-​ Through introspection (examination of -​ Philosophy of the mind

What is COGNITIVE PSY? inner ideas and experiences) -​ Grandparent of Psychology

-​ Deals with how people perceive, learn, PHYSIOLOGY JOHN LOCKE(1632-1704)

remember, and think about information
-​ Deals with understanding (you ask -​ Scientific study of life-sustaining functions -​ Shared Aristotle’s notions
whether you know the answer) in living matter, primarily through empirical -​ Valuing of empirical observation naturally
-​ Deals with the perception of information (observation-based) methods. accompanied with the view that humans
(you read the question) -​ RATIONALIST: believes that the route to are born without any knowledge
-​ Deals with the formulation and production knowledge is through logical analysis. -​ TABULARASA (blank slate)
of an answer -​ EMPIRICIST: believes that we acquire -​ You seek knowledge through empirical
-​ Scientific study of the thinking mind. knowledge via empirical evidence. observation
-​ Study of learning is the key to
Concerned with: PLATO (423-348 B.C.) understanding the human mind

-​ How we attend to and gain information -​ Dualistic theory of forms Reality resides Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
about the world not in concrete objects (e.g. tables and
-​ How that information is stored and chairs) -​ Process of dialectical synthesis ->
processed by the brain -​ We perceive through our body’s senses empiricism vs. rationalism
-​ How we solve problems, think and but in the abstract (eternal abstract ideas -​ Both rationalism and empiricism have their
formulate of objects) forms that these objects place and both must work together in the
-​ The collection of mental processes and represent quest for truth
activities used in perceiving, remembering, -​ Observations of imperfect, concrete -​ Effectively redefine many of the issues
thinking, and understanding, as well as the objects and actions would mislead us and -​ Impact on philosophy interacted with 19th
act of using those processes. (Ashcraft & take us away from the truth century scientific exploration with the body
Radvansky, 2010) -​ Rationalist – route to knowledge is logical and how it works to produce profound
analysis influences on the establishment of
PROGRESSION OF IDEAS DIALECTIC: Psychology as a discipline in the 1800s
PATTERN OF TRANSFORMATION ARISTOTLE (384-322 BC)
Psychological Antecedents
-​ Thesis: statement of belief -​ Reality lies only in the concrete world of
-​ Antithesis: counters a previous statement objects that our bodies sense ●​ Early Dialectics
of belief -​ Observations of the external world are the ○​ Structuralism
-​ Synthesis: integrates the most credible only means to arrive at the truth ○​ Functionalism: Alternative to
features of each two -​ Empiricist – through experience and Structuralism
observation ○​ Associationism: An Integrative
HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS Analysis
RENE DESCARTES (1596-1650) ●​ From Associationism to Behaviorism
PHILOSOPHY ○​ Proponents
-​ Agreed with Plato in viewing the ●​ Gestalt Psy
introspective, reflective method as ●​ Emergence of CogPsy
-​ Seeks to understand the general nature of
many aspects of the world superior to empirical methods for finding
the truth The Impact of Philosophy
 -​ Impact on philosophy interacted with 19th -​ “what do people do and why do they do associations Law of effect = a S will tend
century scientific exploration with the body it?” to produce a certain response over time if
and how it works to produce profound -​ Study the processes of how and why the an organism is rewarded for that response
influences on the establishment of mind works as it does An organism learns to respond in a given
Psychology as a discipline in the 1800s -​ How and why the mind works as it does by way (the effect) in a given situation if it is
seeking functional relationships between a rewarded repeatedly of doing so (the
Structuralism specific earlier S & R satisfaction serves as the S to future
-​ Lead to pragmatism actions)
-​ First major school of thought Looks into
the structure (configuration of elements) of Pragmatism Behaviorism
the mind and its perceptions by analyzing
those perceptions into their constituent -​ Knowledge is validation of its usefulness -​ Emphasis of the behavior which is seen
components “What are the elementary -​ What we can do with our knowledge of and measurable Usually makes use of S =
contents [structure] of the human mind?” what people do stimulus and R = response
-​ Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920): Optional -​ Believed in the importance of psychology -​ Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Involuntary
method Analyze the structure of the mind of learning and memory learning behavior Classical conditioning,
was to study sensory experiences through -​ William James: Studied attention, over which the dog had no conscious
introspection (looking inward at pieces of consciousness and perception control Has the unconditional stimulus and
information passing through -​ John Dewey: Pragmatic approach to response
consciousness such as sensations thinking and schooling To learn effectively, -​ Robert Rescole (1967) Classical
experienced when looking at a flower) we need to see the point of our education conditioning involves more than just an
-​ Edward Titchener (1867-1927) – the practical use of it association based on temporal contiguity
Consciousness could be reduced to 3 (e.g. food and the conditioned S occurring
elementary states: Sensations – the basic Associationism at about the same time) Effective
elements of perception Images – pictures conditioning requires contingency (e.g. the
we form in our minds to characterize what -​ Examines how events or ideas can presentation of food being contingent on
we perceive Affections – the constituents become associated with one another in the presentation of the conditioned S).
