormented by prior denial of their own higher nature, or conscience, and "to all time
will they be guests for the House of the Lie."[12] The Chinese concept of Ren, indicates that
conscience, along with social etiquette and correct relationships, assist humans to follow The Way
(Tao) a mode of life reflecting the implicit human capacity for goodness and harmony.[13]

Marcus Aurelius bronze

fragment, Louvre, Paris: "To
move from one unselfish action
to another with God in mind.
Only there, delight and stillness."

Conscience also features prominently in Buddhism.[14] In the Pali scriptures, for example, Buddha
links the positive aspect of conscience to a pure heart and a calm, well-directed mind. It is regarded
as a spiritual power, and one of the "Guardians of the World". The Buddha also associated
conscience with compassion for those who must endure cravings and suffering in the world until
right conduct culminates in right mindfulness and right contemplation.[15] Santideva (685–763 CE)
wrote in the Bodhicaryavatara (which he composed and delivered in the great northern Indian
Buddhist university of Nalanda) of the spiritual importance of perfecting virtues such as generosity,
forbearance and training the awareness to be like a "block of wood" when attracted by vices such as
pride or lust; so one can continue advancing towards right understanding in meditative
absorption.[16] Conscience thus manifests in Buddhism as unselfish love for all living beings which
gradually intensifies and awakens to a purer awareness[17] where the mind withdraws from sensory
interests and becomes aware of itself as a single whole.[18]

The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote in his Meditations that conscience was the human
capacity to live by rational principles that were congruent with the true, tranquil and harmonious
nature of our mind and thereby that of the Universe: "To move from one unselfish action to another
with God in mind. Only there, delight and stillness ... the only rewards of our existence here are an
unstained character and unselfish acts."[19]

Last page of Ghazali's

autobiography in MS Istanbul,
Shehid Ali Pasha 1712, dated
A.H. 509 = 1115–1116. Ghazali's
crisis of epistemological
skepticism was resolved by "a
light which God Most High cast
into my breast ... the key to most
knowledge."

The Islamic concept of Taqwa is closely related to conscience. In the Qur’ān verses 2:197 & 22:37
Taqwa refers to "right conduct" or "piety", "guarding of oneself" or "guarding against evil".[20] Qur’ān
verse 47:17 says that God is the ultimate source of the believer's taqwā which is not simply the
product of individual will but requires inspiration from God.[21] In Qur’ān verses 91:7–8, God the
Almighty talks about how He has perfected the soul, the conscience and has taught it the wrong
(fujūr) and right (taqwā). Hence, the awareness of vice and virtue is inherent in the soul, allowing it
to be tested fairly in the life of this world and tried, held accountable on the day of judgment for
responsibilities to God and all humans.[22]
 Qur’ān Sura 49. Surah al-Hujurat,
49:13 declares: "come to know
each other, the noblest of you, in
the sight of God, are the ones
possessing taqwá".

Qur’ān verse 49:13 states: "O humankind! We have created you out of male and female and
constituted you into different groups and societies, so that you may come to know each other-the
noblest of you, in the sight of God, are the ones possessing taqwā." In Islam, according to eminent
theologians such as Al-Ghazali, although events are ordained (and written by God in al-Lawh al-
Mahfūz, the Preserved Tablet), humans possess free will to choose between wrong and right and are
thus responsible for their actions; the conscience being a dynamic personal connection to God
enhanced by knowledge and practise of the Five Pillars of Islam, deeds of piety, repentance, self-
discipline, and prayer; and disintegrated and metaphorically covered in blackness through sinful
acts.[23] Marshall Hodgson wrote the three-volume work: The Venture of Islam: Conscience and
History in a World Civilization.[24]

The Awakening Conscience,

Holman Hunt, 1853
In the Protestant Christian tradition, Martin Luther insisted at the Diet of Worms that his conscience
was captive to the Word of God, and it was neither safe nor right to go against conscience. To
Luther, conscience falls within the ethical, rather than the religious, sphere.[25] John Calvin saw
conscience as a battleground: "the enemies who rise up in our conscience against his Kingdom and
hinder his decrees prove that God's throne is not firmly established therein".[26] Many Christians
regard following one's conscience as important as, or even more important than, obeying human
authority.[27] According to the Bible, as enunciated in Romans 2:15, conscience is the one bearing
witness, accusing or excusing one another, so we would know when we break the law written in our
hearts; the guilt we feel when we do something wrong tells us that we need to repent."[28] This can
sometimes (as with the conflict between William Tyndale and Thomas More over the translation of
the Bible into English) lead to moral quandaries: "Do I unreservedly obey my
Church/priest/military/political leader or do I follow my own inner feeling of right and wrong as
instructed by prayer and a personal reading of scripture?"[29] Some contemporary Christian churches
and religious groups hold the moral teachings of the Ten Commandments or of Jesus as the
highest authority in any situation, regardless of the extent to which it involves responsibilities in
law.[30] In the Gospel of John (7:53–8:11, King James Version), Jesus challenges those accusing a
woman of adultery: "'He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her.' And again he
stooped down, and wrote on the ground. And they which heard it, being convicted by their own
conscience, went out one by one" (see Jesus and the woman taken in adultery). Of note, however,
the word 'conscience' is not in the original New Testament Greek and is not in the vast majority of
Bible versions. In the Gospel of Luke (10:25–37), Jesus tells the story of how a despised and
heretical Samaritan (see Parable of the Good Samaritan) who (out of compassion or pity; the word
'conscience' is not used) helps an injured stranger beside a road, qualifies better for eternal life by
loving his neighbor than a priest who passes by on the other side.[31]

Nikiforos Lytras, Antigone in front of the

dead Polynices (1865), oil on canvas,
National Gallery of Greece-Alexandros
Soutzos Museum

This dilemma of obedience in conscience to divine or state law, was demonstrated dramatically in
Antigone's defiance of King Creon's order against burying her brother an alleged traitor, appealing to
the "unwritten law" and to a "longer allegiance to the dead than to the living".[32]

Catholic theology sees conscience as the last practical "judgment of reason which at the
appropriate moment enjoins [a person] to do good and to avoid evil".[33] The Second Vatican Council
(1962–65) describes: "Deep within his conscience man discovers a law which he has not laid upon
himself but which he must obey. Its voice, ever calling him to love and to do what is good and to
avoid evil, tells him inwardly at the right movement: do this, shun that. For man has in his heart a law
inscribed by God. His dignity lies in observing this law, and by it he will be judged. His conscience is
man’s most secret core, and his sanctuary. There he is alone with God whose voice echoes in his
depths."[34] Thus, conscience is not like the will, nor a habit like prudence, but "the interior space in
which we can listen to and hear the truth, the good, the voice of God. It is the inner place of our
relationship with Him, who speaks to our heart and helps us to discern, to understand the path we
ought to take, and once the decision is made, to move forward, to remain faithful"[35] In terms of
logic, conscience can be viewed as the practical conclusion of a moral syllogism whose major
premise is an objective norm and whose minor premise is a particular case or situation to which the
norm is applied. Thus, Catholics are taught to carefully educate themselves as to revealed norms
and norms derived therefrom, so as to form a correct conscience. Catholics are also to examine
their conscience daily and with special care before confession. Catholic teaching holds that, "Man
has the right to act according to his conscience and in freedom so as personally to make moral
decisions. He must not be forced to act contrary to his conscience. Nor must he be prevented from
acting according to his conscience, especially in religious matters".[36] This right of Conscience
allows one to form their Morality from sincere and traditional sources and form their opinions from
therein. Thus, the Church teaches that one must form their morality and then follow it to the best of
their ability. Nevertheless it is taught in more than one area, that the conscience can, and
sometimes should, stand against the teaching of the Church. Thus the Church teaches that the
Conscience is a supreme authority, even above that of the Popes, Bishops, and Priests. Thus while
the Conscience does grant man a great degree of freedom, if one is going to disagree with
conventional morality or with the teachings of the Church, it is absolutely necessary to make sure
that one's conscience is well formed and certain of what it is claiming or not claiming.
[37][38][39][40][41][42]
A sincere conscience presumes one is diligently seeking moral truth from
authentic sources, whether that be from the Church, or from Scripture, or from the numerous Church
Fathers. Nevertheless, despite one's best effort, "[i]t can happen that moral conscience remains in
ignorance and makes erroneous judgments about acts to be performed or already committed ...
This ignorance can, but not always, be imputed to personal responsibility, This is the case when a
man "takes little trouble to find out what is true and good", or in other words, puts forth very little
effort and does not take the forming of the Conscience seriously. In such cases, the person is
culpable for the wrong he commits." Not necessarily because of the error itself, but because of the
bad faith or miniscule effort put forth by the one whos Conscience is in question.[43] The Catholic
Church has warned that "rejection of the Church's authority and her teaching ... can sometimes be at
the source of errors in judgment in moral conduct".[44] An example of someone following his
conscience to the point of accepting the consequence of being condemned to death is Sir Thomas
More (1478-1535).[45] A theologian who wrote on the distinction between the 'sense of duty' and the
'moral sense', as two aspects of conscience, and who saw the former as some feeling that can only
be explained by a divine Lawgiver, was John Henry Cardinal Newman.[46] A well known saying of him
is that he would first toast on his conscience and only then on the pope, since his conscience
brought him to acknowledge the authority of the pope.[47] This relates to the concept of the different
types of heresy as understood within Church teaching. The Church distinguishes between Material
Heresy and Formal Heresy. Material Heresy occurs when an individual, after sincere and thorough
study of the Church’s moral teachings and a genuine effort to form their conscience in accordance
with those teachings, concludes—respectfully and in good faith—that the Church is mistaken on one
or more moral issues. In such cases, if the individual maintains their personal belief despite their
best efforts to understand and accept Church doctrine, they are considered a Material Heretic.
However, because their error stems from a well-intentioned and conscientious process, no sin is
imputed to them.[48][49] Formal Heresy, by contrast, involves a willful and culpable rejection of
Church teaching despite recognizing its truth. In this case, the individual acknowledges that the
Church's doctrine is correct but chooses to reject it knowingly, often out of pride, defiance, malice, or
other forms of vice. This rejection constitutes a grave moral fault because it entails acting against
one’s own conscience and embracing falsehood knowingly. As such, Formal Heresy is considered a
sin, as it reflects both an intentional departure from truth and a deliberate act of dishonesty. One
must maintain the separation between Material Heresy and Formal Heresy, simply for the fact that
one is sinful, and the other is not.[50]

