Chapter 4
Motivation
Sub- Topics
Definition of Motivation
Early theory of motivation
– Abrham Maslow’s theory of need
– ERG theory
– Theory of X and Y
– Herzberg Two factor theory
– McClelland’s Theory of need
Contemporary theory of motivation
– Expectancy Theory…
– Equity Theory …
– Re- inforcemet Theory ..
– Goal setting Theory ..
Managerial approaches for improving motivation
Although no need is ever fully gratified, a substantially
satisfied need no longer motivates (Abriham Maslow)
4.1. What Is Motivation?
Motivation is the act of stimulating someone to get
a desired course of action.
Motivation is the willingness to exert high levels of
effort toward organizational goals, conditioned by
the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.
Motivation is an internal force that energizes
behaviour, gives direction to behaviour, and
underlies the tendency to persist.
This definition of motivation recognizes that in order
to achieve goals, individuals must
Be sufficiently stimulated and energetic,
Have a clear focus or end in mind,
willing and able to commit their energy for a long
enough period of time to realize their aim.
4.2. Early Theories of Motivation
1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Founded by Abraham Maslow
Hierarchy of needs theory identifies five distinct
levels of individual needs: from self-actualization and
esteem, at the top, to social, safety, and physiological
at the bottom.
Maslow assumes that some needs are more important
than others and must be satisfied before the other needs
can serve as motivators.
Maslow hypothesized that within every human being,
there exists a hierarchy of five needs:
1. Physiological- Physiological needs are those required
to sustain life, such as air, water, nourishment and
sleep.
2. Safety- safety and security in order to be free from the
threat of physical and emotional harm. Such needs
might be fulfilled by living in a safe area, medical
insurance, job security and financial reserves.
3. Social need; Social needs are those related to
interaction with other people and may include need for
friends, need for belonging, need to give and receive love.
4. Self-esteem; Esteem needs may be classified as
internal or external.
Internal esteem needs are those related to self-esteem
such as self-respect and achievement.
External esteem needs are those such as social status,
reputation and recognition.
5. Self-actualization - is the summit of Maslow's
hierarchy of needs.
It is the quest of reaching one's full potential
as a person.
Unlike lower level needs, this need is never
fully satisfied.
Self-actualized people tend to have needs such
as truth, justice and wisdom.
Implications of Maslow’s theory in the workplace
Physiological needs: Provide lunch breaks, rest breaks, and
wages that are sufficient to purchase the essentials of life.
Safety Needs: Provide a safe working environment,
retirement benefits, and job security.
Social Needs: Create a sense of community via team-based
projects and social events.
Esteem Needs: Recognize achievements to make employees
feel appreciated and valued. Offer job titles that convey the
importance of the position.
Self-Actualization: Provide employees a challenge and the
opportunity to reach their full career potential.
2. Theory X and Theory Y
McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of the
nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping
of assumptions.
The manager may see his/her subordinate
optimistically or pessimistically.
Theory X assumes that lower-order needs
dominate individuals.
Theory Y assumes that higher-order needs
dominate individuals.
McGregor himself held to the belief that Theory Y
assumptions were more valid than Theory X.
3. Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory
Herzberg’s two-factor theory identifies job context as
the source of job dissatisfaction and job content as the
source of job satisfaction.
Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while
extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction.
Hygiene Factors
The presence of hygiene factors would not cause
satisfaction, but their absence would cause dissatisfaction.
Motivational factor
When they are present the employees are satisfied, when
absent, the employees are not satisfied but not dissatisfy.
Providing the hygiene factors will eliminate employee
dissatisfaction but will not motivate workers to high
levels of achievement.
Recognition, responsibility, and the opportunity to
achieve personal growth will promote satisfaction and
employee performance.
4. ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)
Clayton Alderfer’s ERG theory is an extension of
Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Alderfer suggested that needs could be classified into
three categories, rather than five. existence needs,
relatedness needs, and growth needs
Whereas Maslow’s theory follows rigid hierarchy ERG
theory follows flexible hierarchy.
In ERG theory an already satisfied lower level need can
become activated when a higher level need cannot be
satisfied, this is known as frustration-regression principle.
Unlike Maslow’s theory, ERG theory contends that
more than one need may be activated at the same time.
ERG theory demonstrates that;
1. More than one need may be operative at the same
time, and
2. If the gratification of a higher-level need is stifled,
the desire to satisfy a lower-need increases.
5. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Exercise; You’ve got one beanbag and there are five targets
set up in front of you. Each one is progressively farther away
and, hence, more difficult to hit. Target A is a cinch. It sits
almost within arm’s reach of you. If you hit it, you get
$2. Target B is a bit farther out, but about 80 percent
of the people who try can hit it. It pays $4. Target C
pays $8, and about half the people who try can hit it.
Very few people can hit Target D, but the payoff is $16
if you do. Finally, Target E pays $32, but it’s almost
impossible to achieve. Which target would you try for?
David McClelland proposed that an individual's specific
needs are acquired over time and are shaped by one's
life experiences. Most of these needs can be classed as
achievement, affiliation, or power.
Need for achievement (nAch) is the desire to do better,
solve problems, or master complex tasks, the drive to
excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to
strive to succeed.
Need for affiliation (nAff) is the desire for friendly and
warm or close relations with others.
Need for power (nPower) is the desire to control others
and influence their behavior.
Implications for Management
People with different needs are motivated differently.
High need for achievement - those person prefer
individual responsibilities, challenging goals, and
performance feedback, so the manager should give
challenging projects with reachable goals and frequent
feedback.
