Module 2: Speaking

Objectives: The objectives of the module are to help learners:

 Improve their speaking skill.

 Make them confident speakers, able to communicate well.
Expected Outcomes: The learners at the end of this module shall be able to:

 Speak confidently.
 Use appropriate language to communicate their thoughts and ideas clearly.
Module Outlines:
2.1 Pronunciation
2.1.1 International phonetic alphabet
2.1.2 Listening (Sounds)
2.1.3 The movement of the mouth and lips
2.1.4 The working of the tongue
2.1.5 Stress Pitch and Intonation
2.1.6 Practice
2.2 Enunciation
2.3 Vocabulary
2.3.1Synonyms
2.3.2 Antonyms
2.3.3 Homonyms
2.3.4 Homophones
2.3.5 Homographs
2.3.6 Heteronyms
2.4 Fluency
2.5 Common Errors
2.1 Pronunciation
In any language, the way of pronouncing (pronunciation) a word is extremely crucial, as the
listener’s correct understanding depends on the same. If a speaker uses the wrong
pronunciation, the listener gets to hear and understand something completely different to what
the speaker is trying to convey. This is a barrier to communication and understanding, which
needs to be avoided.
Learners should be given examples of how wrong pronunciations can mislead.

Dr. V. K. Sharma
  You may find people sleeping on the road. /ˈsliː.pɪŋ/
 You may find people slipping on the road. /slɪpɪŋ/
 May I borrow your pain, please? /peɪn/
 May I borrow your pen, please? /pen/
 I expect a fool day’s salary for this job. /fuːl/
 I expect a full day’s salary for this job. /fʊl/
The articulation of speech sounds is called the speech mechanism. This mechanism contains
three systems.
(1) Respiratory system: lies in the trunk of our body. - from the neck to the abdomen.
(2) Articulatory system: lies in the head. - lips, teeth, tongue and palate
(3) Phonatory system: lies in the throat and neck.

Dr. V. K. Sharma
Dr. V. K. Sharma
Immediately after the front teeth (in the upper row), there is a hard surface on the roof of the
mouth. This is called the teeth ridge or the Alveolar Ridge (/ˌæl.viˈəʊ.lər/) or Alveolum. After
the teeth ridge, the surface is hard and bony; this is called the hard palate. After this, the
surface becomes soft and fleshy; this is called the soft palate or velum (/ˈviː.ləm/) . After the
soft palate there is a soft, fleshy, hanging loose part, which is called the uvula (/ˈjuː.vjə.lə/).
The tongue is divided into 6 parts: (1) The Tip can be easily recognized. (2) The Blade of the
tongue lies opposite the teeth ridge. (3) The Front lies opposite the hard palate. (4) The Back
of the tongue lies opposite the soft palate. (5) The Centre of the tongue lies between the front
and back. (6) The Root of the tongue lies beyond the back of the tongue.
What we call the throat is the Pharynx (/ˈfær.ɪŋks/). What we commonly call Adam’s Apple is
the Larynx (/ˈlær.ɪŋks/).

Sound: Sounds are of two types: vowels and consonants. The words vowel and consonant are
very familiar ones, but when we study the sounds of speech scientifically, we find that it is not
easy to define exactly what they mean.
Vowel Sound
Vowels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx
to the lips. Sounds which do not obstruct the airflow, traditionally called "vowels."

Dr. V. K. Sharma
 (1) There is no narrowing anywhere along the oral passage, and so the air from the lungs
escapes FREELY
(2) There is no obstruction anywhere along the oral passage, and so the air from the lungs
escapes CONTINUOUSLY
(3) The lung air escapes through the mouth
(4) During the articulation of a vowel sound, the tongue is the active articulator, and the
roof of the mouth is the passive articulator.
(5) All vowel sounds are voiced sounds.
To describe a vowel sound, we take into account the three criteria
(1) What part of the tongue is used during the articulation?
(2) What is the height of the tongue during the articulation?
(3) What is the position of the lips during the articulation?

