DATA COLLECTION

METHODS
Dr. Ehis Joshua Esezobor
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of research is to expand knowledge and understanding, solve problems, and improve existing methods or develop new ones.
It's a systematic process of investigation that can lead to new discoveries, challenge existing theories, or inform decision-making in various
fields. Ultimately, research aims to enhance our understanding of the world and improve human life.

In this digital age of artificial intelligence (AI) revolution, people are often saturated with all sorts of information, doctored by dubious minded
people, to misinform and/or mislead unsuspecting people into making wrong choices or decisions. Undoubtedly, the internet is full of all
sorts of materials, both good and bad that can be made readily available at one9s finger tips just at the click of a button. While the purpose of
a research is not to gather information for the sake of it, information still has a great role to play in the process of data collection.

What then is data?

The word data is derived from the Latin word 8datum9, which means 8something given9. Datum, though rarely used today, is the singular form
of the plural data. Data is the raw form of information that is analysed to acquire a refined information. Data can be divided into two
categories namely; Primary Data and Secondary Data and they can be either be Qualitative or Quantitative.

According to [Link] Primary Data: Data that has been generated by the researcher himself/herself, surveys, interviews,
experiments, specially designed for understanding and solving the research problem at hand. While Secondary Data uses existing data
generated by large government Institutions, healthcare facilities etc. as part of organizational record keeping. The data is then extracted from
more varied datafiles. [Link]

In the first session of this lecture, we shall be considering Qualitative Data Collection.

QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION.

Different methods of data-collection are used in qualitative research. The most common are interviews, focus group discussions,
observational methods and document analysis. Combining two or more data collection methods, for instance interviews as well as focus
groups (8data triangulation9) enhances the credibility of the study. Irrespective of the data collection method applied, it is important to keep a
diary during the study, with reflections on the process as it relates to the method and participant selection and the role and influence of the
researcher (8reflexivity9).

INTERVIEWS
In data collection for research, there are three primary types of interviews: structured, semi-structured, and unstructured interviews. These
types differ in the level of flexibility and predetermined structure in the questions asked during the interview. Let us briefly explain the three
types

Structured Interviews: Semi-structured Interviews: Unstructured Interviews:

These interviews involve a These interviews combine elements of These interviews are the least
predetermined set of questions, often both structured and unstructured structured, with open-ended
with closed-ended or limited response approaches. They involve a pre- questions and a conversational
options, asked in a specific order. They determined set of questions, but also approach. The interviewer has
are useful for gathering quantifiable allow for flexibility to explore emerging maximum flexibility to explore the
data and allowing for easy comparison themes or delve deeper into specific topic in depth and allow the
across participants. responses with follow-up questions. conversation to flow naturally, often
used in ethnographic studies to gain
rich, qualitative data.
FOCUS GROUPS: ALSO KNOWN AS FOCUS GROUP
DISCUSSIONS
A focus group is a meeting where a group of people discuss a certain topic to examine their views/experiences on this particular topic. These
discussions are useful to examine underlying reasons, motives, values and beliefs. The researcher stimulates discussion in order to examine
how knowledge and ideas develop and operate in a given group. Most of the time, a facilitator guides a discussion about a particular topic in
a group of usually 6-12 people. Some sensitive issues might be easier to discuss within a group, although other (personal) information might
be withheld, for instance when persons are not acquainted with each other or because of hierarchical relations within the group. Therefore, a
group of people need to have a certain homogeneity to be as comfortable as possible for discussing a certain topic within a group. The role of
the facilitator is to create an open atmosphere, involve participants in the discussion and manage this discussion. The organization of a focus
group requires careful attention. This includes the sampling and recruitment of participants, the composition of the topic list and how the
data will be collected. Each focus group has a unique design (a script instead of a topic list for an interview) that involve various exercises to
stimulate discussion and reflection between participants. Exercises can also stimulate creative ideas and getting someone to tell a story. Next
to the facilitator, it might also be useful to include an observer. The observer could be useful for taking notes on non-verbal signs (body
language), take notes of the most important things that have been said, support the facilitator in the discussion, and keep track of the time. In
this way, the facilitator can concentrate on guiding the discussion.

OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
Observational methods are used to understand phenomena by studying people9s accounts and actions in an everyday context. There are
different types of observations, with various degrees of research participation, like non-participating observation (e.g. by using video
recordings), and participant observation or ethnography. Ethnography 8usually involves the researcher participating, overtly or covertly, in
people9s daily lives for an extended period of time, watching what happens, listening to what is said, and/or asking questions through
informal and formal interviews, collecting documents and artefacts9 (Hammersley & Atkinson, 2007: 3). Observations are focused on gaining
an in-depth understanding of a specific context. Observations can, just as interviews, be conducted at the continuum of open-ended and
focused observations (Mortelmans, 2020). An <observation matrix= or <observation guide the observations. Observations are often
conducted by one researcher who can build up relations with people in the field they are researching. Triangulation of researchers can
contribute to the quality of the study, as it enables researchers to critically reflect upon their perspectives and how they make meaning of
<the observed=.

DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
Document analysis is based on existing sources, like government reports, personal documents, articles in newspapers, medical curricula,
books or medical records. Document analysis is often employed to conduct a discourse analysis or to conduct a policy analysis. Document
analysis can also be done to support or inform other methods of data collection such as interviews or observations (that is, data-
triangulation).
Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research
According to Hirjah Mirza et al, <Ethics revolve around the responsibilities of researchers towards their participants, their audience, their
society, and their academic communities. Researchers should refer to some ethical guidelines to ensure they have adhered to the principles
of good research practices=. Their paper sought to take a peep into ethical considerations that we generally need to promote in qualitative
research when collecting and analysing data. These include informed consent, confidentiality, anonymity, privacy, and the potential for
harm.

1 2 3

Informed Consent: Confidentiality and Privacy: Anonymity:

Participants must be fully informed Researchers must protect participants' If possible, researchers should ensure
about the research, including its identities and personal information by that participants remain anonymous
purpose, methods, potential risks and not disclosing names or other throughout the research process.
benefits, and their right to withdraw at identifying details in publications or
any time. presentations.

4 5 6

Potential for Harm: Respect for Participants: Data Security:

Researchers must be aware of potential Qualitative research often involves in- Researchers must take steps to securely
risks to participants, both physical and depth interactions with participants, store and protect collected data to
psychological, and take steps to requiring researchers to be respectful, prevent unauthorized access.
minimize them. sensitive, and mindful of their
experiences.

7 8 9

Transparency and Honesty: Responsible Use of Findings: Relationship with

Researchers should be transparent Researchers should consider the
Participants:
about their methods, findings, and potential impact of their findings and Maintaining a respectful and ethical
potential biases. use them responsibly. relationship with participants is crucial
throughout the research process.

Conclusively, according to Wayne C. et al, 2003,

Ethical researchers do not plagiarize or claim credit for the results of others.
They do not misreport sources or invent results.
They do not submit data whose accuracy they have reason to question, unless they raise the questions.
They do not conceal objections that they cannot rebut.
They do not caricature or distort opposing views.
They do not destroy or conceal sources and data important for those who follow.
Session 2: Quantitative Data Collection
Quantitative data collection in surveys involves gathering numerical data that can be statistically analyzed to identify trends and
relationships. This approach uses structured questionnaires with closed-ended questions, rating scales, and other numerical measures to
collect objective data from a large number of respondents. The data is then analyzed to draw conclusions and make generalizations about a
larger population.