Judaism arguably does not require uncompromising obedience to religious authority; the case has
been made that throughout Jewish history, rabbis have circumvented laws they found
unconscionable, such as capital punishment.[51] Similarly, although an occupation with national
destiny has been central to the Jewish faith (see Zionism) many scholars (including Moses
Mendelssohn) stated that conscience as a personal revelation of scriptural truth was an important
adjunct to the Talmudic tradition.[52][53] The concept of inner light in the Religious Society of Friends
or Quakers is associated with conscience.[3] Freemasonry describes itself as providing an adjunct to
religion and key symbols found in a Freemason Lodge are the square and compasses explained as
providing lessons that Masons should "square their actions by the square of conscience", learn to
"circumscribe their desires and keep their passions within due bounds toward all mankind."[54] The
historian Manning Clark viewed conscience as one of the comforters that religion placed between
man and death but also a crucial part of the quest for grace encouraged by the Book of Job and the
Book of Ecclesiastes, leading us to be paradoxically closest to the truth when we suspect that what
matters most in life ("being there when everyone suddenly understands what it has all been for") can
never happen.[55] Leo Tolstoy, after a decade studying the issue (1877–1887), held that the only
power capable of resisting the evil associated with materialism and the drive for social power of
religious institutions, was the capacity of humans to reach an individual spiritual truth through
reason and conscience.[56] Many prominent religious works about conscience also have a
significant philosophical component: examples are the works of Al-Ghazali,[57] Avicenna,[58]
Aquinas,[59] Joseph Butler[60] and Dietrich Bonhoeffer[61] (all discussed in the philosophical views
section).

Secular

Illustration of François Chifflart

(1825–1901) for La Conscience
(by Victor Hugo)
 Charles Darwin thought that any
animal endowed with well-
marked social instincts would
inevitably acquire a moral sense
or conscience, as its intellectual
powers approximated man's.

The secular approach to conscience includes psychological, physiological, sociological,

humanitarian, and authoritarian views.[62] Lawrence Kohlberg considered critical conscience to be an
important psychological stage in the proper moral development of humans, associated with the
capacity to rationally weigh principles of responsibility, being best encouraged in the very young by
linkage with humorous personifications (such as Jiminy Cricket) and later in adolescents by
debates about individually pertinent moral dilemmas.[63] Erik Erikson placed the development of
conscience in the 'pre-schooler' phase of his eight stages of normal human personality
development.[64] The psychologist Martha Stout terms conscience "an intervening sense of
obligation based in our emotional attachments."[65] Thus a good conscience is associated with
feelings of integrity, psychological wholeness and peacefulness and is often described using
adjectives such as "quiet", "clear" and "easy".[66]

Sigmund Freud regarded conscience as originating psychologically from the growth of civilisation,
which periodically frustrated the external expression of aggression: this destructive impulse being
forced to seek an alternative, healthy outlet, directed its energy as a superego against the person's
own "ego" or selfishness (often taking its cue in this regard from parents during childhood).[67]
According to Freud, the consequence of not obeying our conscience is guilt, which can be a factor in
the development of neurosis; Freud claimed that both the cultural and individual super-ego set up
strict ideal demands with regard to the moral aspects of certain decisions, disobedience to which
provokes a 'fear of conscience'.[68]

Antonio Damasio considers conscience an aspect of extended consciousness beyond survival-

related dispositions and incorporating the search for truth and desire to build norms and ideals for
behavior. [69]

Conscience as a society-forming instinct

Jeremy Bentham: "Fanaticism

never sleeps ... it is never
stopped by conscience; for it has
pressed conscience into its
service."

Michel Glautier argues that conscience is one of the instincts and drives which enable people to
form societies: groups of humans without these drives or in whom they are insufficient cannot form
societies and do not reproduce their kind as successfully as those that do.[70]
 War criminal Adolf Eichmann in
passport used to enter
Argentina: his conscience spoke
with the "respectable voice" of
the indoctrinated wartime
German society that surrounded
him.

Charles Darwin considered that conscience evolved in humans to resolve conflicts between
competing natural impulses-some about self-preservation but others about safety of a family or
community; the claim of conscience to moral authority emerged from the "greater duration of
impression of social instincts" in the struggle for survival.[71] In such a view, behavior destructive to
a person's society (either to its structures or to the persons it comprises) is bad or "evil".[72] Thus,
conscience can be viewed as an outcome of those biological drives that prompt humans to avoid
provoking fear or contempt in others; being experienced as guilt and shame in differing ways from
society to society and person to person.[73] A requirement of conscience in this view is the capacity
to see ourselves from the point of view of another person.[74] Persons unable to do this
(psychopaths, sociopaths, narcissists) therefore often act in ways which are "evil".[75]

Fundamental in this view of conscience is that humans consider some "other" as being in a social
relationship. Thus, nationalism is invoked in conscience to quell tribal conflict and the notion of a
Brotherhood of Man is invoked to quell national conflicts. Yet such crowd drives may not only
overwhelm but redefine individual conscience. Friedrich Nietzsche stated: "communal solidarity is
annihilated by the highest and strongest drives that, when they break out passionately, whip the
individual far past the average low level of the 'herd-conscience.'"[76] Jeremy Bentham noted that:
"fanaticism never sleeps ... it is never stopped by conscience; for it has pressed conscience into its
service."[77] Hannah Arendt in her study of the trial of Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem, notes that the
accused, as with almost all his fellow Germans, had lost track of his conscience to the point where
they hardly remembered it; this wasn't caused by familiarity with atrocities or by psychologically
redirecting any resultant natural pity to themselves for having to bear such an unpleasant duty, so
much as by the fact that anyone whose conscience did develop doubts could see no one who
shared them: "Eichmann did not need to close his ears to the voice of conscience ... not because he
had none, but because his conscience spoke with a "respectable voice", with the voice of the
respectable society around him".[78]

Sir Arthur Keith in 1948 developed the Amity-enmity complex. We evolved as tribal groups
surrounded by enemies; thus conscience evolved a dual role; the duty to save and protect members
of the in-group, and the duty to show hatred and aggression towards any out-group.

An interesting area of research in this context concerns the similarities between our relationships
and those of animals, whether animals in human society (pets, working animals, even animals
grown for food) or in the wild.[79] One idea is that as people or animals perceive a social relationship
as important to preserve, their conscience begins to respect that former "other", and urge actions
that protect it.[80][81] Similarly, in complex territorial and cooperative breeding bird communities
(such as the Australian magpie) that have a high degree of etiquettes, rules, hierarchies, play, songs
and negotiations, rule-breaking seems tolerated on occasions not obviously related to survival of
the individual or group; behaviour often appearing to exhibit a touching gentleness and
tenderness.[82]

Evolutionary biology

Contemporary scientists in evolutionary biology seek to explain conscience as a function of the

brain that evolved to facilitate altruism within societies.[83] In his book The God Delusion, Richard
Dawkins states that he agrees with Robert Hinde's Why Good is Good, Michael Shermer's The
Science of Good and Evil, Robert Buckman's Can We Be Good Without God? and Marc Hauser's Moral
Minds, that our sense of right and wrong can be derived from our Darwinian past. He subsequently
reinforced this idea through the lens of the gene-centered view of evolution, since the unit of natural
selection is neither an individual organism nor a group, but rather the "selfish" gene, and these genes
could ensure their own "selfish" survival by, inter alia, pushing individuals to act altruistically towards
its kin.[84]

Neuroscience and artificial conscience

Numerous case studies of brain damage have shown that damage to areas of the brain (such as the
anterior prefrontal cortex) results in the reduction or elimination of inhibitions, with a corresponding
radical change in behaviour.[85] When the damage occurs to adults, they may still be able to perform
moral reasoning; but when it occurs to children, they may never develop that ability.[86][87]
Attempts have been made by neuroscientists to locate the free will necessary for what is termed the
'veto' of conscience over unconscious mental processes (see Neuroscience of free will and
Benjamin Libet) in a scientifically measurable awareness of an intention to carry out an act
occurring 350–400 microseconds after the electrical discharge known as the 'readiness
potential.'[88][89][90]

Jacques Pitrat claims that some kind of artificial conscience is beneficial in artificial intelligence
systems to improve their long-term performance and direct their introspective processing.[91]

Philosophical

The word "conscience" derives etymologically from the Latin conscientia, meaning "privity of
knowledge"[92] or "with-knowledge". The English word implies internal awareness of a moral
standard in the mind concerning the quality of one's motives, as well as a consciousness of our own
actions.[93] Thus conscience considered philosophically may be first, and perhaps most commonly, a
largely unexamined "gut feeling" or "vague sense of guilt" about what ought to be or should have
been done.[94] Conscience in this sense is not necessarily the product of a process of rational
consideration of the moral features of a situation (or the applicable normative principles, rules or
laws) and can arise from parental, peer group, religious, state or corporate indoctrination, which may
or may not be presently consciously acceptable to the person ("traditional conscience").[95]
Conscience may be defined as the practical reason employed when applying moral convictions to a
situation ("critical conscience").[96] In purportedly morally mature mystical people who have
developed this capacity through daily contemplation or meditation combined with selfless service
to others, critical conscience can be aided by a "spark" of intuitive insight or revelation (called marifa
in Islamic Sufi philosophy and synderesis in medieval Christian scholastic moral philosophy).[97][98]
Conscience is accompanied in each case by an internal awareness of 'inner light' and approbation or
'inner darkness' and condemnation as well as a resulting conviction of right or duty either followed
or declined.[99]

Medieval

The medieval Islamic scholar and mystic Al-Ghazali divided the concept of Nafs (soul or self
(spirituality)) into three categories[57] based on the Qur’an:

1. Nafs Ammarah (12:53) which "exhorts one to freely indulge in gratifying passions and
instigates to do evil"

2. Nafs Lawammah (75:2) which is "the conscience that directs man towards right or wrong"

3. Nafs Mutmainnah (89:27) which is "a self that reaches the ultimate peace"
The medieval Persian philosopher and physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi believed in a close
relationship between conscience or spiritual integrity and physical health; rather than being self-
indulgent, man should pursue knowledge, use his intellect and apply justice in his life.[100] The
medieval Islamic philosopher Avicenna, whilst imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near Hamadhan,
wrote his famous isolated-but-awake "Floating Man" sensory deprivation thought experiment to
explore the ideas of human self-awareness and the substantiality of the soul; his hypothesis being
that it is through intelligence, particularly the active intellect, that God communicates truth to the
human mind or conscience.[58] According to the Islamic Sufis conscience allows Allah to guide
people to the marifa, the peace or "light upon light" experienced where a Muslim's prayers lead to a
melting away of the self in the inner knowledge of God; this foreshadowing the eternal Paradise
depicted in the Qur’ān.[101]

The Flemish mystic Jan van

Ruysbroeck viewed a pure
conscience as facilitating "an
outflowing losing of oneself in
the abyss of that eternal object
which is the highest and chief
blessedness".

