 Close reading involves carefully examining the language, imagery, and structure of

a text to uncover its meaning and significance

 New Critics pay attention to elements such as diction, syntax, metaphor, and

symbol, analyzing how these literary devices contribute to the overall meaning of

the work
 Close reading also involves considering the relationships between different parts of

the text, such as the interplay between form and content or the tension between

opposing themes
 New Critics often engage in multiple readings of a text, each time focusing on a

different aspect or level of meaning (e.g., literal, figurative, symbolic)

Intentional fallacy avoidance

 The intentional fallacy refers to the belief that the author's intended meaning is the

only valid interpretation of a literary work

 New Critics argue that once a work is published, it stands on its own and should be

interpreted based on the evidence within the text itself, not the author's stated or

implied intentions
 Avoiding the intentional fallacy allows readers to discover meanings and

significances that may not have been consciously intended by the author but are

nonetheless present in the text

Affective fallacy avoidance

 The affective fallacy refers to the belief that the reader's emotional response to a

literary work is the primary criterion for evaluating its merit or meaning
 New Critics maintain that the reader's subjective feelings should not be the basis for

literary interpretation, as they can vary widely from person to person and do not

necessarily reflect the inherent qualities of the text

 Avoiding the affective fallacy ensures that literary analysis remains focused on the

text itself, rather than the idiosyncratic reactions of individual readers

Paradox in poetry

 Paradox is a central concern in New Criticism, as it is seen as a key to unlocking

the complex meanings and tensions within a literary work

 New Critics view paradox not as a logical contradiction but as a productive tension

between seemingly opposed or incompatible elements within a text

 Paradox can take many forms in poetry, such as the juxtaposition of conflicting

images, the use of oxymoron (e.g., "sweet sorrow"), or the exploration of existential

dilemmas

Paradox vs ambiguity

 While paradox and ambiguity are related concepts, they are distinct in New

Criticism
 Paradox involves the coexistence of apparently contradictory elements that

nonetheless contribute to a unified meaning

 Ambiguity, on the other hand, refers to the presence of multiple, potentially

conflicting interpretations of a text, without necessarily resolving them into a

single, paradoxical meaning

Paradox as key to meaning

 For New Critics, paradox is not simply a rhetorical device but a fundamental aspect

of the human condition and the nature of reality

 By embracing and exploring paradox, poets can capture the complexity and mystery

of existence in a way that transcends logical or rational understanding

 Paradox can also serve as a means of challenging readers' assumptions and inviting

them to engage more deeply with the text and its implications

Paradox examples in poems

 In John Donne's "Holy Sonnet 14," the speaker paradoxically calls upon God to

"batter my heart" and "overthrow" him, suggesting that violence and surrender are

necessary for spiritual awakening

  William Wordsworth's "Ode: Intimations of Immortality" explores the paradox of

childhood innocence and adult disillusionment, as the speaker grapples with the loss

of his youthful vision

 Emily Dickinson's "My Life had stood - a Loaded Gun" presents a complex paradox

of power and vulnerability, as the speaker compares herself to a weapon that is both

dangerous and dependent on an external "Owner" for its identity

Irony in poetry

 Irony is another important element in New Criticism, as it can create complex

meanings and tensions within a literary work

 New Critics distinguish between different types of irony, each of which operates in

a distinct way to shape the reader's interpretation of the text

 Irony can be used to create a sense of distance or detachment, to undermine or

subvert conventional expectations, or to highlight the gap between appearance and

reality

Verbal irony

 Verbal irony occurs when a speaker says one thing but means the opposite, often for

satirical or humorous effect

 In poetry, verbal irony can be used to create a sense of ambiguity or uncertainty, as

the reader must infer the speaker's true meaning from the context and tone of the

utterance
 An example of verbal irony can be found in Andrew Marvell's "To His Coy

Mistress," where the speaker's elaborate praise of his lover's beauty is undercut by

his ultimately cynical argument for seizing the day

Situational irony

 Situational irony arises when there is a discrepancy between what is expected to

happen and what actually occurs, often with a surprising or paradoxical outcome
  In poetry, situational irony can be used to challenge readers' assumptions or

expectations, revealing the complexity and unpredictability of human experience

 An example of situational irony can be found in Thomas Hardy's "The Convergence

of the Twain," which describes the tragic meeting of the Titanic and the iceberg as a

kind of cosmic inevitability, rather than a mere accident

Dramatic irony

 Dramatic irony occurs when the audience or reader knows something that the

characters in the text do not, creating a sense of tension or anticipation

 In poetry, dramatic irony can be used to create a sense of pathos or tragedy, as the

reader witnesses the characters' actions and fates with a fuller understanding of their

significance
 An example of dramatic irony can be found in Robert Browning's "My Last

