NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

1. Explain the components of network architecture: security, performance, network management, and
address routing.

Security:

Security in network architecture involves protecting data integrity, confidentiality, and availability. It
includes firewalls, intrusion detection systems (IDS), virtual private networks (VPNs), and encryption
protocols. Ensuring robust security measures protects against unauthorized access and cyber threats.

Performance:

Performance metrics evaluate the efficiency of data transfer speeds, bandwidth utilization, latency, and
packet loss. High-performance networks are designed to handle peak loads and ensure applications
requiring rapid data exchange (e.g., video streaming and online gaming) function smoothly. Efficient
management of bandwidth is crucial for maintaining optimal performance and preventing congestion.

Network Management:

Network management encompasses the tools and processes used to monitor, maintain, and optimize
network performance. It includes fault detection, performance monitoring, configuration management,
and security management. Effective network management ensures that any issues are quickly identified
and resolved, maintaining network reliability.

Address Routing:

Address routing involves the process of determining the best path for data packets to travel across the
network. This is accomplished through various routing protocols, which consider factors like network
topology, traffic load, and connection speed to efficiently direct data to its destination.

2. Discuss different kinds of routing.

1. Static Routing:

- Predefined paths are manually set by the network administrator.

- Best for small, stable networks with predictable traffic.

2. Dynamic Routing:

- Routing tables are automatically updated based on network changes using protocols like RIP, OSPF, or
BGP.

- Adapts to changing network conditions, making it suitable for larger networks.

3. Default Routing:

- A single route used for packets with destinations not found in the routing table.

- Commonly used in gateways and routers that connect to external networks.

4. Policy-Based Routing:

- Routes packets based on defined policies (e.g., type of traffic or source).

- Provides more control over traffic management.

5. Multicast Routing:

- Directs packets to a group of hosts rather than a single destination.

- Useful for applications like streaming media.

3. Addressing mechanism.

Addressing mechanisms in networking assign unique identifiers to devices, allowing them to

communicate. The most common mechanisms include:

1. IP Addressing:

- Devices on a network are assigned IP addresses (IPv4 or IPv6).

- IP addresses can be static (permanently assigned) or dynamic (assigned by DHCP).

2. MAC Addressing:

- Each network interface card (NIC) has a unique MAC address.

- MAC addresses operate at the data link layer, allowing devices to identify each other within a local
network.
3. Port Addressing:

- Used in TCP/IP to identify specific processes or services on a device.

- Each application on a device listens on a specific port number.

4. Subnetting.

Subnetting is the practice of dividing a larger network into smaller, manageable subnetworks (subnets).
It allows for better utilization of IP addresses and improved network performance. By creating subnets,
organizations can isolate network segments, improve security, and reduce broadcast traffic.

Example:

A Class C IP address of 192.168.1.0/24 can be subnetted into four smaller subnets:

- 192.168.1.0/26

- 192.168.1.64/26

- 192.168.1.128/26

- 192.168.1.192/26

5. Super-netting.

Super-netting (or route aggregation) combines multiple contiguous subnets into a single, larger subnet.
This reduces the size of routing tables and improves efficiency.

Example:

Combining the following subnets:

- 192.168.1.0/24

- 192.168.2.0/24

- 192.168.3.0/24

Can be represented as a single supernet:

- 192.168.0.0/22

6. Dynamic addressing.

Dynamic addressing assigns IP addresses temporarily from a pool of addresses. This is commonly
managed through a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server, which automatically assigns an
IP address when a device connects to the network. Dynamic addressing simplifies network management
and helps conserve IP addresses.

7. BGP.

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is a standardized exterior gateway protocol used for routing between
autonomous systems (AS) on the internet. BGP determines the best paths for data transfer based on
various attributes, such as path length, reliability, and policy considerations. BGP is essential for
maintaining the efficiency and reliability of internet routing.

8. Network management and its functions.

Network management encompasses various processes, tools, and policies used to monitor and maintain
networks. Key functions include:

1. Fault Management:

Identifying and addressing network problems promptly to minimize downtime.

2. Configuration Management:

Keeping track of hardware and software configurations and changes to optimize performance.