Some medieval Christian scholastics such as Bonaventure made a distinction between conscience
as a rational faculty of the mind (practical reason) and inner awareness, an intuitive "spark" to do
good, called synderesis arising from a remnant appreciation of absolute good and when consciously
denied (for example to perform an evil act), becoming a source of inner torment.[98] Early modern
theologians such as William Perkins and William Ames developed a syllogistic understanding of the
conscience, where God's law made the first term, the act to be judged the second and the action of
the conscience (as a rational faculty) produced the judgement. By debating test cases applying
such understanding conscience was trained and refined (i.e. casuistry).[102]
 The medieval Persian
philosopher Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
developed a sensory deprivation
thought experiment to explore
the relationship between
conscience and God.

In the 13th century, St. Thomas Aquinas regarded conscience as the application of moral knowledge
to a particular case (S.T. I, q. 79, a. 13). Thus, conscience was considered an act or judgment of
practical reason that began with synderesis, the structured development of our innate remnant
awareness of absolute good (which he categorised as involving the five primary precepts proposed
in his theory of Natural Law) into an acquired habit of applying moral principles.[59] According to
Singer, Aquinas held that conscience, or conscientia was an imperfect process of judgment applied
to activity because knowledge of the natural law (and all acts of natural virtue implicit therein) was
obscured in most people by education and custom that promoted selfishness rather than fellow-
feeling (Summa Theologiae, I–II, I).[103] Aquinas also discussed conscience in relation to the virtue of
prudence to explain why some people appear to be less "morally enlightened" than others, their
weak will being incapable of adequately balancing their own needs with those of others.[104]

Aquinas reasoned that acting contrary to conscience is an evil action but an errant conscience is
only blameworthy if it is the result of culpable or vincible ignorance of factors that one has a duty to
have knowledge of.[103] Aquinas also argued that conscience should be educated to act towards
real goods (from God) which encouraged human flourishing, rather than the apparent goods of
sensory pleasures.[103] In his Commentary on Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics Aquinas claimed it
was weak will that allowed a non-virtuous man to choose a principle allowing pleasure ahead of one
requiring moral constraint.[105]
Thomas A Kempis in the medieval contemplative classic The Imitation of Christ (ca 1418) stated
that the glory of a good man is the witness of a good conscience. "Preserve a quiet conscience and
you will always have joy. A quiet conscience can endure much, and remains joyful in all trouble, but
an evil conscience is always fearful and uneasy."[106] The anonymous medieval author of the
Christian mystical work The Cloud of Unknowing similarly expressed the view that in profound and
prolonged contemplation a soul dries up the "root and ground" of the sin that is always there, even
after one's confession and however busy one is in holy things: "therefore, whoever would work at
becoming a contemplative must first cleanse his [or her] conscience."[107] The medieval Flemish
mystic John of Ruysbroeck likewise held that true conscience has four aspects that are necessary
to render a man just in the active and contemplative life: "a free spirit, attracting itself through love";
"an intellect enlightened by grace", "a delight yielding propension or inclination" and "an outflowing
losing of oneself in the abyss of ... that eternal object which is the highest and chief blessedness ...
those lofty amongst men, are absorbed in it, and immersed in a certain boundless thing."[108]

Modern

Schopenhauer considered that

the good conscience we
experience after an unselfish act
verifies that our true self exists
outside our physical person.

Benedict de Spinoza in his Ethics, published after his death in 1677, argued that most people, even
those that consider themselves to exercise free will, make moral decisions on the basis of imperfect
sensory information, inadequate understanding of their mind and will, as well as emotions which are
both outcomes of their contingent physical existence and forms of thought defective from being
chiefly impelled by self-preservation.[109] The solution, according to Spinoza, was to gradually
increase the capacity of our reason to change the forms of thought produced by emotions and to
fall in love with viewing problems requiring moral decision from the perspective of eternity.[110] Thus,
living a life of peaceful conscience means to Spinoza that reason is used to generate adequate
 ideas where the mind increasingly sees the world and its conflicts, our
desires and passions sub specie aeternitatis, that is without reference to
time.[111] Hegel's obscure and mystical Philosophy of Mind held that the
absolute right of freedom of conscience facilitates human understanding
of an all-embracing unity, an absolute which was rational, real and
true.[112] Nevertheless, Hegel thought that a functioning State would
always be tempted not to recognize conscience in its form of subjective
knowledge, just as similar non-objective opinions are generally rejected
in science.[113] A similar idealist notion was expressed in the writings of
Benedict de Spinoza: moral
Joseph Butler who argued that conscience is God-given, should always
problems and our emotional
responses to them should be
be obeyed, is intuitive, and should be considered the "constitutional
reasoned from the perspective monarch" and the "universal moral faculty": "conscience does not only
of eternity.
offer itself to show us the way we should walk in, but it likewise carries
its own authority with it."[114] Butler advanced ethical speculation by
referring to a duality of regulative principles in human nature: first, "self-
love" (seeking individual happiness) and second, "benevolence"
(compassion and seeking good for another) in conscience (also linked to
the agape of situational ethics).[60] Conscience tended to be more
authoritative in questions of moral judgment, thought Butler, because it
was more likely to be clear and certain (whereas calculations of self-
interest tended to probable and changing conclusions).[115] John Selden

Immanuel Kant: the moral law in his Table Talk expressed the view that an awake but excessively
within us has true infinity. scrupulous or ill-trained conscience could hinder resolve and practical
action; it being "like a horse that is not well wayed, he starts at every bird
that flies out of the hedge".[116]

As the sacred texts of ancient Hindu and Buddhist philosophy became available in German
translations in the 18th and 19th centuries, they influenced philosophers such as Schopenhauer to
hold that in a healthy mind only deeds oppress our conscience, not wishes and thoughts; "for it is
only our deeds that hold us up to the mirror of our will"; the good conscience, thought Schopenhauer,
we experience after every disinterested deed arises from direct recognition of our own inner being in
the phenomenon of another, it affords us the verification "that our true self exists not only in our
own person, this particular manifestation, but in everything that lives. By this the heart feels itself
enlarged, as by egotism it is contracted."[117]

Immanuel Kant, a central figure of the Age of Enlightenment, likewise claimed that two things filled
his mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe, the oftener and more steadily they were
reflected on: "the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me ... the latter begins from my
invisible self, my personality, and exhibits me in a world which has true infinity but which I recognise
myself as existing in a universal and necessary (and not only, as in the first case, contingent)
connection."[118] The 'universal connection' referred to here is Kant's categorical imperative: "act only
according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal
law."[119] Kant considered critical conscience to be an internal court in which our thoughts accuse or
excuse one another; he acknowledged that morally mature people do often describe contentment or
peace in the soul after following conscience to perform a duty, but argued that for such acts to
produce virtue their primary motivation should simply be duty, not expectation of any such bliss.[120]
Rousseau expressed a similar view that conscience somehow connected man to a greater
metaphysical unity. John Plamenatz in his critical examination of Rousseau's work considered that
conscience was there defined as the feeling that urges us, in spite of contrary passions, towards two
harmonies: the one within our minds and between our passions, and the other within society and
between its members; "the weakest can appeal to it in the strongest, and the appeal, though often
unsuccessful, is always disturbing. However, corrupted by power or wealth we may be, either as
possessors of them or as victims, there is something in us serving to remind us that this corruption
is against nature."[121]

John Locke viewed the

widespread social fact of
conscience as a justification for
natural rights.
 Adam Smith: conscience shows
what relates to ourselves in its
proper shape and dimensions

Samuel Johnson (1775) stated

that "No man's conscience can
tell him the right of another
man."