Duchess," where the reader gradually realizes the sinister implications of the Duke's

monologue, even as he remains oblivious to his own cruelty and possessiveness

Well-wrought urn concept

 The "well-wrought urn" is a central metaphor in New Criticism, representing the

idea of the poem as a self-contained, carefully crafted object

 Just as an urn is a beautiful and intricate work of art, shaped by the skill and vision

of its creator, so too is a poem a complex and unified structure, whose meaning

emerges from the interplay of its various elements

 The well-wrought urn concept emphasizes the importance of form, structure, and

language in shaping the meaning and impact of a literary work

Poem as self-contained object

 New Critics view the poem as a self-contained and self-sufficient entity, whose

meaning and value can be found within its own boundaries

  Rather than relying on external factors such as the author's biography or historical

context, the well-wrought urn approach focuses on the internal dynamics and

tensions of the poem itself

 This view of the poem as a self-contained object allows for a more objective and

rigorous analysis of its intrinsic qualities and effects

Organic unity of poems

 The well-wrought urn concept also emphasizes the idea of organic unity, or the

notion that every element of a poem contributes to its overall meaning and impact
 Just as the various parts of an urn are carefully designed and integrated to create a

harmonious whole, so too should the different aspects of a poem (e.g., form,

language, imagery) work together to produce a unified and coherent effect

 Organic unity implies that the meaning of a poem cannot be reduced to any single

element or interpretation but emerges from the complex interplay of its various

parts

Poem's meaning vs reader's response

 While the well-wrought urn concept emphasizes the importance of the poem's

intrinsic qualities, it does not entirely discount the role of the reader in the

interpretive process
 New Critics acknowledge that different readers may have different responses to a

poem, based on their own experiences, knowledge, and perspectives

 However, they argue that the poem's meaning is ultimately grounded in the text

itself, and that the reader's task is to uncover and appreciate that meaning through

careful analysis and interpretation, rather than imposing their own subjective

reactions onto the work

Canonization of literature

 New Criticism played a significant role in the canonization of literature, or the

process by which certain works come to be regarded as classics or masterpieces

  Through their emphasis on close reading and formal analysis, New Critics helped to

establish a set of criteria for evaluating the literary merit and significance of

individual texts
 The New Critical approach to canonization has been both influential and

controversial, shaping the way literature is taught and studied while also facing

challenges and critiques from later theoretical perspectives

Criteria for literary greatness

 New Critics proposed a set of criteria for determining the greatness or value of a

literary work, based on its intrinsic qualities and effects

 These criteria included elements such as complexity, ambiguity, paradox, irony, and

unity, as well as the skill and craftsmanship of the author in shaping the language

and structure of the text

 Works that exemplified these qualities were seen as deserving of canonical status,

regardless of their historical or cultural context

Influence on literary canon

 The New Critical approach to canonization had a significant impact on the

development of the literary canon in the mid-20th century

 Many of the works championed by New Critics, such as the poems of John Donne,

T.S. Eliot, and William Butler Yeats, became firmly established as classics of

English literature
 The New Critical canon also tended to favor works from the Western tradition,

particularly those from the Renaissance and the modernist period, while often

overlooking or marginalizing works from other cultures and traditions

Criticisms of canon formation

 The New Critical approach to canonization has been criticized by later theoretical

perspectives, such as feminism, postcolonialism, and cultural studies

  These critics argue that the New Critical canon is overly narrow and exclusive,

privileging a certain type of literary work (e.g., complex, ironic, paradoxical) while

ignoring or devaluing other forms of writing and expression

 They also point out that the New Critical canon reflects the biases and values of a

particular cultural and historical moment, and that its claims to universality and

objectivity are ultimately unsustainable

 More recent approaches to canonization have sought to expand and diversify the

literary canon, recognizing the value and significance of works from a wider range

of cultures, traditions, and perspectives

Impacts on literary criticism

 New Criticism had a profound and lasting impact on the field of literary criticism,

both in terms of its specific theories and methods and in terms of its broader

influence on the way literature is studied and taught

 While later theoretical movements have challenged and critiqued many of the

assumptions and values of New Criticism, its emphasis on close reading, formal

analysis, and the intrinsic qualities of the text remains a central part of the critical

toolkit
 At the same time, the limitations and biases of the New Critical approach have led

to ongoing debates and discussions about the nature and purpose of literary

criticism, and the role of the critic in shaping our understanding of literature

Formalism vs historicism debate

 One of the key debates sparked by New Criticism was the tension between formalist

and historicist approaches to literary study

 Formalists, following the New Critical emphasis on the intrinsic qualities of the

text, argued that the meaning and value of a work could be found through close

reading and analysis, without reference to its historical or cultural context

  Historicists, on the other hand, maintained that literature could not be fully

understood or appreciated without considering the social, political, and cultural

forces that shaped its production and reception

 This debate continues to inform literary studies today, with critics seeking to

balance the insights of both formalist and historicist approaches in their

interpretations of texts

Legacy of New Criticism

 Despite its limitations and critiques, New Criticism left a lasting legacy on the field

of literary studies, both in terms of its specific theories and methods and in terms of

its broader impact on the way literature is taught and studied

 The New Critical emphasis on close reading, formal analysis, and the intrinsic

qualities of the text remains a central part of the critical toolkit, even as newer

theoretical approaches have expanded and complicated our understanding of

literature
 The New Critical canon, while challenged and critiqued, continues to shape the way

literature is taught and studied, particularly at the undergraduate level

 At the same time, the limitations and biases of the New Critical approach have led

to ongoing debates and discussions about the nature and purpose of literary

criticism, and the role of the critic in shaping our understanding of literature

Influence on other critics

 New Criticism had a significant influence on later generations of literary critics,

even as they sought to challenge and move beyond its assumptions and methods
 Structuralist critics, such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault, drew on the New

