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INVESTIGATION OF THE CONDITIONS THAT TRIGGER CAVITATION IN A

PUMP

Article in International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering · October 2019

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 International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Technology ISSN 2348-7593 (Online)
Vol. 7, Issue 2, pp: (1-7), Month: October 2019 - March 2020, Available at: www.researchpublish.com

INVESTIGATION OF THE CONDITIONS

THAT TRIGGER CAVITATION IN A PUMP
Kingsley E. Madu1; Emmanuel I. Nwankwo1; Malachy U. Orji1;
Anthony C. Aneke2
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University
Uli, Anambra, Nigeria
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Petroleum Training Institute
Effurun, Delta, Nigeria
Corresponding E-mail: [email protected]
Mobile Phone Number: +234(0)8033910640

Abstract: This paper will consider cavitation, the mechanism that causes it, its damaging effect on mechanical
components, cavitation mitigation and the practical applications of cavitation. Cavitation is a phenomenon that
occurs when bubbles form in a liquid due to a pressure drop, then violently collapse. This is usually a consequence
of fluids moving at high velocity when the local pressure falls below vapor pressure allowing small amounts of
liquid to vaporize. When the bubble reenters a region of high pressure, the bubble then collapses violently with
enough energy and force to erode metal. Damage from a single bubble collapse is almost immeasurable; it is the
constant accumulation of damage over long periods of time that causes significant removal of material, hence
“cavitation erosion”. The highly focused jets of liquid from the collapsing bubbles blast away micro-amounts of
material which eventually gives the surface a pitted appearance. This is commonly a problem for mechanical
components such as hydrofoils, propellers, automobile engines and centrifugal pumps in working environments of
in the marine, automotive and industrial applications where liquid velocity is high and pressure head is low.
Keywords: Pump Head, Erosion, Cavitation Phenomenon, Fluid Pressure.

1. INTRODUCTION
Cavitation is defined as the process of formation of the vapor phase of a liquid when it is subjected to reduced pressures at
constant ambient temperature. Although other factors such as changes in temperature, turbulence and velocity play a role,
the change of liquid to vapor is the same. When bubbles then enter a region of higher pressure or lower temperature, they
collapse violently producing a jet of liquid that creates shockwave upon impact with a surface enough force to erode
metal. Although the collapse is generally a low-energy event, it is highly localized. The figure below illustrates the
collapsing phase and resulting jet, referred to as the re-entrant micro jet:

Figure 1: Collapsing Phase of Vapor Bubble

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As previously mentioned the mechanism responsible for initiating cavitation is a pressure drop causing the water to
undergo a phase change from liquid to vapor. However, this is unlike a boiling pot of water that is common to most of us.
When water boils under normal conditions, say 212°F at 1 atmosphere, it undergoes a phase change from liquid to vapor
and increases in volume over 1000x. The vapor bubble rises to the surface and bursts. The pressure in the bubble is low
(approx. 1 atm) and the circular area is relatively large. Now if water was to change from liquid to vapor due to a pressure
drop at an ambient temperature such as 68°F it increases to over 50,000x its original volume. Almost the exact opposite
happens to a collapsing bubble due to cavitation compared to a bubble bursting at the surface of a pot of boiling water.
When this bubble begins to collapse the pressure may be up to 10,000 atmospheres. Also, the bubble also tends not to
collapse uniformly in all directions and as a result, a powerful jet of liquid is formed as it rushes in to fill the void once
occupied by the bubble. Unfortunately, the direction of the jet is most likely to be directed at the surface of the device
initiating the process, such as the blades of a pump.

Figure 2: Actual stages of a collapsing vapor bubble. Note how the bubble collapses unevenly and the formation of
the jet.
A single cavitation event produces little if any noticeable damage. It is the accumulation of damage from multiple events
(thousands, millions, billions…) over time that causes noticeable damage known as pitting, hence the phrase “cavitation
erosion”. It is sometimes referred to as cavitation corrosion, but this is inaccurate. Corrosion is due to chemical reactions
and erosion is the physical removal of material by an external force, but cavitation can help initiate corrosion by exposing
surfaces. Therefore, corrosion due to cavitation is a secondary mechanism. The chances of cavitation occurring can be
calculated based on the ambient pressure (Pa), cavity pressure (Pc), mass density (ρ) and velocity (U) of the liquid.
Similar to the Euler equation, the equation for cavitation number is:

⁄
Equation for cavitation number
For a specific liquid, the value calculated by the cavitation number at which cavitation occurs is called the critical
cavitation number. Above this value cavitation does not occur.