Other philosophers expressed a more sceptical and pragmatic view of the operation of "conscience"
in society.[122] John Locke in his Essays on the Law of Nature argued that the widespread fact of
human conscience allowed a philosopher to infer the necessary existence of objective moral laws
that occasionally might contradict those of the state.[123] Locke highlighted the metaethics problem
of whether accepting a statement like "follow your conscience" supports subjectivist or objectivist
conceptions of conscience as a guide in concrete morality, or as a spontaneous revelation of eternal
and immutable principles to the individual: "if conscience be a proof of innate principles, contraries
may be innate principles; since some men with the same bent of conscience prosecute what others
avoid."[124] Thomas Hobbes likewise pragmatically noted that opinions formed on the basis of
conscience with full and honest conviction, nevertheless should always be accepted with humility as
potentially erroneous and not necessarily indicating absolute knowledge or truth.[125] William
Godwin expressed the view that conscience was a memorable consequence of the "perception by
men of every creed when the descend into the scene of busy life" that they possess free will.[126]
Adam Smith considered that it was only by developing a critical conscience that we can ever see
what relates to ourselves in its proper shape and dimensions; or that we can ever make any proper
comparison between our own interests and those of other people.[127] John Stuart Mill believed that
idealism about the role of conscience in government should be tempered with a practical realisation
that few men in society are capable of directing their minds or purposes towards distant or
unobvious interests, of disinterested regard for others, and especially for what comes after them,
for the idea of posterity, of their country, or of humanity, whether grounded on sympathy or on a
conscientious feeling.[128] Mill held that certain amount of conscience, and of disinterested public
spirit, may fairly be calculated on in the citizens of any community ripe for representative
government, but that "it would be ridiculous to expect such a degree of it, combined with such
intellectual discernment, as would be proof against any plausible fallacy tending to make that which
was for their class interest appear the dictate of justice and of the general good."[128]

Josiah Royce (1855–1916) built on the transcendental idealism view of conscience, viewing it as
the ideal of life which constitutes our moral personality, our plan of being ourself, of making
common sense ethical decisions. But, he thought, this was only true insofar as our conscience also
required loyalty to "a mysterious higher or deeper self".[129] In the modern Christian tradition this
approach achieved expression with Dietrich Bonhoeffer who stated during his imprisonment by the
Nazis in World War II that conscience for him was more than practical reason, indeed it came from a
"depth which lies beyond a man's own will and his own reason and it makes itself heard as the call
of human existence to unity with itself."[130] For Bonhoeffer a guilty conscience arose as an
indictment of the loss of this unity and as a warning against the loss of one's self; primarily, he
thought, it is directed not towards a particular kind of doing but towards a particular mode of being.
It protests against a doing which imperils the unity of this being with itself.[61] Conscience for
Bonhoeffer did not, like shame, embrace or pass judgment on the morality of the whole of its
owner's life; it reacted only to certain definite actions: "it recalls what is long past and represents
this disunion as something which is already accomplished and irreparable".[131] The man with a
conscience, he believed, fights a lonely battle against the "overwhelming forces of inescapable
situations" which demand moral decisions despite the likelihood of adverse consequences.[131]
Simon Soloveychik has similarly claimed that the truth distributed in the world, as the statement
about human dignity, as the affirmation of the line between good and evil, lives in people as
conscience.[132]

As Hannah Arendt pointed out, however, (following the utilitarian John Stuart Mill on this point): a
bad conscience does not necessarily signify a bad character; in fact only those who affirm a
 commitment to applying moral standards will be troubled with
remorse, guilt or shame by a bad conscience and their need to
regain integrity and wholeness of the self.[133][134] Representing
our soul or true self by analogy as our house, Arendt wrote that
"conscience is the anticipation of the fellow who awaits you if
and when you come home."[135] Arendt believed that people who
are unfamiliar with the process of silent critical reflection about
what they say and do will not mind contradicting themselves by
Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1932)
an immoral act or crime, since they can "count on its being
forgotten the next moment;" bad people are not full of regrets.[135] Arendt also wrote eloquently on
the problem of languages distinguishing the word consciousness from conscience. One reason, she
held, was that conscience, as we understand it in moral or legal matters, is supposedly always
present within us, just like consciousness: "and this conscience is also supposed to tell us what to
do and what to repent; before it became the lumen naturale or Kant's practical reason, it was the
voice of God."[136]

Albert Einstein associated

conscience with suprapersonal
thoughts, feelings and
aspirations.

Albert Einstein, as a self-professed adherent of humanism and rationalism, likewise viewed an

enlightened religious person as one whose conscience reflects that he "has, to the best of his ability,
liberated himself from the fetters of his selfish desires and is preoccupied with thoughts, feelings
and aspirations to which he clings because of their super-personal value."[137] Einstein often referred
to the "inner voice" as a source of both moral and physical knowledge: "Quantum mechanics is very
impressive. But an inner voice tells me that it is not the real thing. The theory produces a good deal
but hardly brings one closer to the secrets of the Old One. I am at all events convinced that He does
not play dice."[138]
Simone Weil who fought for the French resistance (the Maquis) argued in her final book The Need
for Roots: Prelude to a Declaration of Duties Towards Mankind that for society to become more just
and protective of liberty, obligations should take precedence over rights in moral and political
philosophy and a spiritual awakening should occur in the conscience of most citizens, so that social
obligations are viewed as fundamentally having a transcendent origin and a beneficent impact on
human character when fulfilled.[139][140] Simone Weil also in that work provided a psychological
explanation for the mental peace associated with a good conscience: "the liberty of men of goodwill,
though limited in the sphere of action, is complete in that of conscience. For, having incorporated
the rules into their own being, the prohibited possibilities no longer present themselves to the mind,
and have not to be rejected."[141]

Alternatives to such metaphysical and idealist opinions about conscience arose from realist and
materialist perspectives such as those of Charles Darwin. Darwin suggested that "any animal
whatever, endowed with well-marked social instincts, the parental and filial affections being here
included, would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience, as soon as its intellectual powers
had become as well, or as nearly as well developed, as in man."[142] Émile Durkheim held that the
soul and conscience were particular forms of an impersonal principle diffused in the relevant group
and communicated by totemic ceremonies.[143] A. J. Ayer was a more recent realist who held that
the existence of conscience was an empirical question to be answered by sociological research into
the moral habits of a given person or group of people, and what causes them to have precisely
those habits and feelings. Such an inquiry, he believed, fell wholly within the scope of the existing
social sciences.[144] George Edward Moore bridged the idealistic and sociological views of 'critical'
and 'traditional' conscience in stating that the idea of abstract 'rightness' and the various degrees of
the specific emotion excited by it are what constitute, for many persons, the specifically 'moral
sentiment' or conscience. For others, however, an action seems to be properly termed 'internally
right', merely because they have previously regarded it as right, the idea of 'rightness' being present
in some way to his or her mind, but not necessarily among his or her deliberately constructed
motives.[145]

The French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir in A Very Easy Death (Une mort très douce, 1964)
reflects within her own conscience about her mother's attempts to develop such a moral sympathy
and understanding of others.[146]

Michael Walzer claimed that the

"The sight of her tears grieved me; but I soon realised
growth of religious toleration in
that she was weeping over her failure, without caring
Western nations arose amongst
about what was happening inside me ... We might still
other things, from the general
have come to an understanding if, instead of asking
recognition that private conscience
signified some inner divine presence everybody to pray for my soul, she had given me a little
regardless of the religious faith confidence and sympathy. I know now what prevented
professed and from the general her from doing so: she had too much to pay back, too
respectability, piety, self-limitation, many wounds to salve, to put herself in another's place.
and sectarian discipline which In actual doing she made every sacrifice, but her
marked most of the men who feelings did not take her out of herself. Besides, how
[147]
claimed the rights of conscience. could she have tried to understand me since she
Walzer also argued that attempts by avoided looking into her own heart? As for discovering
courts to define conscience as a an attitude that would not have set us apart, nothing in
merely personal moral code or as her life had ever prepared her for such a thing: the
sincere belief, risked encouraging an unexpected sent her into a panic, because she had been
anarchy of moral egotisms, unless taught never to think, act or feel except in a ready-made
such a code and motive was framework."
necessarily tempered with shared
— Simone de Beauvoir. A Very Easy Death. Penguin Books.
moral knowledge: derived either from
London. 1982. p. 60.
the connection of the individual to a
universal spiritual order, or from the
common principles and mutual engagements of unselfish people.[148] Ronald Dworkin maintains
that constitutional protection of freedom of conscience is central to democracy but creates
personal duties to live up to it: "Freedom of conscience presupposes a personal responsibility of
reflection, and it loses much of its meaning when that responsibility is ignored. A good life need not
be an especially reflective one; most of the best lives are just lived rather than studied. But there are
moments that cry out for self-assertion, when a passive bowing to fate or a mechanical decision out
of deference or convenience is treachery, because it forfeits dignity for ease."[149] Edward Conze
stated it is important for individual and collective moral growth that we recognise the illusion of our
conscience being wholly located in our body; indeed both our conscience and wisdom expand when
we act in an unselfish way and conversely "repressed compassion results in an unconscious sense
of guilt."[150]
 Peter Singer: distinguished between
immature "traditional" and highly reasoned
"critical" conscience

The philosopher Peter Singer considers that usually when we describe an action as conscientious in
the critical sense we do so in order to deny either that the relevant agent was motivated by selfish
desires, like greed or ambition, or that he acted on whim or impulse.[151]

Moral anti-realists debate whether the moral facts necessary to activate conscience supervene on
natural facts with a posteriori necessity; or arise a priori because moral facts have a primary
intension and naturally identical worlds may be presumed morally identical.[152] It has also been
argued that there is a measure of moral luck in how circumstances create the obstacles which
conscience must overcome to apply moral principles or human rights and that with the benefit of
enforceable property rights and the rule of law, access to universal health care plus the absence of
high adult and infant mortality from conditions such as malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS and famine,
people in relatively prosperous developed countries have been spared pangs of conscience
associated with the physical necessity to steal scraps of food, bribe tax inspectors or police
officers, and commit murder in guerrilla wars against corrupt government forces or rebel armies.[153]
Roger Scruton has claimed that true understanding of conscience and its relationship with morality
has been hampered by an "impetuous" belief that philosophical questions are solved through the
analysis of language in an area where clarity threatens vested interests.[154] Susan Sontag similarly
argued that it was a symptom of psychological immaturity not to recognise that many morally
immature people willingly experience a form of delight, in some an erotic breaking of taboo, when
witnessing violence, suffering and pain being inflicted on others.[155] Jonathan Glover wrote that
most of us "do not spend our lives on endless landscape gardening of our self" and our conscience
is likely shaped not so much by heroic struggles, as by choice of partner, friends and job, as well as
where we choose to live.[156] Garrett Hardin, in a famous article called "The Tragedy of the
Commons", argues that any instance in which society appeals to an individual exploiting a
commons to restrain himself or herself for the general good—by means of his or her conscience—
merely sets up a system which, by selectively diverting societal power and physical resources to
those lacking in conscience, while fostering guilt (including anxiety about his or her individual
contribution to over-population) in people acting upon it, actually works toward the elimination of
conscience from the race.[157][158]

John Ralston Saul: consumers

risk turning over their
conscience to technical experts
and to the ideology of free
markets

John Ralston Saul expressed the view in The Unconscious Civilization that in contemporary
developed nations many people have acquiesced in turning over their sense of right and wrong, their
critical conscience, to technical experts; willingly restricting their moral freedom of choice to limited
consumer actions ruled by the ideology of the free market, while citizen participation in public
affairs is limited to the isolated act of voting and private-interest lobbying turns even elected
representatives against the public interest.[159]