of emotions such as love and hate. the mind to result in a form of learning -​ Any internal thoughts and ways of thinking
-​ Oswald Kulpe: Rejected Wundt’s notion -​ Associations may result from are nothing more than speculation,
that higher mental processes could not be -​ Contiguity (associating things that although they might belong within the
observed directly in introspection. There tend to occur together at about domain of philosophy They certainly have
was nothing between the presentation of the same time) no place in psychology
the problem (6/3) and the result as it -​ Similarity (associating things with -​ John Watson (1878-1958) No use of
appears in consciousness = 2 similar features or properties) internal mental contents or mechanisms
-​ Thought processes with imagery = -​ Contrast (associating things that Should study observable behavior
imageless thoughts seem to show polarities) Thinking as subvocalized speech
-​ Shared with Titchener -​ Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) Influenced by functionalist on what people
-​ Studied introspectively but not imageless Studied and observed his own mental do and what causes their actions Used
thoughts processes Used “systematic-experimental animal subjects for experiments
introspection” People learn and remember -​ BF Skinner (1904-1990) All forms of
Functionalism materials through rehearsal (conscious human behavior, not just learning, could
repetition of the to-be-learned material) be explained by behavior emitted in
-​ Processes of thought rather than its -​ Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) Role reaction to the environment, which could
contents of “satisfaction” was key of forming be studied effectively by observing
 behavior Operant conditioning = human brain was localized into Emergence of Cognitive Psychology
strengthening or weakening of behavior approximately 35 different sections
contingent on the presence or absence of -​ Pierre Flourens: was one of many -​ Cognitivism – belief that much of human
reinforcement (rewards) or punishments scientists that challenged the views of the behavior can be understood if we
From learning to language acquisition to phrenologists. Through his study of living understand first how people think
problem solving rabbits and pigeons, he discovered that -​ Karl Spencer Lashley (1890-1958):
-​ Edward Tolman (1886-1959) Behavior of lesions to particular areas of the brain Neuroanatomy (study of the structure of
neither animals nor people could be produced no discernible change in the brain) and how the organization of the
understood without also taking into behavior. He proposed the theory that the brain governs human activity Brain as an
account the purpose of, and the plan for, brain is an aggregate field, meaning that active, dynamic organizer of behavior
the behavior All behavior is directed different areas of the brain participated in
toward some goal. behavior. Cognitive Neuroscience
-​ Forefather of modern cognitive -​ John Hughlings Jackson: Jackson
psychology studied patients with brain damage,
-​ In 1861, French neurologist Paul Broca
-​ Mental or cognitive maps – particularly those with epilepsy. He
came across a man who was able to
training rats in mazes, showed discovered that the epileptic patients often
understand language but unable to speak.
that animals had internal made the same clonic and tonic
The man could only produce the sound
representation of behaviour. movements of muscle during their
"tan". It was later discovered that the man
-​ Donald Hebb: Brought behaviorism in the seizures, leading Jackson to believe that
had damage to an area of his left frontal
physiology of the organism Influential in they must be occurring in the same place
lobe now known as Broca's area.
establishing physiological psychology as every time. Jackson proposed that specific
-​ Carl Wernicke: a German neurologist,
part of behavioral theory. functions were localized to specific areas
found a similar patient, except that this
of the brain, which was critical to future
patient could speak fluently but
Theory of cell assembly understanding of the brain lobes.
non-sensibly. The patient had been the
victim of a stroke, and could not
-​ a group of neurons clustered together Social Learning understand spoken or written language.
functionally because of a past history of This patient had a lesion in the area where
being stimulated together - the cells are -​ Albert Bandura: Learning appears to the left parietal and temporal lobes meet,
capable of functioning together for a time result not merely from direct rewards for now known as Wernicke's area.
as a closed unit behavior -​ The studies of Broca and Wernicke
-​ cell assemblies are activated at the same -​ Can be social, resulting from observations spawned a new research field, which
time may become organized into “phase of the rewards or punishments given to studies the relationship between
sequence” which become the basic others psychological phenomena and lesions (or
elementary or functional units of behavior -​ How we observe and model behavior often otherwise induced deficits) of the brain:
the behavior of others – learning by neuropsychology.