Consonant Sound
Consonants are sounds in which there occurs obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the
larynx to the lips. Sounds which do obstruct the airflow are traditionally called "consonants".
We classify consonants according to the following characteristics:
(1) whether or not the vocal folds are vibrating (voiced or voiceless);
(2) whether the sound is made with a fully stopped or merely constricted airstream (its manner
of articulation);
(3) where in the mouth the stoppage or constriction is made (its place of articulation);
(4) whether or not air is flowing through the nasal cavity (nasality); and
(5) whether or not the lips are pursed (lip rounding)
Position of lips
(1) Rounded, where the corners of the lips are brought towards each other and the lips
pushed forwards. This is most clearly seen in the vowel /ʊ/.
(2) Spread, with the corners of the lips moved away from each other, as for a smile. This is
most clearly seen in the vowel /ɪ/.
(3) Neutral, where the lips are not noticeably rounded or spread. The noise most English
people make when they are hesitating (written 'er') has a neutral lip position.
Voiced and voiceless sounds
The air that we breathe in and breathe out passes through the vocal cords in the glottis. When
the vocal cords are held apart and the lung air passes out without any friction, the articulated
sound in this position is called a voiceless sound. 9 Consonant sounds are voiceless sounds.
When the vocal cords are held together and the lung air pushes them apart to pass out, thereby
creating a certain friction in the vocal cords, the articulated sound in this position is called a
voiced sound. 15 Consonant sounds are voiced sounds. All vowel sounds are voiced sounds.
The number of times the vocal cords open and close per second (or vibrate per second)
determines the pitch of our voice. When the vocal cords vibrate slowly, the pitch is low. When
they vibrate fast, the pitch is high. When we speak normally, we constantly change the pitch of
our voice. The way in which we change our pitch when we speak determines the intonation of
a language.
Dr. V. K. Sharma
IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) or RP (Received Pronunciation)
Why do we need a Phonetic Alphabet (Sound) when we have a separate English Alphabet?
First, in several languages, there is no one-to-one correspondence between letters of the
alphabet and the sounds they represent. Let us take the first letter “a” from the English alphabet.
The latter “a” is pronounced in five different ways in five different words. Hat /hæt/, Hate /heɪt/,
Part /pɑːt/, Want /wɒnt/, Caught /kɔːt/. Or a group of letters, as “ough” in different-different
words represent different-different sounds as Though /ðəʊ/, Through /θruː/, Cough /kɒf/. Or
different-different letters represent the same sound as, Sheep /ʃiːp/, Sugar /ˈʃʊɡ.ər/, Machine
/məˈʃiːn/, Pressure /ˈpreʃ.ər/, Nation /ˈneɪ.ʃən/ in these examples, the letters “sh”, “s”, “ch”,
“ss”, “ti” represent the same sound /ʃ/.
Second, languages have different accents: they are pronounced differently by people from
different geographical places, from different social classes, of different ages and different
educational backgrounds. The word accent is often confused with dialect. We use the word
dialect to refer to a variety of a language which is different from others, not just in
pronunciation but also in such matters as vocabulary, grammar and word order. Differences of
accent, on the other hand, are pronunciation differences only.
That is the reason we need IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) or RP (Received
Pronunciation). Here, the word "received” means “accepted” or “approved” or “well known.”
The English language contains 26 letters. Out of 26 letters, 05 are vowels (a, e, i, o, u) and the
remaining 21 are consonant letters. These 26 letters make one English Language Alphabet.
IPA contains 44 sounds. Out of 44 sounds, 20 are vowel sounds and 24 are consonant sounds.
These 44 sounds make one IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet).
Vowel Sounds: Vowel sounds are divided into pure/cardinal vowels and diphthongs. A vowel
which remains constant and does not glide is called a pure vowel. Diphthongs consist of a
movement or glide from one vowel position to another vowel position. In diphthongs, the first
part is much longer and stronger than the second part. The last part of English diphthongs must
not be made too strongly.
In IPA, there are 12 vowels and 08 diphthongs.