2. TYPES OF CAVITATION
There are mainly four types or stages of cavitation:
1. Incipient Stage
In this stage bubbles formed are very small. It is easily detected. Zone in which it takes place is limited. Any change in
parameter will change in vaporization rate. All other stages after this stage is referred as developed stages.
2. Traveling Cavitation
At this location bubble nuclei are formed. Growth of bubble takes place. They expand shrink and collapse. Generally
these bubbles are formed at low pressure side of solid boundary or high shear region of turbulence flow or low
pressure vortex side.
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 International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Technology ISSN 2348-7593 (Online)
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3. Fixed Cavitation
In this type of cavitation, liquid flow near the solid boundary separates from solid surface and bubble formed in cavitation
zone sticks to surface forming cavity in quasi-static sense. It is appeared in high boiling region of turbulent zone. This
stage can be detected after inception has occurred.
4. Vortex Cavitation
As stated above, this cavitation is formed in cores of vortex flow. It is found in either in fixed or in moving stage.
Sometimes it is called as tip cavitation .open type of propeller and ducted propeller face such problem.
Pump and its Practical Application
Pump is a mechanical tool which increases fluid pressure and makes the effects arising from the system’s friction, gravity
and functional pressures possible. By means of this tool, the fluid is transferred from one place to another, and based on
the various fluids which may be transferred to the pump, the following functions can be defined:
- Hydrocarbons
- Chemical materials
- Whitewashes
- Water and similar fluids
Technically, pumps are of dynamic and displacement nature, and based on their way of functioning, they are divided into
three following groups:
- Axial flow pumps
- Radial flow centrifugal pumps
- Mixed flow pumps
Investigating the methods of cavitation effects on pumps
There are three general methods for study of cavitation phenomenon as follows:

 Indirect observation by determining cavitation effect on pump’s efficiency based on head or performance drop

 Direct observation using visual and photography (imaging) equipment (in this method, sophisticated photographic
equipment is required)

 Indirect observation through measurement of the produced noise by cavitation (studies indicate that upon
intensification of cavitation, noises with high frequency are produced, therefore, presence of cavitation is detectable
by measuring such noises).

3. METHODOLOGY
The simplest way to limit cavitation phenomenon is increase of pressure inside the pump relative to liquid vapor pressure
and the possible solutions considered for control of this phenomenon are as follows:

 Reduction of suction height

 Reduction in suction drop

 Replacement of pump or propeller

 Increasing pump’s booster

 Bringing changes in the pumps design to minimize hydrodynamic pressure difference in the course of flow

 Use of stronger alloy in construction of the pumps

 Creating smooth surface on propellers (smooth surfaces are not suitable for bubbles germination)
 Covering of metallic parts with soft coatings such as plastic

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 Cathodic protection (in this method, the formed hydrogen bubbles over metal’s surface like air cushion adsorb the
shock waves)
Measurement of drop arising from cavitation phenomenon
Different experiments indicate that pump as a result of cavitation phenomenon will face 1% drop in efficiency and 3%
decrease in head performance. Of course, measurement of these two quantities requires accurate devices and continuous
and regular calibration and internal calibration standards, and laboratorial services should be employed. In cavitation
phenomenon, materials’ approximate amount of damage is obtained from the following formula:

∆G=∆TVn
In the above formula, ∆G is amount of decrease in weight of pump’s materials, T time duration of pumping in hour, V
fluid velocity inside the system, and n is a number between 6 and 8 which is determined based on the pump’s working
condition. In addition to the above formula, also a table is prepared to show relative resistance of some metals against
cavitation phenomenon which is referred to in the following of the paper.

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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Centrifugal Pumps and Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
When (Toma Coefficient) is zero, liquid pressure reaches vapor pressure and boiling occurs. Cavitation phenomenon
occurs in centrifugal pumps where net positive head in the pump’s suction is less (smaller) than what the manufacturing
firm has recommended. Given numerous existing writings it might be assumed that relationship of NPSH and cavitation
phenomenon is now full understood, but NPSH has not yet been understood and applied well and this fact has given rise
to incurring heavy costs for installation of new systems and insecure functioning of installations equipped with the pump.
Recently, an ideal solution in the inventive system has been designed by Dr. Movafagh Zaherti resolve this problem and
to transfer the energy pressure from fluid carrying pipe to the suction pipe. This system functions as the inductor or
similar means. Application of this de-airing system facilitates transfer of pressure energy from drift (running) tube to
suction tube through a number of nozzles. Using this system when sufficient head is provided for the pump’s propeller,
the pump is able to continue its work under slight cavitation condition. Results of experiments carried out by Dr.
Movafagh Zaher suggest that in case of optimum de-airing (depending on difference of water level) and application of
new combination in the pump’s geometrical and physical structure, its head increases up to 7 to 20 percent compared to
final (marginal) head of a similar pump which lacks de-airing system. In addition, in this method, the pump’s final
(marginal) efficiency increases about 8 to 15% and average saving in electricity power reaches 16%. σ denotes maximum
suction capacity on utilization point. Toma Coefficient (σ) is also expressed as follows:

