INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

ECE-101: (Fundamentals of Electronics)

SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors

2
Possible Semiconductor Materials

1. Very Expensive
Carbon C 6 2. Band Gap Large: 6eV
3. Difficult to produce without high contamination

1. Cheap
Silicon Si 14 2. Ultra High Purity
3. Oxide is amazingly perfect for IC applications

1. High Mobility
Germanium Ge 32 2. High Purity Material
3. Oxide is porous to water/hydrogen (problematic)

Gallium 1. High Mobility

GaAs
arsenide 2. High speed switching

3
The Silicon Atomic Structure
-
-
- -
- Si -
-
14 -
- -
-

• -
• Silicon: It’s a Group 4 element which means it has 4 electrons in
outer shell
• However, like all other elements it would prefer to have 8 electrons
in its outer shell

4
Bonding of Si atoms

This results in the covalent bonding of Si atoms in the crystal matrix

A Covalent Bond Formed by the Sharing of

Electrons in an Outer Energy Level

5
Electrons and Holes

• Si and Ge are tetravalent elements – each atom of Si (Ge) has

4 valence electrons in crystal matrix

• For T = 0, all electrons are • For T > 0, thermal fluctuations can

bound in covalent bonds break electrons free creating electron-
hole pairs
• no carriers available for
• Both can move throughout the lattice
conduction.
and therefore conduct current

6
Electrons and Holes
For T > 0
• Some electrons in the valence band
receive enough thermal energy to be
excited across the band gap to the
conduction band.
• The result is a material with some
electrons in an otherwise empty
conduction band and some unoccupied
states in an otherwise filled valence
band.
• An empty state in the valence band is
Electron-hole pairs in a referred to as a hole.
semiconductor. The bottom of the • If the conduction band electron and the
conduction band denotes as Ec and hole are created by the excitation of a
the top of the valence band denotes
valence band electron to the
as Ev.
conduction band, they are called an
electron-hole pair (EHP).

7
Silicon Lattice Structure
Free electron
- - - - Vacancy
- -- -- - - -
At 0 K, all left by
Si Si Si Si
electrons are - - - - electron.
tightly shared - - - - - charge
Overall
on
-+- Si --
with neighbours
→ no current - Si -- Si -- Si - is
Si silicon
- - - - - - → this
zero
- - - - -
flow
“hole” must
- Si -- Si - - Si - - Si - - Si - be positive
- - - - -
- -
- Si -- Si -- Si -+- Si -
- - - -
-
- Si -
- Shares electrons with 4
Adding heat (even to room temperature) neighbouring atoms →
allows some bonds to break, and electrons 8 electrons in outer shell

8
Intrinsic Material
• A perfect semiconductor crystal with no impurities or lattice defects is called an
intrinsic semiconductor.
At T=0 K – At T > 0
• No charge carriers • Electron-hole pairs are generated
• Valence band is filled with electrons • EHPs are the only charge
• Conduction band is empty carriers in intrinsic material

• Since electron and holes are created in

pairs – the electron concentration in
conduction band, n (electron/cm3) is
equal to the concentration of holes in the
valence band, p (holes/cm3).
• Each of these intrinsic carrier
concentrations is denoted ni.
Electron-hole pairs in the covalent bonding • Thus for intrinsic materials
model in the Si crystal. n=p=ni

9
Increasing conductivity by temperature

• As temperature increases, the number of free electrons and holes created increases
exponentially.
Carrier Con centrat ion vs Temp (in Si)
17
1 10
16
1 10
15
1 10
14
1 10
13
1 10
Intrinsic Concentration (cm^-3)

12
1 10
11
1 10
niT 1 10 10
9
1 10

1 108
1 107
1 106

1 105
4
1 10
3
1 10
100
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

T
T emperature (K)

• Therefore, the conductivity of a semiconductor is influenced by temperature

10
The process of freeing electrons, creating holes, and
filling them facilitates current flow…

Intrinsic Semiconductors

• silicon at low temps

• all covalent bonds – are intact
• no electrons – are available for conduction
• conducitivity – is zero
• silicon at room temp
• some covalent bonds – break, freeing an electron and
creating hole, due to thermal energy
• some electrons – will wander from their parent atoms,
becoming available for conduction
• conductivity – is greater than zero

11
Increasing conductivity

• The conductivity of the semiconductor material increases when the temperature

increases.
• This is because the application of heat makes it possible for some electrons in the
valence band to move to the conduction band.
• Obviously the more heat applied the higher the number of electrons that can gain
the required energy to make the conduction band transition and become available
as charge carriers.
• This is how temperature affects the carrier concentration.
• Another way to increase the number of charge carriers is to add them in from an
external source.
• Doping or implant is the term given to a process whereby one element is injected
with atoms of another element in order to change its properties.
• Semiconductors (Si or Ge) are typically doped with elements such as Boron,
Arsenic and Phosphorous to change and enhance their electrical properties.