Key aspects of quantitative data collection in surveys:

Structured approach: Quantitative surveys rely on standardized questionnaires with pre-defined questions and response options.
Numerical data: The focus is on collecting data that can be expressed as numbers, such as counts, percentages, or scores on a scale.
Statistical analysis: Quantitative data allows for the use of statistical methods to analyze patterns, trends, and relationships within the
data.
Large sample sizes: Quantitative surveys often involve collecting data from a large number of respondents to ensure the results are
representative of the target population.
Generalizability: The goal is to be able to generalize the findings from the survey sample to the broader population from which the
sample was drawn.

Common methods used in quantitative survey data collection:

Surveys with closed-ended questions: These questions offer a limited set of response options, such as multiple choice, yes/no, or
rating scales.
Questionnaires: Similar to surveys, questionnaires are used to collect data using a structured set of questions.
Online surveys: Web-based platforms allow for the efficient distribution and collection of quantitative data from a large number of
respondents.
Structured interviews: These interviews involve asking a predetermined set of questions in a consistent manner.
Observations: In some cases, quantitative data can be collected through structured observation, such as counting the number of people
attending an event.
Document review: Analyzing existing documents, such as public records or reports, can provide quantitative data.
Surveys and Questionnaires
According to Wikipedia, Survey methodology is "the study of survey methods". As a field of applied statistics concentrating on human-
research surveys, survey methodology studies the sampling of individual units from a population and associated techniques of survey data
collection, such as questionnaire construction and methods for improving the number and accuracy of responses to surveys. Survey
methodology targets instruments or procedures that ask one or more questions that may or may not be answered.

Researchers carry out statistical surveys with a view towards making statistical inferences about the population being studied; such
inferences depend strongly on the survey questions used.

A survey is contrasted with a census. While survey uses a sample unit to represent the whole, a census would carry out such a data collection
on the entire demography under study.

Advantages of a Census:
Provides highly accurate and detailed information about the entire population, including small groups and geographic areas.

Disadvantages:
Can be expensive, time-consuming, and logistically challenging to conduct, especially for large populations.

Since surveys collect data from a subset (sample) of the population for the purpose of drawing conclusions about the entire population
based on the information gathered from the sample, it has its own merits and demerits.

Surveys use statistical methods to make inferences about the larger population, such as estimating population totals, averages, and
proportions.

Merits:
It can be more cost-effective and efficient than censuses, especially for large populations.

Demerits:
Prone to sampling error, meaning the sample may not perfectly represent the entire population.

In essence, a census provides the raw data, while surveys use statistical methods to analyze that data and draw inferences about the larger
population.
Measurement Scales (Nominal, Ordinal, Interval,
Ratio)
In research, scales of measurement are systems for categorizing and quantifying variables. There are four main scales: nominal, ordinal,
interval, and ratio. Each scale provides different types of information and dictates which statistical analyses are appropriate.

i. Nominal Scale: ii. Ordinal Scale:

A nominal scale is a measurement scale, in which numbers Ordinal scales are named variables that have a meaningful
serve as <tags= or <labels= only, to identify or classify an object. order. Ordinal data is ordered, categorical and mutually
This measurement normally deals only with non-numeric exclusive (cannot happen at the same time). A good example
(quantitative) variables or where numbers have no value. would be body mass index (BMI) of an individual: one cannot be
Examples include shapes or types of foods, or even numerical overweight, underweight, obese or have normal weight at the
codes assigned to categories like male/female. You can count same time. Another example may include the order of four
the frequency of each category but not calculate meaningful siblings born of same parents (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th born). You
averages or differences. can determine the mode and median, but not the mean or
standard deviation.

iii. Interval Scale: iv. Ratio Scale:

Categorizes, ranks, and has equal intervals between values. Has all the properties of an interval scale, plus a true zero point.
Examples include dates of the month, SAT score (200-800), Examples include income, market share, height,
where the difference between any two dates or score points are unemployment rate, weight, age, where zero means the
the same. SAT assesses students9 performance on a absence of the quantity being measured. You can perform all
standardized scale with equal intervals between score points. mathematical operations, including calculating ratios (For
example, where you have 20 boys and 10 girls, the ratio of boys
You can calculate the mean, median, mode, and standard
to girls is 20:10 0r 2:1).
deviation. However, there is no true zero point, so ratios are not
meaningful (For example, every hour has 60 seconds; 12pm has
60 seconds, just as 1pm has 60 seconds).