3. Performance Management:

Monitoring network performance metrics to ensure efficient operation and quick resolution of issues.

4. Security Management:
 Implementing and managing security measures to protect network resources.

5. Accounting Management:

Tracking network usage and resource allocation for billing or usage reports.

INTRODUCTION

1. The effectiveness of data communication depends on what? Explain.

The effectiveness of data communication relies on several factors, including:

Clarity and accuracy: Data must be transmitted without errors to ensure the message is understood as
intended.

Speed: Timely delivery of data is crucial, especially for real-time applications like VoIP and online gaming.

Reliability: Consistent performance and minimal downtime are essential for user satisfaction.

Cost: The cost of transmission should align with budget constraints while meeting performance needs.

2. Explain the components of data communications.

The components of data communications include:

1. Sender: The device that initiates the communication process, such as a computer or smartphone.

2. Receiver: The device that receives the transmitted data, like another computer or a server.

3. Transmission Medium: The physical path through which data travels, including wired (copper, fiber
optics) and wireless (radio waves).

4. Protocol: A set of rules governing data communication, ensuring proper transmission and reception.

5. Message: The actual data being communicated, which can be text, audio, video, or any other form of
information.

3. Define the term networks.

A network is a collection of interconnected devices (computers, servers, routers, etc.) that communicate
with one another to share resources and information. Networks can be classified based on their size,
topology, and purpose, including local area networks (LANs), metropolitan area networks (MANs), and
wide area networks (WANs).

4. Discuss various factors that affect the performance of the network and state some applications of data
communication networks.

Factors affecting network performance include:

Bandwidth: The maximum data transfer rate of the network, influencing how much data can be
transmitted simultaneously.

Latency: The delay in data transmission, which can impact real-time applications.

Packet Loss: Dropping data packets during transmission leads to retransmissions, increasing latency.

Network Congestion: High traffic loads can slow down the network and degrade performance.

Applications of data communication networks include:

Video Conferencing: Real-time communication for remote meetings.

Online Gaming: Fast data exchange for an engaging gaming experience.

E-commerce: Secure transactions and data exchange between customers and vendors.

5. Why do we need standardization in networks?

Standardization in networks ensures interoperability between different devices and systems. It provides
a common framework for communication protocols, hardware interfaces, and data formats, enabling
devices from various manufacturers to work together seamlessly. This fosters innovation, reduces costs,
and improves overall network performance.

6. State the advantages of distributed processing.

Improved Performance: Tasks can be processed simultaneously across multiple devices, enhancing
overall speed and efficiency.
Scalability: Additional processing nodes can be easily integrated into the system as needed.

Reliability: If one node fails, the system can continue functioning, providing greater fault tolerance.

Resource Sharing: Distributed processing allows for the sharing of resources, reducing costs and
increasing efficiency.

7. How is topology related to line configuration?

Topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of devices in a network. Line configuration
describes how devices are connected and communicate within the topology. Different topologies (e.g.,
star, ring, bus) dictate how data flows and the nature of connections between devices, influencing
network performance and reliability.

8. Explain five basics of topologies in terms of line configuration.

1. Star Topology:

All devices connect to a central hub. If one connection fails, it does not affect the others.

2. Bus Topology:

All devices share a single communication line. A failure in the main line disrupts the entire network.

3. Ring Topology:

Devices are connected in a circular manner. Each device relies on its neighbors, so a failure in one
affects all.

4. Mesh Topology:

Devices are interconnected, providing multiple paths for data transmission. This enhances reliability
but is costly to implement.

5. Tree Topology:

A hybrid of star and bus topologies, it consists of groups of star-configured networks connected to a
linear bus backbone.

9. Give the formula that finds the number of cable links necessary for mesh network topology.

In a mesh topology, each device connects to every other device. The formula to calculate the number of
cable
links required is:

\[

L = \frac{N(N-1)}{2}

\]

Where:

- \( L \) = Number of links

- \( N \) = Number of devices in the network

10. State the advantages of a multipoint connection over a point-to-point connection.

Multipoint Connection Advantages:

Resource Sharing: Multiple devices can share the same communication channel, leading to efficient
utilization of resources.