12
Extrinsic Material
• By doping, a crystal can be altered so that it has a predominance of either electrons or holes.
• Thus there are two types of doped semiconductors, n-type (mostly electrons) and p-type
(mostly holes).
• When a crystal is doped such that the equilibrium carrier concentrations n0 and po are different
from the intrinsic carrier concentration ni, the material is said to be extrinsic.

• When impurities or lattice

defects are introduced,
Donor impurities (elements additional levels are created
of group V): P, Sb, As in the energy bands
Acceptor elements (group structure, usually within the
III): B, Al, Ga, In
band gap.

Total number of electrons

III – Al – 13
The valence and conduction bands of IV.– Si – 14
silicon with additional impurity energy
Lecture
levels 02 - Semiconductors
within the energy gap. V.- P - 15 10/15/2017 45

13
 Increasing conductivity by doping

- Si -- Si -+- Si - - Si -
- - - -
- -- - - -
- Si -- Ssi - -
A Si -+- Si -- Si -
- - - - - -
-- - - -- - - -
- ASsi -- Si - - Ssi - -
A Si - - Si - -
- - - - - -
- - - -
- Si - - Si - - Si -+- Si -
- - - -
-
• Inject Arsenic into the crystal with an implant step.
- Si -
• Arsenic is Group5 element with- 5 electrons in its outer shell, (one more than silicon).
• This introduces extra electrons into the lattice which can be released through the application of
heat and so produces an electron current
• The result here is an n-type semiconductor (n for negative current carrier)
14
Increasing conductivity by doping
- - - -
- Si -- Si -+- Si - - Si -
- - - -
- - - + - -
- Si -- Si- - Si -+- Si -- Si -
- - + - - - -
- - +- - -+
- Si - - Si - - SBi - - Si - - SBi -
- - - -- - -
- -+ + -
- Si - - SBi -- Si -+- Si -
- - - -
-
- Si -
- an implant step.
• Inject Boron into the crystal with
• Boron is Group3 element is has 3 electrons in its outer shell (one less than silicon)
• This introduces holes into the lattice which can be made mobile by applying heat. This gives
us a hole current
• The result is a p-type semiconductor (p for positive current carrier)

15
The Fermi – Dirac distribution function

• The density of electrons in a semiconductor is related to the density

of available states and the probability that each of these states is
occupied.

• The density of occupied states per unit volume and energy is

simply the product of the density of states and the Fermi-Dirac
probability function (also called the Fermi function)

16
The Fermi – Dirac distribution function

• Electrons in solids obey Fermi - Dirac distribution given by:

1
F (E) =
1+ e(E − EF ) / kT 
where k is Boltzmann’s constant ➔ k =1.38x10-23 J/K.
T is the temperature in kelvin
• The function F(E) is called the Fermi-Dirac distribution function which gives the
probability that an electron occupies an electronic state with energy E.
• The quantity EF is called the Fermi level, and it represents the energy level at which the
probability to find an electron is 50%. For an energy E = EF , the occupation probability is


F (E F ) = 1+e (E F −E F ) / kT 

−1
=
1 =1
1+1 2

• This is the probability for electrons to occupy the Fermi level.

17
Extrinsic Semiconductor

• An extrinsic semiconductor is one that has been doped, that is, into
which a doping agent has been introduced, giving it different
electrical properties than the intrinsic (pure) semiconductor.