Choosing the appropriate scale of measurement is crucial for selecting the correct statistical analysis and interpreting the results accurately.
Practical Activity: Design a questionnaire or an
interview guide.
A questionnaire is a list of questions or items used to gather data from respondents about their attitudes, experiences, or opinions.
Questionnaires can be used to collect quantitative and/or qualitative information.

Questionnaires are commonly used in market research as well as in the social and health sciences. For example, a company may ask for
feedback about a recent customer service experience, or psychology researchers may investigate health risk perceptions using
questionnaires. [Link]

The qualities of a good questionnaire

The design of a questionnaire will depend on whether the researcher wishes to collect exploratory information (i.e. qualitative information
for the purposes of better understanding or the generation of hypotheses on a subject) or quantitative information (to test specific
hypotheses that have previously been generated).

Exploratory questionnaires:

If the data to be collected is qualitative or is not to be statistically evaluated, it may be that no formal questionnaire is needed. For example, in
interviewing the female head of the household to find out how decisions are made within the family when purchasing breakfast foodstuffs, a
formal questionnaire may restrict the discussion and prevent a full exploration of the woman's views and processes. Instead one might
prepare a brief guide, listing perhaps ten major open-ended questions, with appropriate probes/prompts listed under each.

Formal standardised questionnaires:

If the researcher is looking to test and quantify hypotheses and the data is to be analysed statistically, a formal standardised questionnaire is
designed. Such questionnaires are generally characterised by:

*prescribed wording and order of questions, to ensure that each respondent receives the same stimuli
*prescribed definitions or explanations for each question, to ensure interviewers handle questions consistently and can answer
respondents' requests for clarification if they occur
*prescribed response format, to enable rapid completion of the questionnaire during the interviewing process.

Given the same task and the same hypotheses, six different people will probably come up with six different questionnaires that differ widely
in their choice of questions, line of questioning, use of open-ended questions and length. There are no hard-and-fast rules about how to
design a questionnaire, but there are a number of points that can be borne in mind:

i. A well-designed questionnaire should meet the research objectives. This may seem obvious, but many research surveys omit
important aspects due to inadequate preparatory work, and do not adequately probe particular issues due to poor understanding. To a
certain degree some of this is inevitable. Every survey is bound to leave some questions unanswered and provide a need for further
research but the objective of good questionnaire design is to 'minimise' these problems.
ii. It should obtain the most complete and accurate information possible. The questionnaire designer needs to ensure that
respondents fully understand the questions and are not likely to refuse to answer, lie to the interviewer or try to conceal their attitudes. A
good questionnaire is organised and worded to encourage respondents to provide accurate, unbiased and complete information.
iii. A well-designed questionnaire should make it easy for respondents to give the necessary information and for the interviewer
to record the answer, and it should be arranged so that sound analysis and interpretation are possible.
iv. It would keep the interview brief and to the point and be so arranged that the respondent(s) remain interested throughout the
interview.

Preliminary decisions in questionnaire design

There are nine steps involved in the development of a questionnaire:

01 02 03

Decide the information Define the target respondents. Choose the method(s) of
required. reaching your target
respondents.

04 05 06

Decide on question content. Develop the question wording. Put questions into a meaningful
order and format.

07 08 09

Check the length of the Pre-test the questionnaire. Develop the final survey form.
questionnaire.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bryman, Alan; Social Research Methods United Kingdom Oxford University
Press, 2016
Cheryl N. Poth & John W. Cresswell; Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design:
Choosing Among Five Approaches USA Sage Publications 2024
Wayne C. Booth et al; The Craft of Research USA University of Chicago Press
2003

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