Cost-Effectiveness: Reduces the amount of cabling and infrastructure needed compared to point-to-
point connections.

Flexibility: New devices can be added to the network without significant reconfiguration.

Point-to-Point Connection Advantages:

Higher Data Rates: Provides a dedicated link between two devices, minimizing interference and allowing
for higher transmission speeds.

Simplified Troubleshooting: Easier to diagnose problems, as issues are isolated to a single connection.

11. Discuss various factors that determine whether a given communication system is LAN, MAN, or
WAN.

Factors include:

Geographic Area:
 LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small geographic area, like a home or office.

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a city or a large campus.

WAN (Wide Area Network): Spans large geographical areas, connecting multiple LANs and MANs.

Ownership:

LANs are typically owned by a single organization, while MANs and WANs may involve multiple
organizations or service providers.

Transmission Medium:

LANs often use Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi, while MANs may use fiber optics and WANs may rely on
satellite or leased lines.

12. Explain the merits and demerits of any three transmission mediums used in communication.

1. Twisted Pair Cable:

Merits:

- Cost-effective and easy to install.

- Flexible and lightweight.

Demerits:

- Limited bandwidth and distance capabilities.

- Susceptible to electromagnetic interference (EMI).

2. Coaxial Cable:

Merits:

- Higher bandwidth capacity than twisted pair.

- Better resistance to interference.

Demerits:

- Bulkier and less flexible than twisted pair.

- More expensive to install and maintain.

3. Fiber Optic Cable:

Merits:

- Extremely high bandwidth and speed.

- Immune to EMI and interference.

Demerits:
Higher installation costs and specialized equipment required.

Fragile and more difficult to handle compared to copper cables.

13. Distinguish between passive and active hubs.

Passive Hub:

- Simply connects multiple devices without amplifying the signal.

- Does not require power to operate and is used to extend the network.

Active Hub:

- Regenerates and amplifies signals before transmitting them to connected devices.

- Requires power and can include additional features like management capabilities.

14. Explain the responsibility of OSI layers hence describe how information gets passed from one OSI
layer to the next.

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model consists of seven layers, each with distinct
responsibilities:

1. Physical Layer: Transmits raw bits over a physical medium.

2. Data Link Layer: Ensures error-free data transfer between two directly connected nodes.

3. Network Layer: Manages data routing, forwarding, and addressing.

4. Transport Layer: Provides reliable or unreliable delivery and error recovery.

5. Session Layer: Manages sessions between applications, including opening, closing, and managing
sessions.

6. Presentation Layer: Translates data formats, encrypts, and compresses data.

7. Application Layer: Interfaces with end-user applications, providing network services.

Information Passing:

- Data is encapsulated into packets at the Application Layer and passed down through each layer. Each
layer adds its header (and possibly footer) information, and the data is transmitted over the network.
- At the receiving end, the process is reversed. Each layer reads its respective header, processes the data,
and passes it up to the next layer until it reaches the application.

15. What is handoff in cellular telephony?

Handoff (or handover) in cellular telephony refers to the process of transferring an ongoing call or data
session from one cell tower or base station to another without interruption. This is crucial for
maintaining call quality and ensuring seamless connectivity as users move through different coverage
areas.

16. Explain the criteria used by Telecommunication Engineers to evaluate the transmission media.

Telecommunication engineers evaluate transmission media based on the following criteria:

Bandwidth: The maximum data rate supported by the medium.

Distance: The maximum length over which data can be transmitted without significant loss.

Cost: The installation and maintenance costs associated with the medium.

Reliability: The medium's ability to maintain consistent performance and handle interference.

Flexibility: The ease with which the medium can be deployed and reconfigured.

17. What is the purpose of classing in optical fiber? State its advantages over other transmission
media.

Purpose of Classing in Optical Fiber:

Classing in optical fiber refers to categorizing fibers based on their design and performance
characteristics (e.g., single-mode vs. multi-mode). This classification helps in selecting the appropriate
fiber type for specific applications, such as long-distance communication or high-speed networks.

Advantages over Other Transmission Media:

High Bandwidth: Optical fibers support significantly higher data rates than copper cables.