Some argue on religious or philosophical grounds that it is blameworthy to act against conscience,
even if the judgement of conscience is likely to be erroneous (say because it is inadequately
informed about the facts, or prevailing moral (humanist or religious), professional ethical, legal and
human rights norms).[160] Failure to acknowledge and accept that conscientious judgements can be
seriously mistaken, may only promote situations where one's conscience is manipulated by others
to provide unwarranted justifications for non-virtuous and selfish acts; indeed, insofar as it is
appealed to as glorifying ideological content, and an associated extreme level of devotion, without
adequate constraint of external, altruistic, normative justification, conscience may be considered
morally blind and dangerous both to the individual concerned and humanity as a whole.[161]
Langston argues that philosophers of virtue ethics have unnecessarily neglected conscience for,
once conscience is trained so that the principles and rules it applies are those one would want all
others to live by, its practise cultivates and sustains the virtues; indeed, amongst people in what
each society considers to be the highest state of moral development there is little disagreement
about how to act.[8] Emmanuel Levinas viewed conscience as a revelatory encountering of
resistance to our selfish powers, developing morality by calling into question our naive sense of
freedom of will to use such powers arbitrarily, or with violence, this process being more severe the
more rigorously the goal of our self was to obtain control.[162] In other words, the welcoming of the
Other, to Levinas, was the very essence of conscience properly conceived; it encouraged our ego to
accept the fallibility of assuming things about other people, that selfish freedom of will "does not
have the last word" and that realising this has a transcendent purpose: "I am not alone ... in
conscience I have an experience that is not commensurate with any a priori [see a priori and a
posteriori] framework-a conceptless experience."[162]

Conscientious acts and the law

Lester Ott, conscientious

objector during the First World
War

In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, English litigants began to petition the Lord Chancellor of
England for relief from unjust judgments.[163] As Keeper of the King's Conscience, the Chancellor
intervened to allow for "merciful exceptions" to the King's laws, "to ensure that the King's conscience
was right before God".[163] The Chancellor's office evolved into the Court of Chancery and the
Chancellor's decisions evolved into the body of law known as equity.[163]

English humanist lawyers in the 16th and 17th centuries interpreted conscience as a collection of
universal principles given to man by god at creation to be applied by reason; this gradually reforming
the medieval Roman law-based system with forms of action, written pleadings, use of juries and
patterns of litigation such as Demurrer and Assumpsit that displayed an increased concern for
elements of right and wrong on the actual facts.[164] A conscience vote in a parliament allows
legislators to vote without restrictions from any political party to which they may belong.[165] In his
trial in Jerusalem Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann claimed he was simply following legal orders
under paragraph 48 of the German Military Code which provided: "punishability of an action or
omission is not excused on the ground that the person considered his behaviour required by his
conscience or the prescripts of his religion".[166] The United Nations Universal Declaration on Human
Rights (UDHR) which is part of international customary law specifically refers to conscience in
Articles 1 and 18.[4] Likewise, the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(ICCPR) mentions conscience in Article 18.1.[167]

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed
with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of
brotherhood

— United Nations, Universal Declaration on Human Rights Article 1

Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right
includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in
community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in
teaching, practice, worship and observance

— United Nations, Universal Declaration on Human Rights Article 18

Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This
right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice, and
freedom, either individually or in community with others and in public or private,
to manifest his religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching

— United Nations, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 18.1

It has been argued that these articles provide international legal obligations protecting
conscientious objectors from service in the military.[168]

Nonviolent protestors in Washington, D.C.

in 2010 opposed to the Iraq War
 Amnesty International protects
prisoners of conscience. Stamp
from Faroe Islands, 1986.

John Rawls in his A Theory of Justice defines a conscientious objector as an individual prepared to
undertake, in public (and often despite widespread condemnation), an action of civil disobedience
to a legal rule justifying it (also in public) by reference to contrary foundational social virtues (such
as justice as liberty or fairness) and the principles of morality and law derived from them.[169] Rawls
considered civil disobedience should be viewed as an appeal, warning or admonishment (showing
general respect and fidelity to the rule of law by the non-violence and transparency of methods
adopted) that a law breaches a community's fundamental virtue of justice.[169] Objections to Rawls'
theory include first, its inability to accommodate conscientious objections to the society's basic
appreciation of justice or to emerging moral or ethical principles (such as respect for the rights of
the natural environment) which are not yet part of it and second, the difficulty of predictably and
consistently determining that a majority decision is just or unjust.[170] Conscientious objection (also
called conscientious refusal or evasion) to obeying a law, should not arise from unreasoning, naive
"traditional conscience", for to do so merely encourages infantile abdication of responsibility to
calibrate the law against moral or human rights norms and disrespect for democratic
institutions.[171] Instead it should be based on "critical conscience' – seriously thought out,
conceptually mature, personal moral or religious beliefs held to be fundamentally incompatible (that
is, not merely inconsistent on the basis of selfish desires, whim or impulse), for example, either with
all laws requiring conscription for military service, or legal compulsion to fight for or financially
support the State in a particular war.[172] A famous example arose when Henry David Thoreau the
author of Walden was willingly jailed for refusing to pay a tax because he profoundly disagreed with
a government policy and was frustrated by the corruption and injustice of the democratic machinery
of the state.[173] A more recent case concerned Kimberly Rivera, a private in the US Army and mother
of four children who, having served three months in Iraq War decided the conflict was immoral and
sought refugee status in Canada in 2012 (see List of Iraq War resisters), but was deported and
arrested in the US.[174]

In the Second World War, Great Britain granted conscientious-objection status not just to complete
pacifists, but to those who objected to fighting in that particular war; this was done partly out of
 genuine
"Unjust laws exist; shall we be content to obey them, or
respect,
shall we endeavour to amend them, and obey them until
but also to
we have succeeded, or shall we transgress them at
avoid the
once? ... A man has not everything to do but something;
disgracefu
and because he cannot do everything, it is not necessary
l and futile
that he should do something wrong ... It is for no
persecutio
particular item in the tax bill that I refuse to pay it. I
ns of
simply wish to refuse allegiance to the State, to
conscienti
withdraw and stand aloof from it effectually. I do not
ous
care to trace the course of my dollar if I could, till it buys
objectors
Henry David Thoreau: Must the a man, or a musket to shoot one with—the dollar is
that
citizen ever for a moment, or in innocent—but I am concerned to trace the effects of my
occurred
the least degree, resign his
allegiance ... Must the citizen ever for a moment, or in
conscience to the legislator? during the
the least degree, resign his conscience to the legislator?
First
Why has every man a conscience, then?"
World War.[175]

— Henry David Thoreau. Civil Disobedience. 1848. reprinted

Amnesty International organises
Signet Classic, New York. 1960 pp. 228, 229, 236.
campaigns to protect those arrested
and or incarcerated as a prisoner of
conscience because of their conscientious beliefs, particularly concerning intellectual, political and
artistic freedom of expression and association.[176] Aung San Suu Kyi of Burma, was the winner of
the 2009 Amnesty International Ambassador of Conscience Award. In legislation, a conscience
clause is a provision in a statute that excuses a health professional from complying with the law (for
example legalising surgical or pharmaceutical abortion) if it is incompatible with religious or
conscientious beliefs.[177] Expressed justifications for refusing to obey laws because of conscience
vary. Many conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons—notably, members of the historic
peace churches are pacifist by doctrine. Other objections can stem from a deep sense of
responsibility toward humanity as a whole, or from the conviction that even acceptance of work
under military orders acknowledges the principle of conscription that should be everywhere
condemned before the world can ever become safe for real democracy.[178] A conscientious
objector, however, does not have a primary aim of changing the law.[169] John Dewey considered
that conscientious objectors were often the victims of "moral innocency" and inexpertness in moral
training: "the moving force of events is always too much for conscience".[179] The remedy was not to
deplore the wickedness of those who manipulate world power, but to connect conscience with
forces moving in another direction- to build institutions and social environments predicated on the
rule of law, for example, "then will conscience itself have compulsive power instead of being forever
the martyred and the coerced."[179] As an example, Albert Einstein who had advocated conscientious
objection during the First World War and had been a longterm supporter of War Resisters'
International reasoned that "radical pacifism" could not be justified in the face of Nazi rearmament
and advocated a world federalist organization with its own professional army.[180] Samuel Johnson
pointed out that an appeal to conscience should not allow the law to bring unjust suffering upon
another. Conscience, according to Johnson, was nothing more than a conviction felt by ourselves of
something to be done or something to be avoided; in questions of simple unperplexed morality,
conscience is very often a guide that may be trusted.[181] But before conscience can conclusively
determine what morally should be done, he thought that the state of the question should be
thoroughly known.[181] "No man's conscience", said Johnson "can tell him the right of another man ...
it is a conscience very ill informed that violates the rights of one man, for the convenience of
another."[181]

Gandhi in Noakhali, 1946: civil resistance

or satyagraha

Global warming protestors in Chicago 2008

 Chiune Sugihara practised
conscientious noncompliance in
issuing visas to fleeing Jews in
Lithuania in 1939.