High need for affiliation -those individuals are drawn
to interpersonal relationships and opportunities for
communication, so the manager should offer a
cooperative environment.
High need for power - Those persons are seeks
influence over others and likes attention and
recognition so the management should provide power
seekers the opportunity to manage others.
4.3. CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
1. Goal setting Theory
This theory was developed by Edwin Locke and Gary
Latham (1990).
Goal-setting theory emphasizes the importance of
specific and challenging goals in achieving motivated
behavior.
Specific performance goals are much more effective
than those in which a person is told to do your best.
Goals that are both specific and challenging
are more motivational than vague goals or
goals that are relatively easy to achieve.
This theory also performs powerful dreams
(specific and difficult) inspire powerful actions.
Factors influencing the goals–performance
relationship:
Goal Commitment
Self-efficacy
Task characteristics
National culture
2. EQUITY THEORY
Developed by J. Stacy Adams.
Equity theory is based on the phenomenon of
social comparison and is best applied to the
workplace.
Adams argues that when people gauge the
fairness of their work outcomes relative to
others, any perceived inequity is a motivating
state of mind.
There are 4 referent comparisons
1. Self-Inside-an employee's experiences in a different
position inside his current situation.
2. Self-outside-an employee's experiences on a position
outside his current organization.
3. Other inside-another individual inside the
employee’s organization.
4. Other outside-another individual outside the
employee’s organization.
Felt negative inequity exists when an individual
feels that he or she has received relatively less than
others have in proportion to work inputs.
Felt positive inequity exists when an individual
feels that he or she has received relatively more than
others have.
When either feeling exists, the individual will likely engage in
one or more of the following behaviors to restore a sense of
equity.
Change work inputs (e.g., reduce performance efforts).
Change the outcomes (rewards) received (e.g., ask for a raise).
Leave the situation (e.g., quit).
Change the comparison points (e.g., compare self to a different
co-worker).
Psychologically distort the comparisons (e.g., rationalize that
the inequity is only temporary and will be resolved in the future).
Take actions to change the inputs or outputs of the comparison
person (e.g., get a co-worker to accept more work).
Research indicates that people who feel they are
overpaid (perceived positive inequity) increase
the quantity or quality of their work, whereas
those who feel they are underpaid (perceived
negative inequity) decrease the quantity or
quality of their work.
STEPS FOR MANAGING THE EQUITY PROCESS
Recognize that equity comparisons are inevitable in
the workplace.
Anticipate felt negative inequities when rewards are
given.
Communicate clear evaluations of any rewards given.
Communicate an appraisal of performance on which
the reward is based.
Communicate comparison points appropriate in the
situation.
3. Reinforcement Theory Of Motivation
Founded by B.F. Skinner (1974).
This theory also known as contingency theory.
Holds that by designing the environment properly,
individuals can be motivated or employees are
motivated by external factor rather internal factors.
The basic principles of the theory are:
Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated,
Reward is more effective than punishment,
Feedback is necessary for improvement
Rewards should be given without delay, and
Rewards should be given for successive
approximations of the desired behavior
Generally speaking, there are two types of reinforcement:
positive and negative.
1. Positive reinforcement; when the occurrence of a
valued behavioral consequence has the effect of
strengthening the probability of the behavior being
repeated.
Example of positive reinforcement might be a
salesperson that exerts extra effort to meet a
sales quota (behavior) and is then rewarded
with a bonus (positive reinforcer).
2. Negative reinforcement; when an undesirable
behavioral consequence is withheld, with the effect of
strengthening the probability of the behavior being
repeated.
Example negative reinforcement a
salesperson that exerts effort to increase
sales in his or her sales territory (behavior),
which is followed by a decision not to
reassign the salesperson to an undesirable
sales route (negative reinforcer).
Difference between negative re-
inforcement and punishment
Negative Punishment attempts to decrease
the probability of specific
reinforcement behaviors.
attempts to
increase desired Example; demoting an employee
behavior. who does not meet performance
goals or suspending an employee
without pay for violating work rules.
4. EXPECTANCY THEORY
Founded by V. H. Vroom (1964).
It is also known as VIE theory.
This theory suggested that people consciously choose
particular courses of action, based upon perceptions,
attitudes, and beliefs, as a consequence of their desires
to enhance pleasure and avoid pain.
Vroom's Expectancy Theory is written as a formula:
Valence x Expectancy x Instrumentality = Motivation
Valence (Reward) = the amount of desire for a goal (What is
the reward?)
Expectancy (Performance) = the strength of belief that
work related effort will result in the completion of the task
(How hard will I have to work to reach the goal?)
Instrumentality (Belief) = the belief that the reward will be
received once the task is completed (Will they notice the
effort I put forth?).
Example
If the employee believes that high performance will
result in good reviews, then the employee has a
high expectancy. However, if the employee believes the
company will not promote from within, then the
employee has low instrumentality, and the employee
will not be motivated to perform better.
4.4. Managerial Approaches for Improving
Motivation
1. Motivating Professionals
We motivate professionals through;
– Provide challenging projects
– Give them autonomy in follow interests and structure
work.
– Reward with educational opportunities.
– Recognize their contributions.
2. Motivating Contingent Workers
Contingent or temporary workers have little or no job
security/stability. Therefore the greatest motivating
factor is the opportunity to gain permanent employment.
3. Motivating the Diversified Work Force
Not all employees are motivated by money.
In addition to money employees can be motivated by
good work life balance, child care, job sharing, elder
caring and work teams.