Long Distance: They can transmit signals over longer distances without signal loss or degradation.

Immunity to EMI: Optical fibers are unaffected by electromagnetic interference, ensuring a cleaner
signal.

18. What is cross talk in the communication system? How is it reduced?

Cross Talk:

Cross talk is the interference caused by signals in adjacent communication channels, leading to
unwanted noise or data corruption.
Reduction Techniques:

Twisted Pair Wiring: Twisting wires together reduces electromagnetic interference.

Shielding: Using shielded cables can block external interference.

Proper Signal Routing: Ensuring proper separation of communication lines can minimize cross talk.

19. Explain three types of transmission impairment.

1. Attenuation:

- The reduction in signal strength as it travels through a medium, leading to potential loss of data
integrity.

2. Distortion:

- Changes in the shape of the signal wave, which can cause data to be misinterpreted. This often occurs
when different frequency components of the signal travel at different speeds.

3. Noise:

- Unwanted electrical signals that interfere with the desired signal, leading to data corruption or loss.

20. How is an IDN different from ISDN?

Integrated Digital Network (IDN):

IDN refers to a comprehensive network that integrates various digital services (data, voice, video) over a
single network infrastructure.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN):

ISDN is a specific type of IDN that provides standardized digital communication channels for voice and
data. ISDN offers a defined set of services, such as BRI and PRI, enabling simultaneous voice and data
transmission.

21. Explain the following functional grouping.

i. NT1:

Network Termination 1 (NT1) is the device that connects the end-user’s equipment to the ISDN network,
handling signal conversion and transmission.

ii. NT2:

Network Termination 2 (NT2) provides additional functionality such as switching and interconnection
between multiple ISDN devices within the customer premises.
iii. TE1:

Terminal Equipment 1 (TE1) refers to devices that are directly compatible with ISDN protocols, such as
ISDN telephones.

iv. TE2:

Terminal Equipment 2 (TE2) are devices that require additional equipment (like NT1 or NT2) to connect
to the ISDN network, such as traditional analog phones.

v. TA:

Terminal Adapter (TA) is a device that allows non-ISDN devices to connect to the ISDN network by
converting signals.

22. Explain the relation between the ISDN layer and the OSI model layers.

ISDN layers can be mapped to the OSI model layers as follows:

Physical Layer (Layer 1): ISDN's physical layer corresponds to the physical connection, handling signal
transmission.

Data Link Layer (Layer 2): ISDN incorporates protocols that manage frame formats and error control.

Network Layer (Layer 3): ISDN handles routing and addressing, similar to the network layer of the OSI
model.

23. Discuss the function of the ISDN physical layer.

The ISDN physical layer is responsible for the transmission of raw bit streams over the communication
medium. It defines the electrical characteristics, timing, and modulation methods used to establish the
physical connection between devices.

24. Discuss briefly the evolution of ISDN.

ISDN was developed to provide integrated digital services over traditional analog systems. Its evolution
began in the late 1980s, leading to the introduction of services such as Basic Rate Interface (BRI) and
Primary Rate Interface (PRI). Over time, ISDN became essential for high-quality voice and data
transmission, paving the way for modern digital communication networks.

25. Using illustration, explain the simplified layer of ISDN.

The simplified layer of ISDN typically includes three layers:

1. Physical Layer: Responsible for the physical transmission of data.

2. Data Link Layer: Manages the framing, error detection, and correction of data packets.

3. Network Layer: Handles addressing, routing, and call control functions.

26. Explain how multiple channels of different sizes are organized in ISDN to allow flexibility, digital
pipes between

customers and ISDN office.

ISDN supports multiple channels of varying sizes through its BRI and PRI interfaces. BRI consists of two B-
channels (64 kbps each) and one D-channel (16 kbps) for signaling. PRI typically includes 23 B-channels
and one D-channel, allowing flexibility in allocating bandwidth based on user needs. This structure
enables different data rates and service types to coexist efficiently.

27. Contrast the three categories of services provided by ISDN.

1. Bearer Services:

- Provide transparent transmission of user data, such as voice and video.

2. Teleservices:

- Offer specific telecommunication services, like telephony and fax.