=(Hs-Hv)/H=[(Ha-H1)-Hv]/H=NPSH/H
The above formula is the analytic result of Bernoulli Equation (energy equation) and the factor
[(Ha – H1) – Hv] is NPSH. In this formula, NPSH is Net Positive Suction Head, H represents security head which
corresponds to total energy absorbed by the pump from outside, H v fluid vapor pressure in mw, H1 relative suction
pressure in mw, Ha air pressure in mw, Hs absolute pressure in the pump’s suction segment in mw.
Form and dimensions of pumps’ propeller changes proportional to a dimensionless design index called Specific Rotatory
Velocity. Specific rotatory Velocity is an index for prediction of pump’s specifications and is defined based on rotation
velocity of pump’s propeller per minute; the propeller with similar geometrical specifications which in each minute is able
to put in flow a Gallon water by one foot head. The experiments indicate that ration of the pump’s propeller main
dimensions uniformly change proportional to the amount of Specific Rotatory Velocity. In calculation of specific velocity,
all values regarding the pump’s performance on optimum yield point with the pump’s maximum nominal diameter and
velocity should be taken into consideration. Pump designers use N s as a valuable tool for improvement and development
of propellers. The specific rotatory velocity (Ns) is used be pump designers as one the indices for description of
propellers’ geometrical features and their classification based on the type of their design and applications. It should be

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 International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Technology ISSN 2348-7593 (Online)
Vol. 7, Issue 2, pp: (1-7), Month: October 2019 - March 2020, Available at: www.researchpublish.com

noted that assessment of dimensional ratios of a pump’s propeller and comparison of various propellers with each other
can be done by the below formula:

Ns= (N Q)/H3/4
In the above formula, Ns is the pump’s specific rotatory velocity (dimensionless number), N pump’s propeller’s rotation
velocity per minute, Q flow rate in Gallon/min, and H pump’s head in foot. It should be noted that pumps’ maximum
rotatory velocity is determined by NPSH. is Toma Coefficient (cavitation number) is a function of specific rotatory
velocity, performance and number of pump’s propellers, and specific rotatory velocity is defined so in which all
geometrical dimensions of the imaginary turbo-wheel are similar to the assumed pump.
However, σ has also a critical measure which is denoted by cσ. cσ, the critical Toma Coefficient is obtained when
cavitation is almost started and this value is obtained through actual experiments. Cavitation occur when Toma
Coefficient is smaller than critical Toma Coefficient, thus, control of this phenomenon can take place by this parameter. It
should be noticed that between and specific rotatory velocity the following mathematical relation holds:
=1.042×10- 3(Ns)4/3
Considering the above matter, it can be concluded that σ (cavitation number) is in direct relation with 1.33 power of
Specific Rotatory Velocity.
Axial and Centrifugal Pumps and Effect of Cavitation Phenomenon on their Performance
Axial pumps are the pumps which transfer high flow rate at low head (performance), i.e. they have a high specific rotating
velocity and it is suggested that cavitation risk and cavitation number in such pumps to be greater relative to other types of
pumps. Occurrence of cavitation phenomenon in centrifugal pumps in critical and instable state may cause disorder in the
respective systems.
In some cases, determination of exact reason for the pump’s instable performance (functioning) is not possible. Turbulent
flow or flow’s unusual conditions can cause severe vibrations in pump and may put it out of circuit. One of the primary
reasons for vibrations of centrifugal pump is cavitation phenomenon. As a result of drop in fluid pressure, vaporization
occurs, and bubble masses are produced on the side of propeller’s suction and are forwarded to propeller’s outlet for
discharge and on their way as a result of pressure, bubbles are produced and compressed. The bubbles’ compression is
accompanied with noise (similar to noise of air bladder) and creation of vibration. Cavitation is a potential danger,
particularly when the pump is working at high rotation velocity or at a capacity much more or much less than the best
yield point. Cavitation phenomenon, in the long run, may cause quick damage to pump. Among other effects of cavitation
phenomenon on pumps’ performance, it can be referred to the following ones:

 Change in flow pattern with effective result in output (flow discharge) and pump’s efficiency
 Fatigue in parts arising from cavitation phenomenon and probability of pump’s propeller breaking