Classification of Vowel Sounds

Sounds Word Phonetic Transcription

/ə / Ago /əˈɡəʊ/
/ʌ/ But /bʌt/
/ɜː/ or /ə: / Bird /bɜːd/
/aː/ Car /kɑːr/
/ɪ/ or /i/ Sit /sɪt/
/iː/ Sheet /ʃiːt/
/ʊ/ Cook /kʊk/
/uː/ Fool /fuːl/

Dr. V. K. Sharma
 /e/ Pen /pen/
/æ/ Mat /mæt/
/ɒ/ Hot /hɒt/
/ɔː/ Core /kɔːr/

Diphthongs
Sounds Word Phonetic Transcription
/eɪ/ Bay /beɪ/
/aɪ/ Buy /baɪ/
/ɔɪ/ Boy /bɔɪ/
/ɪə/ Peer /pɪər/
/eə/ Pair /peər/
/ʊə/ Poor /pɔːr/
/əʊ/ Go /ɡəʊ/
/aʊ/ How /haʊ/

Vowels (Long and Short)

Long Vowels Short Vowels

/iː/ Sheep /ʃiːp/ /ɪ/ Ship /ʃɪp/

/aː/ Farm /fɑːm/ /æ/ Hat /hæt/
/uː/ Coo /kuː/ /ʊ/ Foot /fʊt/
/ɔː/ Horse /hɔːs/ /ɒ/ Sock /sɒk/
/ɜː/ Bird /bɜːd/ /ʌ/ Cup /kʌp/
/ə/ Above /əˈbʌv/
/e/ Head /hed/

Consonants Sounds
Sounds Word Phonetic Transcription
/k/ Cat /kæt/
/ɡ/ Girl /ɡɜːl/
/tʃ/ Cheese /tʃiːz/
/z/ Zoo /zuː/
/ʒ/ Pleasure /Measure /ˈpleʒ.ər/, /ˈmeʒ.ər/
/dʒ/ Judge / Major /dʒʌdʒ/, /ˈmeɪ.dʒər/
/t/ Tone /təʊn/
/d/ Doubt /daʊt/
/θ/ Thanks /Through /θæŋks/, /θruː/
/ð/ This /ðɪs/
/n/ Noon /nuːn/
/p/ Pass /pɑːs/
/f/ Fan /fæn/
/b/ Bottle /ˈbɒt.əl/
/m/ Map /mæp/
/j/ Year /jɪər/

Dr. V. K. Sharma
 /r/ Room /ruːm/
/l/ Light /laɪt/
/v/ Vine /vaɪn/
/w/ Wide /waɪd/
/s/ Seat /siːt/
/ʃ/ Sheet /ʃiːt/
/h/ Hook /hʊk/
/ŋ/ Tongue /tʌŋ/

Classification of Consonant sounds

Consonants (Voiced and Voiceless)

Voiced Voiceless

b Book /bʊk/ k Cat /kæt/

d Day /deɪ/ t Town /taʊn/
ɡ Give /ɡɪv/ p Pen /pen/
v Very /ˈver.i/ θ Think /θɪŋk/
ð The /ðiː/ s Say /seɪ/
z Zoo /zuː/ ʃ She /ʃiː/
ʒ Vision /ˈvɪʒ.ən/ tʃ Chief /tʃiːf/
dʒ Jump /dʒʌmp/ f Fish /fɪʃ/
l Look /lʊk/ h Hut /hʌt/
r Run /rʌn/
j Yes /jes/
w We /wiː/
m Moon /muːn/
n Name /neɪm/
ŋ Sing /sɪŋ/

Dr. V. K. Sharma
 Chart of English consonant phonemes
Place of Articulation
Mannar Bilabial Labio Dental Alveolar Post- Palato- Palatal Velar Glottal
of dental Alveolar Alveolar
Articul Plosive P b t d k g
ation Fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h
Affricative tʃ dʒ
Nasal m n ŋ
Lateral l
(Approximants
)
Trill/Tap/ r
Frictionless
Continuant
Approximants/ w j
Semi vowel