3. Supplementary Services:

- Additional features enhancing basic services, such as call forwarding, call waiting, and conference
calling.

28. What are the services provided by B-ISDN?

Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) offers high-speed digital communication services, supporting:

- High-definition video conferencing

- Multimedia streaming

- High-speed internet access

- Data transmission at rates exceeding 155 Mbps

29. Distinguish between N-ISDN and B-ISDN.

Narrowband ISDN (N-ISDN):

- Offers lower data rates (64 kbps to 2 Mbps) for basic telecommunication services, primarily voice and
low-speed data.
Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN):

- Supports higher data rates (up to several Gbps) for multimedia services and high-speed data
transmission, catering to modern applications.

30. What are the X.25 layers? How does each relate to the OSI model?

X.25 comprises three layers:

1. Physical Layer:

- Corresponds to OSI Layer 1, managing the physical connection and transmission medium.

2. Data Link Layer:

- Corresponds to OSI Layer 2, handling framing, error detection, and flow control.

3. Network Layer:

- Corresponds to OSI Layer 3, managing packet routing and addressing.

31. Name the X.25 frame types and their primary functions.

1. Information Frames (I-frames):

- Carry user data and acknowledgments.

2. Supervisory Frames (S-frames):

- Provide control information, such as flow control and error management.

3. Unnumbered Frames (U-frames):

- Used for control and management purposes, not carrying user data.

32. How are flow and error control handled by X.25? Are the layers involved?

Flow Control:

X.25 employs a sliding window mechanism to control data flow between sender and receiver, preventing
overload.

Error Control:

It uses acknowledgment and retransmission strategies to ensure reliable data transmission, with error
detection mechanisms in the Data Link Layer. The Network Layer may also handle some error recovery.

33. Explain how a virtual circuit is established between two DTEs.

A virtual circuit is established by:

1. Call Setup:

- The initiating DTE sends a call setup request to the network.

2. Path Allocation:

- The network allocates resources and establishes a path.

3. Acknowledgment:

- The receiving DTE acknowledges the setup, completing the circuit establishment.

34. What is the purpose of the logical control number (LCN) in X.25?

The Logical Control Number (LCN) identifies a specific virtual circuit within the X.25 network. It allows
multiple virtual circuits to share the same physical link, enabling efficient use of network resources.

35. What kind of virtual circuit does X.25 use?

X.25 uses permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) and switched virtual circuits (SVCs). PVCs provide a
dedicated path for continuous communication, while SVCs are established on demand for temporary
connections.

36. Explain how flow control is handled in Frame Relay.

Frame Relay uses a simple flow control mechanism, relying primarily on the end-to-end flow
management implemented by higher-layer protocols (like TCP). It does not provide extensive flow
control features, making it efficient for handling bursty traffic.

37. Compare X.25 and Frame Relay.

X.25:

- Provides error correction and flow control at the network layer.

- Slower due to its extensive error handling capabilities.

- Suitable for connections requiring high reliability.

Frame Relay:

- Offers minimal error correction; relies on upper layers for error handling.

- Higher throughput and lower latency.

- Better suited for applications with bursty data traffic.

38. Enlist some of the advantages of Frame Relay over X.25.

1. Higher Efficiency:

- Frame Relay has lower overhead due to less error checking.

2. Faster Transmission Speeds:

- More suitable for high-speed data transfer.

3. Scalability:

- Can easily accommodate a large number of users and varying data rates.

4. Cost-Effective:

- Reduced costs due to lower operational overhead.

39. Explain the main reason why Frame Relay is unsuitable for real-time communication such as
teleconferencing.

Frame Relay lacks built-in mechanisms for guaranteed delivery and low latency, making it unsuitable for
applications like teleconferencing, which require consistent real-time data transmission and minimal
delay.

40. Compare an SVC with a PVC.

Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC):

- Established on-demand for temporary connections.

- Useful for sporadic or short-term data transfers.

Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC):

- A dedicated connection that remains established for continuous communication.

- More efficient for regular data transfers.

41. Discuss four attributes devised for traffic control in Frame Relay.

1. Committed Information Rate (CIR):

- The guaranteed bandwidth allocated to the user.