Phrenology example (IMITATION) -​ Eduard Hitzig and Gustav Fritsch:
Eduard Hitzig and Gustav Fritsch
-​ The first roots of cognitive neuroscience lie Gestalt Psychology published their findings about the behavior
in phrenology, which was a of animals. Hitzig and Fritsch ran an
pseudoscientific approach that claimed -​ Organized, structural whole and not when electrical current through the cerebral
that behavior could be determined by the we break the phenomena into smaller cortex of a dog, causing the dog to
shape of the scalp. parts produce characteristic movements based
-​ In the early 19th century, Franz Joseph -​ “the whole differs from the sum of its on where the current was applied. Since
Gall and J. G. Spurzheim believed that the parts” different areas produced different
 movements, the physicians concluded that reinforcement Own understanding of its output was indistinguished, by humans,
behavior was rooted at the cellular level. language is constrained not so much by from the output of humans
-​ Korbinian Brodmann: used tissue what we have learned but by an innate
staining techniques developed by Franz language that all humans possess Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Nissl to see the different types of cells in Language acquisition device (LAD) = limits
the brain. Though this study, Brodmann the number of permissible grammatical -​ An attempt of humans to construct
concluded in 1909 that the human brain constructions systems that show intelligence and,
consisted of fifty-two distinct areas, now -​ Jerome Bruner: With Jacqueline particularly, the intelligent processing of
named Brodmann areas. Many of Goodnow and George Austin Cognitive information
Brodmann's distinctions were very processes as “the means whereby -​ Interested in maximizing information
accurate, such as differentiating Brodmann organisms achieve, retain and transform processing efficiency than in simulating
area 17 from Brodmann area 18 information” Led to the movement of human intelligence and how humans solve
-​ Santiago Ramón y Cajal and Camillo Norbert Weiner’s (1948) & Oswald Kulpe’s problems
Golgi: began working on the structure of imageless thoughts Led to “cybernetics”
the neuron. Golgi developed a silver control and communications in the animal
Cognitive Psychology
staining method that could entirely stain and the machine
several cells in a particular area, leading -​ David Marr: Made a proposal of the
him to believe that neurons were directly hierarchical representation of memory -​ Ulric Neisser: Bringing cognitivism to
connected with each other in one which caused many psychologists to prominence by informing undergraduate
cytoplasm. (neuron doctrine-> embrace the idea that mental skills and graduate school students and the
understanding neurophysiology) required significant processing in the academe about the newly developing field
brain, including algorithms -​ Defined Cognitive Psychology as
the study of how people learn,
1948 Science of Cognition (language)
structure, store, and use
Engineering and Computation
knowledge
-​ Donald Hebb: First to provide a detailed, -​ They focus on the way humans process
testable theory of how the brain could -​ Technological developments in information, looking at how we treat
support cognitive processes How the telecommunications Human factors information that comes in to the person
structure of neural connections in the brain engineering Digital computers Processing (what behaviourists would call stimuli) and
changes as a result of learning. First to of information Information codes = how this treatment leads to responses.
provide a detailed, testable theory of how systems of symbols or signals for -​ In other words, they are interested in the
the brain could support cognitive representing information variables that mediate between
processes How the structure of neural -​ About limitations in processing capacity, stimulus/input and response/output. The
connections in the brain changes as a and about the processing of information main areas of study in cognitive
result of learning either serially (1 stem or step at a time, as psychology are: perception, attention,
-​ George Miller: Birth of Cognitive on digital computer) or parallel (more than memory and language.
Psychology “The Magical Number 7 Plus 1 item at a time, as in multiple sound -​ Allen Newell & Herbert Simon: Proposed
or Minus 2” by Miller Founded the Center waves on a telecomm system detailed models of human thinking and
for Cognitive Studies at Harvard with problem solving from the most basic levels
famous cognitivist developmentalist, Turing to the most complex Development of the
Jerome Bruner General Problem Solver
-​ Noam Chomsky: Biological basis and the -​ It would be hard to distinguish the -​ Cognitive psychology is a pure science,
creative potential of language – the infinite communication of machines from humans based mainly on laboratory experiments.