 Failure of flow passages as a result of cavitation damage and drop in pump’s head
 Erosion and pitting of metal parts due to continuous abrasion resulting from bubbles collapse
 Creation of vibratory impulses and noise in parts of the pump’s propeller (vane) when the applied hydrodynamic
pressure on bubbles’ surfaces changes. In addition to erosion and abrasion, cavitation causes vibration and noise.4
production of noise can be a result of changes in fluid hydrodynamic pressure. For example, the amount noise
produced as a result of vapor bubbles explosion has been measured up to one megahertz.
The design for the best performance in a classification should be based on the studies on the curves of discharge relative
to head, output capacity and efficiency. The curves which represent relationship of the pump’s security head and its
capacity and efficiency with flow rate are of high importance, because these curves provide useful information on the
pump’s optimum performance. Application of the pump’s main parameters is important because maximum efficiency
matters only when the parameters have their optimum value and the pump is able to work at design speed.
Analysis of Flow Rates Curves Relative to Head, Output Capacity and Performance
The best hydraulic efficiency is obtained at specific velocities and efficiency drop at these velocities is primarily caused in
the pump’s input sections. The pumps which transfer a large volume of outflow at low head (like axial pumps) will be

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 International Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Technology ISSN 2348-7593 (Online)
Vol. 7, Issue 2, pp: (1-7), Month: October 2019 - March 2020, Available at: www.researchpublish.com

with high specific rotator velocity. Hence, this type of pumps has a higher efficiency relative to other types of pump. The
experiments in a specialized project indicate that there is always a type of pump for a specific rotatory velocity with the
best efficiency. In other words, there is a certain flow rate on design condition line in order to have the best empirical
features of the pump. Results obtained from these experiments carried out on axial pump suggest that with flow rate
increase the pump’s security head decreases, but increase or decrease of output capacity does not occur regularly and the
optimum flow rate lies on design condition line. The studies indicate the optimum specific rotator velocity increases along
with increase of the pump’s propeller degree (for example, from 15º to 22-29º) and the optimum flow rate is obtained at
high flow rates. The studies indicate that as a result of cavitation phenomenon, 3 percent drop in head (performance) and
1 percent drop in efficiency occur. With NPSH increase, NPSH-σ curve relapses to its descending state and its slope is
somewhat steep but from a certain level on, the curve takes a gentle slope. In addition, with increase of NPSH, NPSH
takes a steep slope but from a certain level of NPSH onward, the curve’s slope significantly gets moderated.

5. CONCLUSION
The main Causes of pump cavitation are:
 Drop in pressure at the suction nozzle due to low NPSHA
 Increase of the temperature of the pumped liquid
 Increase in the fluid velocity at pump suction
 Reduction of the flow at pump suction
 Undesirable flow conditions caused by obstructions or sharp elbows in the suction piping
 The pump is not selected correctly
The main criteria in identification of cavitation phenomenon are pump’s performance drop and observation of erosion
using laser systems. Cavitation creation and bubbles explosion as a result of this phenomenon release a large amount of
energy which gives rise to heat, negative energy and local pressure. The bubbles are very short live and cavitation
phenomenon is a very unstable situation, but collapse of cavitation bubbles may create a pressure to the magnitude of
100atm and such a large force may cause change of plastic shape in many kinds of metals. Bubble damage arises from
simultaneous effect of erosion and mechanical stresses. Hence, collapse of vapor bubbles destroys superficial protective
crusts. As a result of cavitation phenomenon, 3 percent drop in head performance) and 1percent drop in efficiency occur.
Cavitation phenomenon can be controlled by Toma Coefficient, because cavitation occurs when σ is smaller than σc. One
factor in reduction of water supply and yield of pumps is cavitation phenomenon. This phenomenon in the long run may
lead to their quick destruction. The studies indicate that jet fluid dynamism is associated to fluid superficial slimy
compressibility and the amount of these quantities varies in different physical regimes.

REFERENCES
[1] Tarbiyat, Firooz (1986), “Hydraulics of Pumping Stations”, Department of Publication and Translation of Water
Issues, Ministry of Power
[2] Fontana, Mars J. and Green, Norbert D., “Erosion Engineering”, Translation by Ahmad Saatchi, Jahad-e-
Daneshgahi of Esfahan, 1986
[3] Toloian, Akbar (1998), “Cavitation in Axial Flow Pumps and its Effect on Pumps’ Performance (A Specialized
Project)”, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tabriz University
[4] Akbar Toloian “The cause of cavitation and prevention methods of this destructive phenomenon in pumps”.
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