2. Excess Information Rate (EIR):

- The allowed burstiness above the CIR that can be transmitted.

3. Frame Discarding:

- Lower priority frames may be discarded during congestion.

4. Traffic Shaping:

- Techniques used to manage data flow to avoid congestion and maintain performance.

42. Using illustration, explain the frame format of Frame Relay.

Frame Relay frames typically include:

Flag Field:

Marks the beginning and end of a frame.

Address Field:

Identifies the destination and source devices.

Control Field:

Contains information about the frame type and flow control.

Data Field:

Contains the actual payload being transmitted.

FCS (Frame Check Sequence):

Used for error detection.

43. Describe the principle devised for congestion control in Frame Relay.

Congestion control in Frame Relay involves:

1. Traffic Management:

- Monitoring data flow to identify and address congestion points.

2. Frame Discarding Policies:

- Prioritizing critical traffic and discarding lower priority frames during congestion.

3. Rate Limiting:

- Ensuring that data does not exceed the configured CIR to prevent network overload.

44. Distinguish between SDH and SONET.

-Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH):

- An international standard used mainly in Europe and other regions for transmitting digital data over
optical networks.
- Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET):

- Primarily used in North America, SONET is compatible with SDH but has different framing structures
and transmission rates.

45. Explain the physical configuration of SONET.

SONET's physical configuration includes:

- Optical Fiber Cables:

The primary medium for data transmission.

- Multiplexers:

Combine multiple data streams into a single optical signal.

- Regenerators:

Amplify and reshape signals to maintain quality over long distances.

46. Using illustration, explain the architecture of ATM and state various services offered by ATM.

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) architecture consists of:

-ATM Layer:

Responsible for cell switching, routing, and multiplexing.

- Cell Transfer Layer:

Manages cell transport and handles error correction.

- Adaptation Layer:

Interfaces between ATM and higher-layer protocols, adapting data for cell transfer.

Services Offered by ATM:

- Cell-based transport for voice, video, and data.

- Quality of Service (QoS) guarantees for different types of traffic.

- Flexible bandwidth allocation and dynamic scaling.

47. Discuss the evolution of ISDN and highlight various services offered by B-ISDN and its applications.
ISDN evolved to provide integrated digital services over traditional analog systems, with key milestones
leading to the introduction of services like Basic Rate Interface (BRI) and Primary Rate Interface (PRI). B-
ISDN, designed for high-capacity applications, offers services such as:

- High-speed internet access

- Video conferencing.

- Multimedia transmission.

These services support modern digital communication needs.

48. Distinguish between SDH/SONET and explain various technologies supported by SONET and their
contribution to releasing high-speed networks.

SDH and SONET are similar but differ in standardization and application regions. SONET supports various
technologies like:

- Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM):

Increases capacity by allowing multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously over the same fiber.

- Synchronous Transport Module (STM):

Standardized units for transmission speeds, facilitating interoperability.

These technologies contribute to the expansion of high-speed networks by optimizing data transmission.

49. Several applications have been supported via internet protocol, i.e., video conferencing, digital
telephony, and mobile TV. Discuss the driving factors.

Driving factors include:

- Increased Bandwidth Availability:

Enhanced internet speeds enable smooth transmission of high-quality video and audio.

- Improved Compression Technologies:

Advances in compression algorithms make it feasible to transmit rich media content over limited
bandwidth.

- Widespread Internet Accessibility:

The proliferation of internet access allows more users to engage in real-time applications like video
conferencing and streaming.
50. What requirements must the infrastructure of an information superhighway have?

1. High-Speed Connectivity:

Essential for supporting various data-intensive applications.

2. Scalability:

Ability to accommodate growing user demands and data traffic.

3. Reliability:

High availability and fault tolerance to ensure continuous service.

4. Interoperability:

Compatibility between different systems and technologies for seamless communication.

51. Why is multiplexing more efficient if all data units are of the same size?

Multiplexing is more efficient with uniform data sizes because it simplifies the management of data
streams. Consistent sizes enable better allocation of bandwidth and reduce overhead in framing and
processing. It minimizes the potential for fragmentation and enhances throughput.