Place of Articulation

1. Bilabial: The active articulator is the lower lip, and the passive articulator is the upper
lip. Sounds /p/, /b/, /m/
2. Labiodental: The active articulator is the lower lip, and the passive articulators are the
upper front teeth. Sounds /f/, /v/
3. Dental: The active articulator is the blade of the tongue, and the passive articulators
are the upper front teeth. Sounds /θ/, /ð/
4. Alveolar: The active articulator is the tip or blade of the tongue, and the passive
articulator is the teeth-ridge or alveolar ridge. Sounds /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l/
5. Post-Alveolar: The active articulator is the tip of the tongue, and the passive articulator
is the part of the roof that lies immediately after the teeth-ridge. Sound /r/
6. Palato-Alveolar: The active articulators are the blade of the tongue and the front of the
tongue, and the passive articulators are the teeth-ridge and hard palate. Sounds /ʃ/, /ʒ/,
/tʃ/, /dʒ/
7. Palatal (Approximants): The active articulator is the front of the tongue, and the
passive articulator is the hard palate. Sounds /j/
8. Velar: The active articulator is the back of the tongue, and the passive articulator is the
soft palate or velum. Sounds /k/, /g/, /ŋ/
9. Glottal: The two vocal cords are the articulators involved. Sound /h/

Mannar of Articulation: The manner of articulation is generally decided by the stricture

involved. By the word stricture we mean the relationship between the active and passive
articulators. In other words;

(1) Do the active and passive articulators touch each other during the articulation of a
consonant sound?
(2) Or the active articulator brought very close to the passive articulator, but without
touching it?
(3) Or the two articulators brought near each other in such a way that there is a wide gap
between them?

Dr. V. K. Sharma
 1. Plosive: Complete closure and sudden release. Both the oral and nasal passages of the
air are closed completely. The soft palate is raised, and it touches the back wall of the
pharynx and thus closes the nasal passage of the air. In addition, an oral closure is also
made by some active articulators touching firmly the passive articulator. The air from
the lungs is thus imprisoned behind the two closures. The active articulator is suddenly
removed from the passive articulator, and the air rushes out of the mouth with a slight
explosive noise. Sounds articulated with a stricture of complete closure and sudden
release are called plosives. /P/, /b/, /t/, /d/, / k/, /g/
2. Fricative: Close approximation. The active articulator is brought so close to the passive
articulator that there is a very narrow gap between them. The air from the lungs escapes
through this narrow gap, producing audible friction. Sounds articulated with a stricture
of close approximation are Fricative sounds. /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/
3. Affricative: Complete closure and slow release. The soft palate is raised, and it touches
the back wall of the pharynx and thus closes the nasal passage of the air. In addition, an
oral closure is also made by some active articulators touching firmly the passive
articulator. The air from the lungs is thus impressed behind the two closures. The active
articulator is removed slowly from the passive articulator, and the air escapes with slight
friction. Sounds articulated with a stricture of complete closure and slow release are
Affricatives. /tʃ/, /dʒ/
4. Nasal: Complete oral closure. There is an oral closure made by some active articulators,
making a firm contact with the corresponding passive articulator. But the soft palate is
lowered, and it comes away from the back wall of the pharynx, thus opening the nasal
passage of air. The air from the lungs escapes freely through the nostrils. Consonant
sounds that are articulated with a stricture of complete oral closure are called Nasals.
/m/, /n/, /ŋ/
5. Lateral: Partial closure. The soft palate is raised so that the nasal passage of air is
closed completely. The active and passive articulators are in firm contact with each
other so that there is a closure of the oral passage. But the sides of the tongue are
lowered so that the air from the lungs passes freely along the sides of the tongue. The
sounds articulated with a stricture of partial closure are called Laterals. /l/
6. Trill/Tap/ Frictionless Continuants: Intermittent closure. Intermittent means
happening at intervals. The active articulator strikes against the passive articulator
several times in quick succession. The air from the lungs escapes through the space
between the articulators intermittently. Sounds that are articulated with a stricture of
intermittent closure are called trills or rolled sounds or frictionless continuants. /r/
7. Approximants/Semi vowel: Open approximation. The active articulator is brought
near the passive articulator in such a way that there is a wide gap between them. The
air from the lungs escapes through the wide gap freely without any friction. Sounds
articulated with a stricture of open approximation are called approximants/semi-
vowels. /w/, /j/