NASA climate scientist James

Hansen arrested in 2011 for civil
disobedience against laws
allowing a tar sands oil pipeline

Civil disobedience as nonviolent protest or civil resistance are also acts of conscience, but are
designed by those who undertake them chiefly to change, by appealing to the majority and
democratic processes, laws or government policies perceived to be incoherent with fundamental
social virtues and principles (such as justice, equality or respect for intrinsic human dignity).[182]
Civil disobedience, in a properly functioning democracy, allows a minority who feel strongly that a
law infringes their sense of justice (but have no capacity to obtain legislative amendments or a
referendum on the issue) to make a potentially apathetic or uninformed majority take account of the
intensity of opposing views.[183] A notable example of civil resistance or satyagraha ("satya" in
sanskrit means "truth and compassion", "agraha" means "firmness of will") involved Mahatma
Gandhi making salt in India when that act was prohibited by a British statute, in order to create
moral pressure for law reform.[184] Rosa Parks similarly acted on conscience in 1955 in
Montgomery, Alabama refusing a legal order to give up her seat to make room for a white
passenger; her action (and the similar earlier act of 15-year-old Claudette Colvin) led to the
Montgomery bus boycott.[185] Rachel Corrie was a US citizen allegedly killed by a bulldozer operated
by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) while involved in direct action (based on the nonviolent principles
of Martin Luther King Jr. and Mahatma Gandhi) to prevent demolition of the home of local
Palestinian pharmacist Samir Nasrallah.[186] Al Gore has argued "If you're a young person looking at
the future of this planet and looking at what is being done right now, and not done, I believe we have
reached the stage where it is time for civil disobedience to prevent the construction of new coal
plants that do not have carbon capture and sequestration."[187] In 2011, NASA climate scientist
James E. Hansen, environmental leader Phil Radford and Professor Bill McKibben were arrested for
opposing a tar sands oil pipeline[188][189] and Canadian renewable energy professor Mark Jaccard
was arrested for opposing mountain-top coal mining;[190] in his book Storms of my Grandchildren
Hansen calls for similar civil resistance on a global scale to help replace the 'business-as-usual'
Kyoto Protocol cap and trade system, with a progressive carbon tax at emission source on the oil,
gas and coal industries – revenue being paid as dividends to low carbon footprint
families.[191][192][193]

Notable historical examples of conscientious noncompliance in a different professional context

included the manipulation of the visa process in 1939 by Japanese Consul-General Chiune Sugihara
in Kaunas (the temporary capital of Lithuania between Germany and the Soviet Union) and by Raoul
Wallenberg in Hungary in 1944[194] to allow Jews to escape almost certain death.[195] Ho Feng-Shan
the Chinese Consul-General in Vienna in 1939, defied orders from the Chinese ambassador in Berlin
to issue Jews with visas for Shanghai.[196] John Rabe a German member of the Nazi Party likewise
saved thousands of Chinese from massacre by the Japanese military at Nanjing.[197] The White
Rose German student movement against the Nazis declared in their 4th leaflet: "We will not be
silent. We are your bad conscience. The White Rose will not leave you in peace!"[198] Conscientious
noncompliance may be the only practical option for citizens wishing to affirm the existence of an
international moral order or 'core' historical rights (such as the right to life, right to a fair trial and
freedom of opinion) in states where non-violent protest or civil disobedience are met with prolonged
arbitrary detention, torture, forced disappearance, murder or persecution.[199] The controversial
Milgram experiment into obedience by Stanley Milgram showed that many people lack the
psychological resources to openly resist authority, even when they are directed to act callously and
inhumanely against an innocent victim.[200]
World conscience

World conscience is the universalist idea that with ready global communication, all people on earth
will no longer be morally estranged from one another, whether it be culturally, ethnically, or
geographically; instead they will conceive ethics from the utopian point of view of the universe,
eternity or infinity, rather than have their duties and obligations defined by forces arising solely
within the restrictive boundaries of "blood and territory".[5]

Often this derives from a spiritual or natural law perspective, that for world peace to be achieved,
conscience, properly understood, should be generally considered as not necessarily linked (often
destructively) to fundamentalist religious ideologies, but as an aspect of universal consciousness,
access to which is the common heritage of humanity.[201] Thinking predicated on the development
of world conscience is common to members of the Global Ecovillage Network such as the Findhorn
Foundation, international conservation organisations like Fauna and Flora International, as well as
performers of world music such as Alan Stivell.[202] Non-government organizations, particularly
through their work in agenda-setting, policy-making and implementation of human rights-related
policy, have been referred to as the conscience of the world[203]

Edward O Wilson has developed the idea of consilience to encourage coherence of global moral and
scientific knowledge supporting the premise that "only unified learning, universally shared, makes
accurate foresight and wise choice possible".[204] Thus, world conscience is a concept that overlaps
with the Gaia hypothesis in advocating a balance of moral, legal, scientific and economic solutions
to modern transnational problems such as global poverty and global warming, through strategies
such as environmental ethics, climate ethics, natural conservation, ecology, cosmopolitanism,
sustainability and sustainable development, biosequestration and legal protection of the biosphere
and biodiversity.[205][206][207][208][209] The NGO 350.org, for example, seeks to attract world
conscience to the problems associated with elevation in atmospheric greenhouse gas
concentrations.[210][211]
 Internet Map. Ninian Smart
predicts global communication
will facilitate world conscience.

The microcredit initiatives of Nobel Peace Prize winner Muhammad Yunus have been described as
inspiring a "war on poverty that blends social conscience and business savvy".[212]

The Green party politician Bob Brown (who was arrested by the Tasmanian state police for a
conscientious act of civil disobedience during the Franklin Dam protest) expresses world conscience
in these terms: "the universe, through us, is evolving towards experiencing, understanding and
making choices about its future'; one example of policy outcomes from such thinking being a global
tax (see Tobin tax) to alleviate global poverty and protect the biosphere, amounting to 1/10 of 1%
placed on the worldwide speculative currency market.[213] Such an approach sees world conscience
best expressing itself through political reforms promoting democratically based globalisation or
planetary democracy (for example internet voting for global governance organisations (see world
government) based on the model of "one person, one vote, one value") which gradually will replace
contemporary market-based globalisation.[214]

Underwater American nuclear test in the

Pacific. Worldwide expressions of
'conscience' against such explosions
caused the French Government to cease
atmospheric tests at Mururoa for political
reasons.

The American cardiologist Bernard Lown and the Russian cardiologist Yevgeniy Chazov were
motivated in conscience through studying the catastrophic public health consequences of nuclear
war in establishing International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War (IPPNW) which was
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1985 and continues to work to "heal an ailing planet".[215]
Worldwide expressions of conscience contributed to the decision of the French government to halt
atmospheric nuclear tests at Mururoa in the Pacific in 1974 after 41 such explosions (although
below-ground nuclear tests continued there into the 1990s).[216]

A challenge to world conscience was provided by an influential 1968 article by Garrett Hardin that
critically analyzed the dilemma in which multiple individuals, acting independently after rationally
consulting self-interest (and, he claimed, the apparently low 'survival-of-the-fittest' value of
conscience-led actions) ultimately destroy a shared limited resource, even though each
acknowledges such an outcome is not in anyone's long-term interest.[157] Hardin's conclusion that
commons areas are practicably achievable only in conditions of low population density (and so their
continuance requires state restriction on the freedom to breed), created controversy additionally
through his direct deprecation of the role of conscience in achieving individual decisions, policies
and laws that facilitate global justice and peace, as well as sustainability and sustainable
development of world commons areas, for example including those officially designated such under
United Nations treaties (see common heritage of humanity).[217] Areas designated common
heritage of humanity under international law include the Moon, Outer Space, deep sea bed,
Antarctica, the world cultural and natural heritage (see World Heritage Convention) and the human
genome.[218] It will be a significant challenge for world conscience that as world oil, coal, mineral,
timber, agricultural and water reserves are depleted, there will be increasing pressure to
commercially exploit common heritage of mankind areas.[219]

Darfur refugee camp in Chad: a challenge

to the world's conscience.

The philosopher Peter Singer has argued that the United Nations Millennium Development Goals
represent the emergence of an ethics based not on national boundaries but on the idea of one
world.[220] Ninian Smart has similarly predicted that the increase in global travel and communication
will gradually draw the world's religions towards a pluralistic and transcendental humanism
characterized by an "open spirit" of empathy and compassion.[221]
 Sombrero Galaxy: A United Nations treaty
declares Outer Space the common heritage
of humanity. Garrett Hardin doubted the
capacity of conscience to protect such
commons areas

Noam Chomsky has argued that forces opposing the development of such a world conscience
include free market ideologies that valorise corporate greed in nominal electoral democracies where
advertising, shopping malls and indebtedness, shape citizens into apathetic consumers in relation
to information and access necessary for democratic participation.[222] John Passmore has argued
that mystical considerations about the global expansion of all human consciousness, should take
into account that if as a species we do become something much superior to what we are now, it will
be as a consequence of conscience not only implanting a goal of moral perfectibility, but assisting
us to remain periodically anxious, passionate and discontented, for these are necessary
components of care and compassion.[223] The Committee on Conscience of the US Holocaust
Memorial Museum has targeted genocides such as those in Rwanda, Bosnia, Darfur, the Congo and
Chechnya as challenges to the world's conscience.[224] Oscar Arias Sanchez has criticised global
arms industry spending as a failure of conscience by nation states: "When a country decides to
invest in arms, rather than in education, housing, the environment, and health services for its people,
it is depriving a whole generation of its right to prosperity and happiness. We have produced one
firearm for every ten inhabitants of this planet, and yet we have not bothered to end hunger when
such a feat is well within our reach. This is not a necessary or inevitable state of affairs. It is a
deliberate choice" (see Campaign Against Arms Trade).[225] US House of Representatives Speaker
Nancy Pelosi, after meeting with the 14th Dalai Lama during the 2008 violent protests in Tibet and
aftermath said: "The situation in Tibet is a challenge to the conscience of the world."[226] Nelson
Mandela, through his example and words, has been described as having shaped the conscience of
the world.[227]
The Right Livelihood Award is awarded yearly in Sweden to those people, mostly strongly motivated
by conscience, who have made exemplary practical contributions to resolving the great challenges
facing our planet and its people.[228] In 2009, for example, along with Catherine Hamlin (obstetric
fistula and see fistula foundation)), David Suzuki (promoting awareness of climate change) and Alyn
Ware (nuclear disarmament), René Ngongo shared the Right Livelihood Award "for his courage in
confronting the forces that are destroying the Congo Basin's rainforests and building political
support for their conservation and sustainable use".[229][230] Avaaz is one of the largest global on-
line organizations launched in January 2007 to promote conscience-driven activism on issues such
as climate change, human rights, animal rights, corruption, poverty, and conflict, thus "closing the
gap between the world we have and the world most people everywhere want".[231]