52. Discuss the relationship between delay length, data unit size, and real-time audio and video
transmission.

In real-time audio and video transmission, longer delays can negatively impact user experience. Larger
data units may introduce longer transmission delays, causing latency. Therefore, optimizing data unit size
is crucial to balancing transmission efficiency and minimizing delay, ensuring smooth real-time
communication.

53. How does an NNI differ from a UNI?

Network-Network Interface (NNI):

Refers to the interface between two networks, facilitating inter-network communication.

User-Network Interface (UNI):

Refers to the interface between user devices and the network, allowing end-user access to network
services.

54. Explain how ATM virtual connections are identified.

ATM virtual connections are identified by Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) and Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI)
values, which are included in the ATM cell header. The VPI identifies the virtual path, while the VCI
specifies the individual virtual connection within that path.
55. Explain how ATM cells are multiplexed.

ATM cells are multiplexed by combining multiple data streams into a single transmission medium. Cells
from different virtual connections are interleaved and transmitted over the same channel, allowing for
efficient bandwidth utilization while maintaining the integrity of each connection.

56. Describe the format of an ATM cell.

An ATM cell consists of:

- Header (5 bytes):

Contains control information, including VPI and VCI for routing and identification.

- Payload (48 bytes):

Contains the actual data being transmitted, allowing for consistent and efficient data transfer.

57. Discuss the different methods devised for error detection at each layer of all AAL types.

Error detection methods include:

1. Checksums:

Simple error-checking method that adds up the data and checks for discrepancies.

2. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):

Advanced error detection technique that adds redundancy based on polynomial division, providing
stronger error-checking capabilities.

3. Acknowledgment and Retransmission:

Higher layers implement acknowledgment mechanisms that require the sender to retransmit lost or
corrupted data.

58. Why is padding necessary in ATM?

Padding in ATM is necessary to ensure that cells meet the fixed size of 53 bytes. If the data being
transmitted is smaller than the cell size, padding fills the remaining space, allowing for efficient
processing and transmission of data.

59. Explain various quality of services defined in ATM.

ATM defines several Quality of Service (QoS) classes:

1. Constant Bit Rate (CBR):

Guarantees a constant data rate, ideal for real-time applications like voice and video.
2. Variable Bit Rate (VBR):

Allows for variable data rates, suitable for applications with fluctuating bandwidth needs.

3. Available Bit Rate (ABR):

Provides a minimum guaranteed bandwidth with the flexibility to use more as available, catering to
non-real-time applications.

4. Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR):

Best-effort service without guarantees, suitable for less critical applications.

60. Discuss different kinds of service classes defined in ATM.

ATM service classes include:

1. CBR (Constant Bit Rate):

Ensures a steady stream of data, ideal for applications requiring consistent quality.

2. VBR (Variable Bit Rate):

Adjusts to changing data rates, providing flexibility for multimedia applications.

3. ABR (Available Bit Rate):

Guarantees a minimum bandwidth, allowing for dynamic adjustment based on network conditions.

4. UBR (Unspecified Bit Rate):

Offers no guarantees, suitable for non-critical applications requiring minimal bandwidth.

61. With the aid of a block diagram, explain the ATM architecture.

The ATM architecture comprises:

- ATM Layer:

Handles cell switching and routing.

- Cell Transfer Layer:

Manages cell transport and error correction.

- Adaptation Layer:

Interfaces with higher-layer protocols, adapting data for cell transfer.

62. Name ATM layers and their functions.

1. ATM Layer:

- Manages cell forwarding and switching.

2.*Cell Transfer Layer:

- Ensures reliable cell transport.

3. Adaptation Layer:

- Facilitates the interface with higher-layer protocols.

63. Discuss the issues involved when ATM is used as LANs.

Issues include:

- Complexity:

Implementing ATM in LANs can introduce complexity in configuration and management.

- Cost:

ATM equipment and maintenance can be more expensive than traditional Ethernet solutions.

- Integration:

Ensuring compatibility with existing Ethernet-based devices may pose challenges.

64. How is ATM used as WAN?

ATM is utilized in WANs for its high-speed data transfer capabilities, allowing multiple data types (voice,
video, data) to be transmitted simultaneously over long distances. ATM’s flexibility and QoS features
make it suitable for connecting geographically dispersed networks.