Critical emphasis on the formal properties of the text, while also seeking to situate

literature within broader systems of language and meaning

 Reader-response critics, such as Stanley Fish and Wolfgang Iser, challenged the

New Critical assumption of the text's inherent meaning, arguing instead that

meaning is constructed through the interaction between the reader and the text
  Poststructuralist and deconstructionist critics, such as Jacques Derrida and Paul de

Man, radically questioned the New Critical faith in the stability and coherence of

the literary work, emphasizing instead the inherent instability and undecidability of

language and meaning

 While these later theoretical movements often defined themselves in opposition to

New Criticism, they nonetheless built upon and extended many of its key insights

and concerns, even as they sought to move beyond its limitations and blind spots.

探讨 Cleanth Brooks 的“阻力”概念

Cleanth Brooks 的“阻力”概念指的是诗歌抵制简化为平淡的陈述或者教义式解释，体现了诗歌无法被轻易归纳

为单一的意义。Brooks 特别提到“任何优秀诗歌对所有尝试将其转化为平凡的同义句的抗拒。”他通过结构性分析探讨了诗歌
中的矛盾、讽刺与模棱两可，认为这些是抵抗简化的机制。接下来，我会进一步梳理并详细分析此概念，涵盖其影响力与批评。

已思考 27 秒

Cleanth Brooks’s notion of resistance is at the heart of his New Critical

approach to poetry, emphasizing that a poem’s meaning cannot be separated from its
form and that the very texture of poetic language actively resists any reductive
paraphrase or oversimplified interpretation. By foregrounding the “resistance which
any good poem sets up against all attempts to paraphrase it,” Brooks argues that
poetry’s paradoxes, ambiguities, and rhetorical tensions are essential to its unity and
aesthetic effect, and that close reading—attuned to how form and content cohere—is
the only viable way to apprehend a poem’s full significance (Wikipedia, Wikipedia).

Brooks and the New Criticism

Brooks was a leading figure of the New Criticism, a mid-20th-century

movement that insisted literary study focus on the text itself rather than external
contexts such as authorial biography or historical background (Wikipedia). He and his
collaborator Robert Penn Warren developed this method in Understanding Poetry,
advocating teaching poetry through its formal qualities and resisting any approach
that reduced verse to mere paraphrase or moral lesson (Wikipedia).

The Heresy of Paraphrase and Poetic

Resistance

In “The Heresy of Paraphrase,” the final chapter of The Well-Wrought Urn

(1947), Brooks coins a memorable phrase to describe the core of his argument: “the
resistance which any good poem sets up against all attempts to paraphrase it”
(Wikipedia). He contends that paraphrase inevitably strips away the very elements—
imagery, rhythm, sound, metaphor—that constitute a poem’s meaning, since “form is
meaning” in poetry ([Link]).

Mechanisms of Resistance

Irony and Paradox: Brooks shows how poets use ironic reversals and
paradoxical imagery to complicate simple statements, forcing readers to
acknowledge conflicting facets of theme rather than collapsing them into a
single message (Wikipedia).

Ambiguity: By weaving multiple connotations into carefully chosen

words, poets ensure that any attempt to extract one definitive meaning will
encounter textual “friction,” preserving the poem’s richness (Fiveable
Library).
 

Structural Tension: Brooks likens a poem’s structure to a musical

composition or ballet, where resolutions and balances emerge through the
interaction of differing attitudes (propositions, symbols, metaphors), not
through a clear, unambiguous statement (Wikipedia).

Resistance and Unity

Although Brooks celebrates a poem’s organic unity, critics have pointed out a
seeming paradox: how can a work simultaneously resist reduction and yet cohere into
a unified whole? Brooks answers that the very tensions—ironic, paradoxical,
ambiguously suggestive—that resist paraphrase are the forces that produce the poem’s
unity, “a satisfactory unification of different attitudes” (Wikipedia).

Critiques and Legacy

Brooks’s emphasis on resistance drew both praise and criticism.

Poststructuralists argued that such resistance actually highlights the instability of
meaning rather than securing a stable unity, accusing Brooks of underestimating the
play of language beyond authorial control (Wikipedia). Yet his idea of resistance
remains influential in the practice of close reading, reminding critics that any
paraphrase—even one that captures a poem’s “message”—will inevitably fall short of
conveying the work’s full aesthetic and semantic depth (OUP Academic).
 By insisting that the texture of poetic language resists reduction, Brooks
elevated the critic’s task to one of attentive, formal analysis, ensuring that form and
content remain inseparable in understanding—and preserving—the power of poetry.