Intrinsic
Donor atoms Acceptor atoms
semiconductor

Group IV Phosphorus, Arsenic, Boron, Aluminium,

Silicon, Germanium
semiconductors Antimony Gallium

Aluminum phosphide,
Aluminum arsenide, Beryllium, Zinc, Ca
Group III-V Selenium, Tellurium,
Gallium arsenide, dmium, Silicon, Ge
semiconductors Silicon, Germanium
Gallium nitride rmanium

18
n-type extrinsic semiconductors

• Formed by adding donor atoms to the intrinsic semiconductor (Si)

• Donors: pentavalent elements from group V (P, As, Sb, Bi) →
release of electrons → n-type semiconductor

e.g., Arsenic “As”, antimony

“Sb”, and Phosphorus “P”

19
n-type semiconductors

Before doping

20
n-type semiconductors
After doping

21
p-type semiconductors

• Formed by adding acceptor atoms to the intrinsic semiconductor (Si)

• Acceptors: trivalent elements from group III (B, Al, Ga, In) →
capture of electron → hole remains → p-type semiconductor

e.g., Aluminum “Al”, Boron “B”,

and Gallium “Ga”

22
carrier concentrations (p-type)
Before doping

23
carrier concentrations (p-type)
After doping

Ev

24
Band diagram, density of states, Fermi-Dirac distribution,
and the carrier concentrations at thermal equilibrium

Intrinsic semiconductor

n-type semiconductor

p-type semiconductor

25
Charge neutrality

• Both acceptors and donors can be present simultaneously

• The Fermi level must adjust itself to preserve charge

neutrality (zero net charge)

n + N A = p + ND

negative ions Positive ions

26
Majority and minority carriers

electrons holes

n-doped MAJORITY MINORITY

carrier carrier
(ND > NA)
p-doped MINORITY MAJORITY
carrier carrier
(ND < NA)

27
n-type majority and minority carriers
• In n-type semiconductors,
electrons are the majority carriers
and holes are the minority
carriers.

• n-type semiconductors are created by

doping an intrinsic semiconductor
with impurities

28
p-type majority and minority carriers

• In p-type semiconductors, holes are

the majority carriers and electrons are
the minority carriers.

• p-type semiconductors are created

by doping an intrinsic semiconductor
with acceptor impurities

29
Doped Semiconductors

p-type doped semiconductor

➢ If NA is much greater than ni …
❑concentration of acceptor atoms is NA
➢ Then the concentration of holes in the p-type is defined as

30
Doped Semiconductors
n-type doped semiconductor
➢ If ND is much greater than ni …
❑concentration of donor atoms is ND
➢ Then the concentration of electrons in the n-type is defined as

The key here is that number of free electrons (conductivity) is dependent

on doping concentration, not temperature…

31
Doped Semiconductors

p-type semiconductor
➢ Q: How can one find the concentration?
❑A: Use the formula to right, adapted for the p-type
semiconductor.

32
Doped Semiconductors

n-type semiconductor
➢ Q: How can one find the concentration?
❑A: Use the formula to right, adapted for the n-type
semiconductor.

33
Doped Semiconductors

p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor

• np will have the same • pn will have the same

dependence on temperature as dependence on temperature as
ni 2 ni2
• the concentration of holes (pn) • the concentration of free
will be much larger than free electrons (nn) will be much
electrons larger than holes
• holes are the majority charge • electrons are the majority
carriers charge carriers
• free electrons are the minority • holes are the minority charge
charge carrier carrier

34
Doped Semiconductors

• It should be emphasized that a piece of n-type or p-type silicon is

electrically neutral; the charge of the majority free carriers
(electrons in the n-type and holes in the p-type silicon) are
neutralized by the bound charges associated with the impurity
atoms.

• Let
no : thermal-equilibrium concentration of electrons
po : thermal-equilibrium concentration of holes
Nd : concentration of donor atoms
Na : concentration of acceptor atoms
Nd+ : concentration of positively charged donors (ionized donors)
Na- : concentration of negatively charged acceptors (ionized acceptors)

35
Doped Semiconductors

• At equilibrium, the product of the majority and minority carrier

concentration is a constant, and this is mathematically expressed by
the Law of Mass Action.

• By the charge neutrality condition, n0 + Na- = p0 + Nd+

36
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Current Flow in Semiconductors

Drift Current

• There are two distinctly different mechanisms for the movement of

charge carriers and hence for current flow in semiconductors: drift
and diffusion.
• Q: What happens when an electrical field (E) is applied to a semiconductor
crystal?
– A: Holes are accelerated in the direction of E, free
electrons are attracted.
• Q: How is the velocity of these carriers defined?

v p − drift =  p E vn − drift = −  n E

38
Drift Current

note that electrons move with velocity 2.5 times higher

than holes

.E (volts / cm)

.p (cm2/Vs) = 480 for silicon

.n (cm2/Vs) = 1350 for silicon

39
• An electric field E established in a bar of silicon causes the holes to
drift in the direction of E and the free electrons to drift in the
opposite direction. Both the hole and electron drift currents are in
the direction of E.