Notable examples of modern acts based on conscience

Graffiti portrait in Ramallah of murdered

Arab cartoon artist Naji al-Ali

In a notable contemporary act of conscience, Christian bushwalker Brenda Hean protested against
the flooding of Lake Pedder despite threats and that ultimately led to her death.[232] Another was the
campaign by Ken Saro-Wiwa against oil extraction by multinational corporations in Nigeria that led
to his execution.[233] So too was the act by the Tank Man, or the Unknown Rebel photographed
holding his shopping bag in the path of tanks during the protests at Beijing's Tiananmen Square on
5 June 1989.[234] The actions of United Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld to try to
achieve peace in the Congo despite the (eventuating) threat to his life were strongly motivated by
conscience as is reflected in his diary, Vägmärken (Markings).[235] Another example involved the
actions of Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson, Jr to try to prevent the My Lai massacre in the Vietnam
War.[236] Evan Pederick voluntarily confessed and was convicted of the Sydney Hilton bombing
stating that his conscience could not tolerate the guilt and that "I guess I was quite unique in the
prison system in that I had to keep proving my guilt, whereas everyone else said they were
innocent."[237] Vasili Arkhipov was a Russian naval officer on out-of-radio-contact Soviet submarine
B-59 being depth-charged by US warships during the Cuban Missile Crisis whose dissent when two
other officers decided to launch a nuclear torpedo (unanimous agreement to launch was required)
may have averted a nuclear war.[238] In 1963 Buddhist monk Thich Quang Duc performed a famous
act of self-immolation to protest against alleged persecution of his faith by the Vietnamese Ngo
Dinh Diem regime.[239]
 Gravesite of Anna Politkovskaya
in Russia

Conscience played a major role in the actions by anaesthetist Stephen Bolsin to whistleblow (see
list of whistleblowers) on incompetent paediatric cardiac surgeons at the Bristol Royal Infirmary.[240]
Jeffrey Wigand was motivated by conscience to expose the Big Tobacco scandal, revealing that
executives of the companies knew that cigarettes were addictive and approved the addition of
carcinogenic ingredients to the cigarettes.[241] David Graham, a Food and Drug Administration
employee, was motivated by conscience to whistleblow that the arthritis pain-reliever Vioxx
increased the risk of cardiovascular deaths although the manufacturer suppressed this
information.[242] Rick Piltz, from the U.S. global warming Science Program, blew the whistle on a
White House official who ignored majority scientific opinion to edit a climate change report ("Our
Changing Planet") to reflect the Bush administration's view that the problem was unlikely to
exist.[243] Muntadhar al-Zaidi, an Iraqi journalist, was imprisoned and allegedly tortured for his act of
conscience in throwing his shoes at George W. Bush.[244] Mordechai Vanunu, an Israeli former
nuclear technician, acted on conscience to reveal details of Israel's nuclear weapons program to the
British press in 1986; was kidnapped by Israeli agents, transported to Israel, convicted of treason
and spent 18 years in prison, including more than 11 years in solitary confinement.[245]
 Gao Zhisheng human rights
lawyer abducted in China

Gravesite of Neda Agha-Soltan in Behesht-

e Zahra cemetery in Iran

Protests in India against the 2012 Delhi

gang rape case

At the awards ceremony for the 200 metres at the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City John
Carlos, Tommie Smith and Peter Norman ignored death threats and official warnings to take part in
an anti-racism protest[246] that destroyed their respective careers.[247] W. Mark Felt an agent of the
United States Federal Bureau of Investigation who retired in 1973 as the Bureau's Associate Director,
acted on conscience to provide reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein with information that
resulted in the Watergate scandal.[248] Conscience was a major factor in US Public Health Service
officer Peter Buxtun revealing the Tuskegee syphilis experiment to the public.[249] The 2008 attack
by the Israeli military on civilian areas of Palestinian Gaza was described as a "stain on the world's
conscience".[250] Conscience was a major factor in the refusal of Aung San Suu Kyi to leave Burma
despite house arrest and persecution by the military dictatorship in that country.[251] Conscience
was a factor in Peter Galbraith's criticism of fraud in the 2009 Afghanistan election despite it costing
him his United Nations job.[252] Conscience motivated Bunnatine Greenhouse to expose
irregularities in the contracting of the Halliburton company for work in Iraq.[253] Naji al-Ali a popular
cartoon artist in the Arab world, loved for his defense of the ordinary people, and for his criticism of
repression and despotism by both the Israeli military and Yasser Arafat's PLO, was murdered for
refusing to compromise with his conscience.[254] The journalist Anna Politkovskaya provided (prior
to her murder) an example of conscience in her opposition to the Second Chechen War and then-
Russian President Vladimir Putin.[255] Conscience motivated the Russian human rights activist
Natalia Estemirova, who was abducted and murdered in Grozny, Chechnya in 2009.[256] The Death of
Neda Agha-Soltan arose from conscience-driven protests against the 2009 Iranian presidential
election.[257] Muslim lawyer Shirin Ebadi (winner of the 2003 Nobel Peace Prize) has been described
as the 'conscience of the Islamic Republic' for her work in protecting the human rights of women
and children in Iran.[258] The human rights lawyer Gao Zhisheng, often referred to as the 'conscience
of China' and who had previously been arrested and allegedly tortured after calling for respect for
human rights and for constitutional reform, was abducted by Chinese security agents in February
2009.[259] 2010 Nobel Peace Prize winner Liu Xiaobo in his final statement before being sentenced
by a closed Chinese court to over a decade in jail as a political prisoner of conscience stated: "For
hatred is corrosive of a person’s wisdom and conscience; the mentality of enmity can poison a
nation’s spirit."[260] Sergei Magnitsky, a lawyer in Russia, was arrested, held without trial for almost a
year and died in custody, as a result of exposing corruption.[261] On 6 October 2001 Laura Whittle
was a naval gunner on HMAS Adelaide (FFG 01) under orders to implement a new border protection
policy when they encountered the SIEV-4 (Suspected Illegal Entry Vessel-4) refugee boat in choppy
seas. After being ordered to fire warning shots from her 50 calibre machinegun to make the boat
turn back she saw it beginning to break up and sink with a father on board holding out his young
daughter that she might be saved (see Children Overboard Affair). Whittle jumped without a life vest
12 metres into the sea to help save the refugees from drowning thinking "this isn't right; this isn't
how things should be."[262] In February 2012 journalist Marie Colvin was deliberately targeted and
killed by the Syrian Army in Homs during the Syrian uprising and Siege of Homs, after she decided
to stay at the "epicentre of the storm" in order to "expose what is happening". In October 2012 the
Taliban organised the attempted murder of Malala Yousafzai a teenage girl who had been
campaigning, despite their threats, for female education in Pakistan.[263] In December 2012 the
2012 Delhi gang rape case was said to have stirred the collective conscience of India to civil
disobedience and public protest at the lack of legal action against rapists in that country (see Rape
in India)[264][265] In June 2013 Edward Snowden revealed details of a US National Security Agency
internet and electronic communication PRISM (surveillance program) because of a conscience-felt
obligation to the freedom of humanity greater than obedience to the laws that bound his
employment.[266][267]

In literature, art, film, and music

Anton Pavlovich Chekhov.

Tretyakov Gallery.

Fyodor Dostoevsky, author of

Crime and Punishment

The ancient epic of the Indian subcontinent, the Mahabharata of Vyasa, contains two pivotal
moments of conscience. The first occurs when the warrior Arjuna being overcome with compassion
against killing his opposing relatives in war, receives counsel (see Bhagavad-Gita) from Krishna
about his spiritual duty ("work as though you are performing a sacrifice for the general good").[268]
The second, at the end of the saga, is when king Yudhishthira having alone survived the moral tests
of life, is offered eternal bliss, only to refuse it because a faithful dog is prevented from coming with
him by purported divine rules and laws.[269] The French author Montaigne (1533–1592) in one of the
most celebrated of his essays ("On experience") expressed the benefits of living with a clear
conscience: "Our duty is to compose our character, not to compose books, to win not battles and
provinces, but order and tranquillity in our conduct. Our great and glorious masterpiece is to live
properly".[270] In his famous Japanese travel journal Oku no Hosomichi (Narrow Road to the Deep
North) composed of mixed haiku poetry and prose, Matsuo Bashō (1644–94) in attempting to
describe the eternal in this perishable world is often moved in conscience; for example by a thicket
of summer grass being all that remains of the dreams and ambitions of ancient warriors.[271]
Chaucer's "Franklin's Tale" in The Canterbury Tales recounts how a young suitor releases a wife from
a rash promise because of the respect in his conscience for the freedom to be truthful, gentle and
generous.[272]

Eugène Delacroix, Hamlet and

Horatio in the Graveyard (1839,
oil on canvas)

The critic A. C. Bradley discusses the central problem of Shakespeare's tragic character Hamlet as
one where conscience in the form of moral scruples deters the young Prince with his "great anxiety
to do right" from obeying his father's hell-bound ghost and murdering the usurping King ("is't not
perfect conscience to quit him with this arm?" (v.ii.67)).[273]

Bradley develops a theory about Hamlet's moral agony relating to a conflict between "traditional"
and "critical" conscience: "The conventional moral ideas of his time, which he shared with the Ghost,
told him plainly that he ought to avenge his father; but a deeper conscience in him, which was in
advance of his time, contended with these explicit conventional ideas. It is because this deeper
conscience remains below the surface that he fails to recognise it, and fancies he is hindered by
cowardice or sloth or passion or what not; but it emerges into light in that speech to Horatio. And it
is just because he has this nobler moral nature in him that we admire and love him".[274] The opening
words of Shakespeare's Sonnet 94 ("They that have pow'r to hurt, and will do none") have been
admired as a description of conscience.[275] So has John Donne's commencement of his poem
s:Goodfriday, 1613. Riding Westward: "Let man's soul be a sphere, and then, in this, Th' intelligence
that moves, devotion is;"[276]
Anton Chekhov in his plays The Seagull, Uncle Vanya and Three Sisters describes the tortured
emotional states of doctors who at some point in their careers have turned their back on
conscience.[277] In his short stories, Chekhov also explored how people misunderstood the voice of
a tortured conscience. A promiscuous student, for example, in The Fit describes it as a "dull pain,
indefinite, vague; it was like anguish and the most acute fear and despair ... in his breast, under the
heart" and the young doctor examining the misunderstood agony of compassion experienced by the
factory owner's daughter in From a Case Book calls it an "unknown, mysterious power ... in fact
close at hand and watching him."[278] Characteristically, Chekhov's own conscience drove him on the
long journey to Sakhalin to record and alleviate the harsh conditions of the prisoners at that remote
outpost. As Irina Ratushinskaya writes in the introduction to that work: "Abandoning everything, he
travelled to the distant island of Sakhalin, the most feared place of exile and forced labour in Russia
at that time. One cannot help but wonder why? Simply, because the lot of the people there was a
bitter one, because nobody really knew about the lives and deaths of the exiles, because he felt that
they stood in greater need of help that anyone else. A strange reason, maybe, but not for a writer
who was the epitome of all the best traditions of a Russian man of letters. Russian literature has
always focused on questions of conscience and was, therefore, a powerful force in the moulding of
public opinion."[279]