Sound of ‘s’ or ‘es’

(a) If the last sound is /s/,/ʃ/, /tʃ/, /z/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/, the sound of ‘s’ or ‘es’ is /iz/
Branches /ˈbrɑːntʃ.ɪz/, Judges /dʒʌdʒ ɪz /, Classes /klɑːs ɪz /, Matches /mætʃ ɪz /,
Bench /bentʃ ɪz /

Dr. V. K. Sharma
(b) If the last sound is /k/, /t/, /p/, /θ/ /h/, /f/ the sound of ‘s’ or ‘es’ is /s/
Asks /ɑːsks/, puts /pʊts/, cuts /kʌts/, laughs /lɑːfs/,
(c) With all remaining sounds the sound of ‘s’ or ‘es’ is /z/
Call /kɔːlz/, paper /ˈpeɪ.pərz/, runs /rʌnz/

Sound of ‘ed’
(a) If the last sound is /t/ and /d/, the sound of ‘ed’ is /id/
Wanted /ˈwɒn.tɪd/, wounded /ˈwuːn.dɪd/
(b) If the last sound is /k/, / p/, /θ/, /s/,/ʃ/, /tʃ/, /h/,/f/ the sound of ‘ed’ is /t/
Asked /ɑːskt/, passed /pɑːst/, laughed /lɑːft/, attacked /əˈtækt/, watched /wɒtʃt/, washed /wɒʃt/,
stressed /strest/
(c) With all remaining sounds, the sound of ‘ed’ is /d/
Called /kɔːld/

Sound of /r/
(a) If there is a vowel sound after the /r/ sound, it is articulated.
Red /red/
Room /ruːm/
(b) If there is a consonant sound after the /r/ sound, it is not articulated.
Bird /bɜːd/
Curd /kɜːd/
(c) If the /r/ sound occurs in the last part of the word, its articulation is optional, so it is
marked in superscript /r/of in brackets (r). In British English, it is not articulated.
Far /fɑːr/
Brother /ˈbrʌð.ər/
Brother and sister /brʌð.ər ænd sɪs.tər/

Stress:
A term used in phonetics to refer to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. Stress is
generally primary and secondary. Primary stress is shown with a vertical mark/line above and
before the syllable [ˈ]. Secondary stress is shown with a vertical mark/line below and before
the syllable [ˌ]. This indicates thus: Opportunity /ˌɒp.əˈtʃuː.nə.ti/. In each polysyllabic word,
one syllable is prominent, which receives the stress. We change our pitch louder on the stressed
syllable during articulation. Word stress also helps distinguish word class, eg Import /ɪmˈpɔːt/
= verb. And import /ˈɪm.pɔːt/ = noun.
In the English language, stress is both free and fixed. Daughter /ˈdɔː.tər/, the stress is always
fixed on the first syllable. Absent (Adjective) /ˈæb.sənt/ stress is on the first syllable, absent
(verb) /æbˈsent/ stress is on the second syllable.
In a sentence, the primary stress falls on the last content word (on the stressed syllable) in the
sentence. However, the choice of contrastive stress depends on the meaning the speaker wants
to convey to the listener. Content words are naturally stressed, but the functional words are

Dr. V. K. Sharma
naturally unstressed; otherwise, contrastive stress. Sentence stress adds meaning, focus, or
emotion.
In oral communication, the speaker can signify the meaning by emphasising particular words; but in
written communication, the reader is in his own control and may read with different emphasis. The
shift of stress from one word to another changes the meaning of the sentence.