40
Drift Current

41
Note…

• for intrinsic semiconductor – number of free electrons is ni and

number of holes is pi
• for p-type doped semiconductor – number of free electrons is np
and number of holes is pp
• for n-type doped semiconductor – number of free electrons is nn
and number of holes is pn

majority charge carriers minority charge carriers

42
Diffusion Current

• carrier diffusion – is the flow of charge carriers from area of high

concentration to low concentration.
➢It requires non-uniform distribution of carriers.

• diffusion current – is the current flow that results from diffusion.

43
Diffusion Current
• Take the following example…
inject diffusion occurs
➢ inject holes – By some unspecified holes
process, one injects holes in to the left
side of a silicon bar.

➢ concentration profile arises – Because

of this continuous hole inject, a
concentration profile arises.

➢ diffusion occurs – Because of this

concentration
concentration gradient, holes will profile arises
flow from left to right.

44
Diffusion Current

• Observe that a negative (dn/dx) gives rise to a negative current, a

result of the convention that the positive direction of current is
taken to be that of the flow of positive charge (and opposite to that
of the flow of negative charge).

45
The pn Junction with Open-Circuit Terminals

Physical Structure
pn junction structure
➢ p-type semiconductor
➢ n-type semiconductor
➢ metal contact for connection

Simplified physical structure of the pn junction. As the pn junction implements the

junction diode, its terminals are labeled anode and cathode.

46
Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals

• Q: What is state of pn junction with open-circuit terminals?

• A:
➢ p-type material contains majority of holes
❑these holes are neutralized by equal amount of bound negative charge
➢ n-type material contains majority of free electrons
❑these electrons are neutralized by equal amount of bound positive charge

47
Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals

bound charge
➢ charge of opposite polarity to free electrons / holes of a given material
➢ neutralizes the electrical charge of these majority carriers
➢ does not affect concentration gradients

free holes free electrons

negative bound positive bound

charges charges

p-type n-type

Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

48
Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals

• Q: What happens when a pn-junction is newly formed –

aka. when the p-type and n-type semiconductors first
touch one another?

49
• Step #1: The p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined at the
junction.

p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor

junction
filled with holes filled with free electrons

Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

50
• Step #2: Diffusion begins. Those free electrons and holes which
are closest to the junction will recombine and, essentially, eliminate
one another.

p-type n-type
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

51
• Step #3: The depletion region begins to form – as diffusion occurs
and free electrons recombine with holes.

The depletion region is filled with “uncovered” bound charges – who

have lost the majority carriers to which they were linked.

p-type n-type
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

52
• Step #4: The “uncovered” bound charges affect a voltage
differential across the depletion region. The magnitude of this
barrier voltage (V0) differential grows, as diffusion continues.
No voltage differential exists across regions of the pn-junction outside
of the depletion region because of the neutralizing effect of positive
and negative bound charges.
voltage potential

barrier voltage
(Vo)
p-type n-type
location (x)
53
• Step #5: The barrier voltage (V0) is an electric field whose polarity
opposes the direction of diffusion current (ID). As the magnitude
of V0 increases, the magnitude of ID decreases.

diffusion drift
current (ID) current (IS)

p-type n-type
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

54
• Step #6: Equilibrium is reached, and diffusion ceases, once the
magnitudes of diffusion and drift currents equal one another –
resulting in no net flow.

Once equilibrium isdiffusion

achieved, no net current flow exists (Inet = ID – IS)
drift
within the pn-junction
current (IDwhile
) undercurrent
open-circuit
(IS) condition.

p-type depletion n-type

region
55
Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals

• pn-junction built-in voltage (V0) – is the equilibrium value of

barrier voltage.
➢ Generally, it takes on a value between 0.6 and 0.9V for silicon at room
temperature.
➢ This voltage is applied across depletion region, not terminals of pn junction.
❑ Power cannot be drawn from V0.

56
The Drift Current IS and Equilibrium

• In addition to majority-carrier diffusion current (ID), a component of current due

to minority carrier drift exists (IS).

• Specifically, some of the thermally generated holes in the p-type and n-type
materials move toward and reach the edge of the depletion region.

• Therefore, they experience the electric field (V0) in the depletion region and are
swept across it.
➢ Unlike diffusion current, the polarity of V0 reinforces this drift current.

57
Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals

• Because these holes and free electrons are produced by thermal

energy, IS is heavily dependent on temperature

• Any depletion-layer voltage, regardless of how small, will cause

the transition across junction. Therefore IS is independent of V0.