E. H. Carr writes of Dostoevsky's character the young student Raskolnikov in the novel Crime and
Punishment who decides to murder a 'vile and loathsome' old woman money lender on the principle
of transcending conventional morals: "the sequel reveals to us not the pangs of a stricken
conscience (which a less subtle writer would have given us) but the tragic and fruitless struggle of a
powerful intellect to maintain a conviction which is incompatible with the essential nature of
man."[280]

Hermann Hesse, author of

Siddhartha
Hermann Hesse wrote his Siddhartha to describe how a young man in the time of the Buddha
follows his conscience on a journey to discover a transcendent inner space where all things could be
unified and simply understood, ending up discovering that personal truth through selfless service as
a ferryman.[281] J. R. R. Tolkien in his epic The Lord of the Rings describes how only the hobbit Frodo
is pure enough in conscience to carry the ring of power through war-torn Middle-earth to destruction
in the Cracks of Doom, Frodo determining at the end to journey without weapons, and being saved
from failure by his earlier decision to spare the life of the creature Gollum.[282] Conor Cruise O'Brien
wrote that Albert Camus was the writer most representative of the Western consciousness and
conscience in its relation to the non-Western world.[283] Harper Lee's 1960 novel To Kill a
Mockingbird portrays Atticus Finch (played by Gregory Peck in the classic film from the book (see To
Kill a Mockingbird)) as a lawyer true to his conscience who sets an example to his children and
community.[284]

The Robert Bolt play A Man For All Seasons focuses on the conscience of Catholic lawyer Thomas
More in his struggle with King Henry VIII ("the loyal subject is more bounden to be loyal to his
conscience than to any other thing").[285] George Orwell wrote his novel Nineteen Eighty-Four on the
isolated island of Jura, Scotland to describe how a man (Winston Smith) attempts to develop critical
conscience in a totalitarian state which watches every action of the people and manipulates their
thinking with a mixture of propaganda, endless war and thought control through language control
(double think and newspeak) to the point where prisoners look up to and even love their
torturers.[286] In the Ministry of Love, Winston's torturer (O'Brien) states: "You are imagining that
there is something called human nature which will be outraged by what we do and will turn against
us. But we create human nature. Men are infinitely malleable".[287]

A tapestry copy of Picasso's Guernica depicting a massacre of innocent women and children during
the Spanish Civil War is displayed on the wall of the United Nations building in New York City, at the
entrance to the Security Council room, demonstrably as a spur to the conscience of representatives
from the nation states.[288] Albert Tucker painted Man's Head to capture the moral disintegration,
and lack of conscience, of a man convicted of kicking a dog to death.[289]
 Vincent van Gogh, 1890. Kröller-
Müller Museum. On the
Threshold of Eternity.

The Impressionist painter Vincent van Gogh wrote in a letter to his brother Theo in 1878 that "one
must never let the fire in one's soul die, for the time will inevitably come when it will be needed. And
he who chooses poverty for himself and loves it possesses a great treasure and will hear the voice
of his conscience address him every more clearly. He who hears that voice, which is God's greatest
gift, in his innermost being and follows it, finds in it a friend at last, and he is never alone! ... That is
what all great men have acknowledged in their works, all those who have thought a little more
deeply and searched and worked and loved a little more than the rest, who have plumbed the depths
of the sea of life."[290]

The 1957 Ingmar Bergman film The Seventh Seal portrays the journey of a medieval knight (Max von
Sydow) returning disillusioned from the crusades ("what is going to happen to those of us who want
to believe, but aren't able to?") across a plague-ridden landscape, undertaking a game of chess with
the personification of Death until he can perform one meaningful altruistic act of conscience
(overturning the chess board to distract Death long enough for a family of jugglers to escape in their
wagon).[291]
The 1942 Casablanca centers on the development of conscience in the cynical American Rick Blaine
(Humphrey Bogart) in the face of oppression by the Nazis and the example of the resistance leader
Victor Laszlo.[292]
The David Lean and Robert Bolt screenplay for Doctor Zhivago (an adaptation of Boris Pasternak's
novel) focuses strongly on the conscience of a doctor-poet in the midst of the Russian Revolution
(in the end "the walls of his heart were like paper").[293]
The 1982 Ridley Scott film Blade Runner focuses on the struggles of conscience between and within
a bounty hunter (Rick Deckard (Harrison Ford)) and a renegade replicant android (Roy Batty (Rutger
Hauer)) in a future society which refuses to accept that forms of artificial intelligence can have
aspects of being such as conscience.[294]

J.S. Bach. Original page from

Credo (Symbolum Nicenum)
section of Mass in B minor

Johann Sebastian Bach wrote his last great choral composition the Mass in B minor (BWV 232) to
express the alternating emotions of loneliness, despair, joy and rapture that arise as conscience
reflects on a departed human life.[295] Here JS Bach's use of counterpoint and contrapuntal settings,
his dynamic discourse of melodically and rhythmically distinct voices seeking forgiveness of sins
("Qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis") evokes a spiraling moral conversation of all humanity
expressing his belief that "with devotional music, God is always present in his grace".[296]

Ludwig van Beethoven's meditations on illness, conscience and mortality in the Late String Quartets
led to his dedicating the third movement of String Quartet in A Minor (1825) Op. 132 (see String
Quartet No. 15) as a "Hymn of Thanksgiving to God of a convalescent".[297][298] John Lennon's work
"Imagine" owes much of its popular appeal to its evocation of conscience against the atrocities
created by war, religious fundamentalism and politics.[299] The Beatles George Harrison-written track
"The Inner Light" sets to Indian raga music a verse from the Tao Te Ching that "without going out of
your door you can know the ways of heaven'.[300] In the 1986 movie The Mission the guilty
conscience and penance of the slave trader Mendoza is made more poignant by the haunting oboe
music of Ennio Morricone ("On Earth as it is in Heaven")[301] The song Sweet Lullaby by Deep Forest
is based on a traditional Baegu lullaby from the Solomon Islands called "Rorogwela" in which a
young orphan is comforted as an act of conscience by his older brother.[302] The Dream Academy
song 'Forest Fire' provided an early warning of the moral dangers of our 'black cloud' 'bringing down
a different kind of weather ... letting the sunshine in, that's how the end begins."[303]
The American Society of Journalists and Authors (ASJA) presents the Conscience-in-Media Award
to journalists whom the society deems worthy of recognition for demonstrating "singular
commitment to the highest principles of journalism at notable personal cost or sacrifice".[304]

The Ambassador of Conscience Award, Amnesty International's most prestigious human rights
award, takes its inspiration from a poem written by Irish Nobel prize-winning poet Seamus Heaney
called "The Republic of Conscience".[6]

See also

Amity-enmity complex

An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, chapter XXVII: "Of Identity and Diversity"

A Tale for the Time Being

Altruism

Confidant

Conscientious objector

Conscientiousness

Consciousness

Consciousness of guilt

Ethics

Evolutionary ethics

Evolution of morality

Free will

Guilt

Inner light

Jiminy Cricket, symbol of conscience in Pinocchio (1940 film)

List of nonviolence scholars and leaders

Mind–body problem

Moral emotions

Moral value
 Morality

Outline of self

Philosophy of mind

Rationality and power

Rationality

Reason

Sraosha, Deity of Conscience

Social conscience

Subtle body

Synderesis

Further reading

Slater S.J., Thomas (1925). "Book 2: On Conscience" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_manual_o

f_moral_theology_for_English-speaking_countries/Book_2) . A manual of moral theology for
English-speaking countries. Burns Oates & Washbourne Ltd.

References

1. Ninian Smart. The World's Religions: Old Traditions and Modern Transformations. Cambridge
University Press. 1989. pp. 10–21.

2. Peter Winch. Moral Integrity. Basil Blackwell. Oxford. 1968

3. Rosemary Moore. The Light in Their Consciences: The Early Quakers in Britain 1646–1666.
Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA. 2000. ISBN 978-0-271-01988-8,

4. "Universal Declaration of Human Rights" (https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaratio

n-of-human-rights) . United Nations. Retrieved 13 December 2022.

5. Booth K, Dunne T and Cox M (eds). How Might We Live? Global Ethics in the New Century.
Cambridge University Press. Cambridge 2001 p. 1.

6. Amnesty International. Ambassador of Conscience Award (https://www.amnesty.org/en/blog/

art-for-amnesty/ambassador-of-conscience) . Retrieved 31 December 2013.

7. Wayne C Booth. The Company We Keep: An Ethics of Fiction. University of California Press.
Berkeley. 1988. p. 11 and Ch. 2.
 8. Langston, Douglas C. Conscience and Other Virtues. From Bonaventure to MacIntyre. The
Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, Pennsylvania, 2001. ISBN 0-271-02070-9
p. 176

9. Ninian Smart. The World's Religions: Old Traditions and Modern Transformations. Cambridge
University Press. 1989. p. 382

10. Shankara. Crest-Jewel of Discrimination (Veka-Chudamani) (trans Prabhavananda S and

Isherwood C). Vedanta Press, Hollywood. 1978. pp. 34–36, 136–37.

11. Shankara. Crest-Jewel of Discrimination (Veka-Chudamani) (trans Prabhavananda S and

Isherwood C). Vedanta Press, Hollywood. 1978. p. 119.

12. John B Noss. Man's Religions. Macmillan. New York. 1968. p. 477.

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External links

The dictionary definition of conscience at Wiktionary

Quotations related to Conscience at Wikiquote