numbers of sentences we can produce -​ “Turing test” – a computer program would -​ Behaviour can be largely explained in
with ease We learn language by be judged as successful to the extent that terms of how the mind operates, i.e. the
 information processing approach. The ACETYLCHOLINE -​ Amino Acid neurotransmitter
mind works in a way similar to a computer: -​ Currently believed to influence certain
inputting, storing and retrieving data. -​ Monoamine neurotransmitter synthesized mechanisms for learning and memory
-​ Mediational processes occur between from choline
stimulus and response -​ Associated with memory functions GLUTAMATE
-​ Loss of Acetylcholine is linked in memory
Areas of application: functions in Alzheimer’s -​ Amino acid neurotransmitter
-​ patients -​ Currently believed to influence certain
-​ Gender Role Development Eyewitness -​ Important role in sleep and arousal mechanisms for learning and memory
Testimony / Cognitive Interview Memory,
Attention, Perception etc. Child DOPAMINE NEUROPEPTIDES
Development (Piaget) Cognitive
Behavioual Therapy Learning Styles -​ Monoamine neurotransmitter synthesized -​ Peptide chains serving as
(Kolb) Moral Development (Piaget) from tyrosine neurotransmitters
-​ Associated with attention and learning, -​ Endorphins play a role in pain relief.
Strengths of cog psych: influences movement -​ Neuromodulating neuropeptides
-​ Motivational process: reward and sometimes are released to enhance the
-​ Scientific Highly applicable (e.g. therapy, reinforcement effects of Ach
EWT) -​ ◦ High Levels : Schizophrenics
-​ Combines easily with approaches: -​ ◦ Low Levels: Parkinson’s Disease RECEPTORS and DRUGS
Behaviourism + Cog = Social Learning
Biology + Cog = Evolutionary Psy SEROTONIN -​ Standard neurotransmitters can be
-​ Many empirical studies to support theories hijacked: psychopharmacologically active
-​ Monoamine neurotransmitter synthesized drugs, legal or illegal drugs.
Weaknesses of cog psych: from tyrosine -​ Withdrawal Symptoms (people stop using
-​ Plays a role in eating behavior and drugs):
-​ Ignores biology (e.g. testosterone) body-weight regulation -​ ◦ ACUTE TOXICITY - damage done from
Experiments - low ecological validity -​ Involved in aggression, regulation of a particular overdose
-​ Humanism - rejects scientific method impulsivity, inhibits dreaming -​ ◦ CHRONIC TOXICITY – damage done by
-​ Behaviourism - can’t objectively study -​ Drugs that blocked serotonin results in long-term drug addiction
unobservable behaviour aggressive behavior
-​ Introspection is subjective Machine -​ High Serotonin: Anorexia; loss of appetite VIEWING Structures and Function of the Brain
reductionism for cancer patients/dialysi s patients
-​ Defects in Serotonin: Severe Depression
-​ Postmortem (after death)
Integrative neuroscience -​ In vivo (latin means living)
EPINEPHRINE and Norepinephrine -​ Animal Studies
-​ attempts to consolidate data in -​ Electrical Recordings
databases, and form unified descriptive -​ Involve in regulation of alertness -​ ◦ Event-Related Potentials (record of a
models from various fields and scales: -​ Involved in diverse effects on body related small change in the
biology, psychology, anatomy, and clinical to flight or fight reactions, anger and fear -​ brain electrical activity in response to a
practice. stimulating event).
GABA
Neurotransmitters Static Imaging Techniques
-​ ◦ X-ray based techniques (Angiogram -​ Examination of TBI, 1. Ischemic Stroke
and CT Scan) – allows for the schizophrenia, brain maturation •​ Occurs when buildup of fatty tissue occurs
-​ observation of large abnormalities of the and multiple sclerosis in blood vessels over a period of
brain; limited in resolutions -​ Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation years, and a piece of this tissue breaks off and gets
-​ and cannot provide information about a (TMS) lodged in arteries of the
smaller lesions and aberrations. Magnetic -​ Temporarily disrupts the normal brain.
Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan – activity of the brain in a limited •​ May be treated by clot-busting drugs
technique in revealing high- resolution area. 2. Hemorrhagic Stroke
images of the structure of the living brain -​ Placing an electrical coil on a Occurs when the blood vessels in the
by computing and analyzing magnetic person’s head and then allowing brain suddenly breaks.
changes in the energy of the orbits of an electrical current to pass Blood then spills in the surrounding tissue. As the
nuclear particles in the molecules of the through it. blood spills over,
body. -​ Magnetoencephalography (MEG) Brain cells in the affected areas begin to die (lack of
-​ ◦ Facilitates detection of lesion in -​ Measures the activity of the brain oxygen/nutrients
vivo from outside the head by picking or from the rupture of the vessel).