## SONET

65. How is an STS multiplex different from an add/drop multiplexer since both can add signals together?

An STS multiplexer combines multiple input signals into a single higher-speed signal for transmission,
while an add/drop multiplexer can selectively add or remove specific signals from a multiplexed stream
without disrupting others. The STS multiplexer focuses on combining, while the add/drop multiplexer
emphasizes flexibility in managing individual signals.
66. Describe the relation between STS level over OC level.

STS (Synchronous Transport Signal) levels refer to the hierarchy of signals in SONET, while OC (Optical
Carrier) levels represent the physical transport rates. For example, STS-1 corresponds to OC-1 (51.84
Mbps), STS-3 to OC-3 (155.52 Mbps), and so forth. The STS levels define the data rates carried over the
OC levels.

67. What is the purpose of the pointer in the overhead?

The pointer in the SONET overhead is used to indicate the position of the actual payload within the
frame. It allows for the efficient handling of payloads of varying sizes and facilitates the synchronization
of different data streams.

68. Compare the STS hierarchy with the DS hierarchy.

-STS Hierarchy:

Operates on optical fiber and supports higher data rates, typically from STS-1 to STS-192.

- DS Hierarchy:

Primarily used for electrical signals and ranges from DS-0 (64 Kbps) to DS-3 (44.736 Mbps). The STS
hierarchy offers greater scalability and efficiency for high-speed networks.

69. Explain the relationship between SONET and synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH).

SONET and SDH are complementary technologies that serve similar purposes in different regions. SONET
is primarily used in North America, while SDH is the international standard. Both standards aim to
provide synchronous data transmission, allowing for interoperability and seamless communication.

70. Why is SONET called a synchronous network?

SONET is termed a synchronous network because it operates on a fixed time-slot structure, ensuring that
all devices within the network are synchronized. This allows for predictable timing in data transmission
and efficient multiplexing of different services.

71. Explain the relationship between STS and STM.

STS (Synchronous Transport Signal) levels are the SONET equivalent of **STM (Synchronous Transport
Module)** levels in SDH. Both represent different hierarchical levels of data transmission, with STS being
used in SONET and STM in SDH. They facilitate efficient data transfer and management in optical
networks.

72. Explain the function of the SONET regenerator.

SONET regenerators amplify and reshape signals to maintain quality over long distances. They help to
counteract signal degradation due to attenuation and distortion, ensuring reliable data transmission
across the network.
73. Discuss the function of each SONET layer.

1. Physical Layer:

Manages the physical transmission of data over optical fibers.

2. Section Layer

Ensures the integrity of the signal as it travels through the network.

3. Line Layer:

Manages the transmission of data between multiplexers and regenerators.

4. Path Layer:

Provides end-to-end management of the data path, ensuring that data is routed correctly.

74. Compare the SONET layer with the OSI model.

- Physical Layer (SONET): Corresponds to Layer 1 (Physical) in the OSI model, dealing with raw bit
transmission.

- Line Layer (SONET): Aligns with Layer 2 (Data Link) in the OSI model, managing framing and error
detection.

- Path Layer (SONET): Relates to Layer 3 (Network) in the OSI model, responsible for routing and
addressing.

75. What is a virtual tributary?

A virtual tributary (VT) is a sub-channel within SONET that allows for the transport of lower-speed data
streams (e.g., DS-1) within a higher-speed SONET signal. It enables the efficient integration of various
data formats into a single SONET stream.

76. How does SONET carry data from a DS-1 service?

SONET carries DS-1 data by encapsulating it within a virtual tributary (VT). The DS-1 signal is mapped to a
VT, which is then multiplexed into the higher-speed SONET signal for transmission over optical fiber.

77. Discuss the SONET configuration as a physical carrier for ATM.

SONET serves as a physical carrier for ATM by providing a high-capacity, synchronous transport network.
ATM cells are encapsulated within SONET frames, allowing for efficient multiplexing and high-speed data
transfer. This integration facilitates the transport of multiple ATM connections over a single SONET link,
ensuring scalability and flexibility in network design.