• drift current (IS) – is the movement of these minority carriers.

➢aka. electrons from p-side to n-side of the junction

58
 Note that the magnitude of drift current (IS) is
unaffected by level of diffusion and / or V0. It will be,
however, affected by temperature.

diffusion drift
current (ID) current (IS)

Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

59
Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals

• Q: What has been learned about the pn-junction?

➢A: composition
❑The pn junction is composed of two silicon-based
semiconductors, one doped to be p-type and the other n-type.
➢A: majority carriers
❑Are generated by doping.
❑Holes are present on p-side, free electrons are present on n-
side.

60
Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals

• Q: What has been learned about the pn-junction?

➢A: bound charges
❑Charge of majority carriers are neutralized
electrically by bound charges.
➢A: diffusion current ID
❑Those majority carriers close to the junction will
diffuse across, resulting in their elimination.

61
Operation with Open-Circuit
Terminals
• Q: What has been learned about the pn-junction?
➢A: depletion region
❑As these carriers disappear, they release bound
charges and effect a voltage differential V0.
➢A: depletion-layer voltage
❑As diffusion continues, the depletion layer voltage
(V0) grows, making diffusion more difficult and
eventually bringing it to halt.

62
Operation with Open-Circuit
Terminals
• Q: What has been learned about the pn-junction?
➢A: minority carriers
❑Are generated thermally.
❑Free electrons are present on p-side, holes are
present on n-side.
➢A: drift current IS
❑The depletion-layer voltage (V0) facilitates the flow
of minority carriers to opposite side.
➢A: open circuit equilibrium ID = IS

63
The pn Junction with an Applied Voltage

• Figure shows pn-junction under three conditions:

➢ (a) open-circuit – where a barrier voltage V0 exists.
➢ (b) reverse bias – where a dc voltage VR is applied.
➢ (c) forward bias – where a dc voltage VF is applied.

Figure 11: The pn junction in: (a) equilibrium; (b) reverse bias; (c) forward bias.
64
1) no voltage 1) negative voltage 1) positive voltage
applied applied applied
2) voltage differential 2) voltage differential 2) voltage differential
across depletion zone across depletion zone across depletion zone
is V0 is V0 + VR is V0 - VF
3) ID = IS 3) ID < IS 3) ID > IS
• Figure to right shows pn-
junction under three
conditions:
– (a) open-circuit –
where a barrier
voltage V0 exists.
– (b) reverse bias –
where a dc voltage
VR is applied. Figure 3.11: The pn junction in:
– (c) forward bias – (a) equilibrium; (b) reverse bias;
where a dc voltage (c) forward bias.
VF is applied.
Description of Junction Operation

66
Description of Junction Operation

reverse bias case forward bias case

– the externally applied voltage VR – the externally applied voltage
adds to the barrier voltage V0 VF subtracts from the barrier
• …increase effective barrier voltage V0
– this reduces rate of diffusion, • …decrease effective barrier
reducing ID – this increases rate of diffusion,
• if VR > 1V, ID will fall to 0A increasing ID
– the drift current IS is unaffected, – the drift current IS is unaffected,
but dependent on temperature but dependent on temperature
– result is that pn junction will – result is that pn junction will
conduct small drift current IS conduct significant current
ID - IS
minimal current flows in reverse- significant current flows in
bias case forward-bias case

67
Forward-Bias Case

• Observe that decreased barrier voltage will be accompanied by…

➢ (1) decrease in stored uncovered charge on both sides of junction
➢ (2) smaller depletion region

68
Reverse-Bias Case

• Observe that increased barrier voltage will be accompanied by…

➢ (1) increase in stored uncovered charge on both sides of junction
➢ (2) wider depletion region

69
Reverse Biased Diode’s Application:
Voltage-Dependent Capacitor
• The PN junction can be viewed as a capacitor. By varying VR, the
depletion width changes, changing its capacitance value; therefore,
the PN junction is actually a voltage-dependent capacitor.

70
Current-Voltage Relationship of the
Junction
• Q: What happens, exactly, when a forward-bias voltage
(VF) is applied to the pn-junction?

➢step #1: Initially, a small forward-bias voltage (VF) is

applied. It, because of its polarity, pushes majority
carriers (holes in p-region and electrons in n-region)
toward the junction and reduces width of the depletion
zone.

❑Note, however, that this force is opposed by the

built-in voltage (V0).