-​ Metabolic Imaging up magnetic fields emitted by
-​ Rely on changes that take place changes in brain activity. Symptoms of Stroke
within the brain as a result of -​ Allows localization of brain Numbness or weakness in the face, arms or legs
increased consumption of signals so that it is possible to (one side of the
glucose and oxygen in active know what different parts of the body)
areas in the brain brain are doing at different times • Confusion, difficulty speaking or understanding
-​ Positron Emission Tomography (PET) -​ Most precise of the measuring speech
scans methods • Vision disturbance in one or both eyes
-​ Measure the increases in oxygen • Dizziness, trouble walking, loss of balance or
consumption in active brain areas Brain Disorders: coordination
during particular kinds of • Severe headache with no known cause
information processing STROKE
-​ Less precise 2. BRAIN TUMORS (Neoplasms)
-​ functional Magnetic Resonance • Can occur in the gray or white matter in the brain
-​ Vascular Disorder is a brain disorder
Imaging (fMRI) • Can affect the cognitive functioning of the
caused by stroke
-​ A neuroimaging technique that individual
-​ Stroke occur when the flow of blood to the
uses magnetic fields to construct • Primary Brain Tumors (starts in the brain)
brain undergoes a sudden disruption
a detailed representation in three • Secondary Brain Tumor (start somewhere else in
-​ Paralysis
dimensions of levels of activity in the body)
-​ Pain
various parts of the brain at a
-​ Numbness
given moment in time Diagnosis Treatment
-​ A loss of speech
-​ Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) Neurological Exams→ Surgery
-​ A loss of language
-​ Enables one to examine the CT Scan → Radiation
comprehension
restricted dispersion of water in MRI → Chemotherapy
-​ Impairments in thought
tissue.
processes
-​ Useful in mapping the white HEAD INJURIES
-​ A loss of movement in parts of
matter of the brain and examining -​ Caused by car accidents, contact with
the body
neural circuits hard objects and bullet wound
TYPES:
KINDS OF STROKES -​ Closed-Head injuries (Skull remain intact)
 -​ Slamming one’s head in the windshield Maintaining a healthy brain goes beyond just
-​ Open-Head Injuries (Skull does not remain sleep—it also requires a nutrient-rich diet and an
intact) Eg. Bullet wound active lifestyle. Eating brain-boosting foods like
fatty fish (rich in omega-3s), leafy greens, nuts,
SYMPTOMS berries, and whole grains supports cognitive
• Unconsciousness function by reducing inflammation and providing
• Abnormal breathing essential nutrients for brain cell repair. Staying
• Obvious serious wound or fracture hydrated is equally important, as even mild
• Bleeding or clear fluid from the nose, ear and dehydration can impair focus and memory.
mouth Alongside a proper diet, regular physical
• Disturbance in speech or vision activity—such as walking, yoga, or strength
• Pupils of unequal size training—improves blood circulation and stimulates
• Weakness or paralysis the release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor
• Dizziness (BDNF), which helps grow and protect brain cells. A
• Seizure balanced lifestyle also includes stress
• Vomiting more than two or three times management through mindfulness, relaxation
• Loss of bladder or bowel control techniques, or hobbies that promote mental
well-being. By combining proper nutrition, regular
exercise, and stress reduction, we can
strengthen brain function, enhance memory, and
Ways to keep brain healthy (for essay): protect against cognitive decline.

Getting enough sleep is one of the most effective

ways to maintain a healthy brain, as it allows the
mind to recover, recharge, and function at its best.
Experts recommend at least seven to nine hours
of sleep per night, as it plays a crucial role in
memory consolidation, emotional regulation,
and cognitive performance. During sleep, the
brain replenishes important neurotransmitters like
serotonin and dopamine, which help stabilize
mood and improve mental clarity. It also regulates
melatonin, the hormone responsible for
maintaining a healthy sleep-wake cycle.
Additionally, deep sleep facilitates the removal of
toxic waste, such as beta-amyloid proteins, which
are linked to neurodegenerative diseases like
Alzheimer’s, while promoting growth hormone
release for brain cell repair and stronger neural
connections. By prioritizing quality sleep, we are not
just resting—we are actively protecting and
enhancing our brain’s overall function, ensuring
better focus, emotional balance, and long-term
mental well-being.