71
• step #1: Initially, a small forward-bias voltage (VF) is applied. It,
because of its polarity, pushes majority (holes in p-region and
electrons in n-region) toward the junction and reduces width of the
depletion zone. V F

Note that, in this figure, the smaller circles represent minority carriers
and not bound charges – which are not considered here.

P-type N-type

Figure: The pn junction with applied voltage.

72
 step #1: Initially, a small forward-bias voltage (VF) is applied. It,
because of its polarity, pushes majority (holes in p-region and electrons
in n-region) toward the junction and reduces width of the depletion
zone.
VF

Note that, in this figure, the smaller circles represent minority

carriers and not bound charges – which are not considered here.

P-type N-type

Figure: The pn junction with applied voltage.

step #2: As the magnitude of VF increases, the depletion zone
becomes thin enough such that the barrier voltage (V0 – VF)
cannot stop diffusion current – as described in previous
slides.
VF

P-type N-type

Figure: The pn junction with applied voltage.

step #3: Majority carriers (free electrons in n-region and holes
in p-region) cross the junction and become minority charge
carriers in the near-neutral region.
VF

diffusion drift
current (ID) current (IS)

P-type N-type

Figure: The pn junction with applied voltage.

 step #4: The concentration of minority charge carriers increases on
either side of the junction. A steady-state gradient is reached as rate
of majority carriers crossing the junction equals that of recombination.
VF

For the open-circuit condition, minority carriers are evenly

distributed throughout the non-depletion regions. This
concentration is defined as either np0 or pn0.
minority carrier
concentration

np0 pn0
P-type location (x) N-type
Figure: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited
terminals).
Figure: The pn junction with applied voltage.
 step #4: The concentration of minority charge carriers increases on
either side of the junction. A steady-state gradient is reached as rate
of majority carriers crossing the junction equals that of recombination.
VF
minority carrier
concentration

P-type location (x) N-type

 step #5+: Diffusion current is maintained – in spite low
diffusion lengths (e.g. microns) and recombination – by constant
flow of both free electrons and holes towards therecombination
junction.
VF

flow of diffusion current (ID)

flow of holes flow of electrons

P-type N-type
Figure: The pn junction with applied voltage.
PN junction Characteristics

Conduction band

Valence band
N type P type

79
Current-Voltage Relationship of the
Junction
• saturation current (IS) – is the
maximum reverse current
which will flow through pn-
(eq3.40) I = IS (eV / VT − 1)
junction.
➢ It is proportional to cross-
section of junction (A).
➢ Typical value is 10-18A.

Figure: The pn junction I–V characteristic.

80
Reverse Breakdown

81
Zener breakdown

• The electric field in the depletion layer increases to cause breaking covalent
bonds and generating electron-hole pairs.

• The electrons generated in this way will be swept by the electric field into the n
side and the holes into the p side. Thus these electrons and holes constitute a
reverse current across the junction.

• Once the zener effect starts (VR=5V), a large number of carriers can be
generated, with a negligible increase in the junction voltage. Thus the reverse
current in the breakdown region will be large and its value must be determined
by the external circuit.

• The reverse voltage appearing between the diode terminals will remain close to
the specified breakdown voltage VZ.

82
Avalanche breakdown

• The minority carriers that cross the depletion region under the influence of the
electric field gain sufficient kinetic energy to be able to break covalent bonds in
atoms with which they collide.

• The carriers liberated by this process may have sufficiently high energy to be
able to cause other carriers to be liberated in another ionizing collision.

• This process keeps repeating in the fashion of an avalanche, with the result that
many carriers are created that are able to support any value of reverse current, as
determined by the external circuit, with a negligible change in the voltage drop
across the junction.

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Reverse Breakdown
• The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before
entering the breakdown region is called the peak inverse voltage
(referred to simply as the PIV rating) or the peak reverse voltage
(denoted the PRV rating).

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Capacitive Effects in the pn Junction

1. Depletion or Junction Capacitance

When a pn junction is reverse biased

2. Diffusion Capacitance
When a pn junction is forward biased

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Capacitive Effects in the pn Junction

• Junction capacitance:
✓ due to the dipole in the transition region (associated with the charge stored in the
depletion region).
✓ Also called transition region capacitance or depletion layer capacitance.
✓ Dominates under reverse bias conditions.

• Charge storage (Diffusion) capacitance:

✓ associated with the minority carrier charge stored in the n and p materials as a result of
the concentration profiles established by carrier injection.
✓ Also referred to as diffusion capacitance.
✓ Dominant when the junction is forward biased.

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