Place of Emphasis/Stress Signifying Meaning

ˈI did not tell John you were late. Someone else told John you were late.
I ˈdid not tell John you were late. This did not happen.
I did not ˈtell John you were late. I may have implied it.
I did not tell ˈJohn you were late. But maybe I told Sharon and José.
I did not tell John ˈyou were late. I was talking about someone else.
I did not tell John you ˈwere late. I told him you still are late.
I did not tell John you were ˈlate. I told him you were attending another
meeting.

Stress and the use of punctuation change the meaning altogether;

Woman, without her man, is nothing. vs. Woman! Without her, man is nothing.
Some read the words as:
Woman, without her man, is nothing. = A woman has no value without a man. Tone -Sexist.
Message - Diminishes women.

Others read the same words as:

Woman! Without her, man is nothing. = A man is incomplete without a woman. Tone-
Supportive. Message - Celebrates women.

No, price too high. vs. No price too high.

First Sentence: You’re rejecting the offer because the price is too high.
Second Sentence: You’re saying you’ll pay any price—no price is too high.

We find, to a great extent, what we want to find!

Some rules for marking a stress:
Rule 1: Words with weak prefixes generally take the accent on the root. For example:

aboard /əˈbɔːd/
abroad /əˈbrɔːd/
ahead /əˈhed/
alone /əˈləʊn/
because /bɪˈkəz/ or /bɪˈkɔz/
become /bɪˈkʌm/
below /bɪˈləʊ/
beneath /bɪˈniːθ/

Rule2: In different word classes we find a shift in word-accent

Noun or adjective Verb

´absent abs´ent
´concert con´cert

Dr. V. K. Sharma
 ´conduct con´duct
´contract con´tract
´convict con´vict
´export ex´port
´import im´port
´permit per´mit

Rule 3: Words ending in -ic, -ical, -ically, -ious, -ial, and -ially receive the primary accent on
the syllable before the suffix.

Consider the following examples:

-ic → pa´thetic, ter´rific

-ical → bio´logical, e´lectrical, o´ptical, psycho´logical

-ically → ´chemically, sta´tistically

-ious → a´trocious, cere´monious

-ial → com´mercial, ,conf´dential, dicta´torial, me´morial

-ially → com´mercially, ,confi´dentially

Rule 4: Words ending in -ity take the primary accent on the third last (or anti-penultimate)
syllable.

Look at the examples given below:

a´bility

bar´barity

ca´pacity

confidenti´ality

elec´tricity

e´normity

fu´tility

gene´rosity

,hospi´tality

magna´nimity

Dr. V. K. Sharma
o´pacity

oppor´tunity

Rule 5: Compounds which have “self” and “ever” as their second element are accented on the
second element.
Look at the following examples:

her´self

him´self

my´self

our´selves

them´selves

your´self

how´ever

what´ever

who´ever

Pitch: The frequency of the vibration of the vocal cords determines the pitch of our voice. The
more rapidly the vocal cords vibrate, the higher will be the pitch. It is the raw material of both
tone and intonation. When someone is excited or angry, their pitch may become higher. When
calm or serious, pitch tends to be lower. Pitch is not used in English to change word meanings,
but it affects how a sentence is interpreted emotionally or structurally.

Tone: In English, “tone” refers more to the speaker’s attitude or emotion, not lexical (word-
level) meaning. It is emotional colouring or attitude, not a phonemic distinction. It is identified
at the word/phrase level. In the case of polysyllabic words, it is always the most strongly
stressed syllable that receives the tone; the tone mark is equivalent to a stress mark.

Intonation: Intonation is the pattern of pitch changes across a sentence. It helps indicate:
Sentence type (question, command, statement). Focus or emphasis, speaker attitude or
certainty. It is identified at the Sentence level.

When we hear someone speak, we realize that they do not always speak on the same pitch. We
hear constant vibration in the levels at which the speaker’s voice is pitched. Sometimes the
pitch rises, sometimes it falls and there at times at which the pitch remains level, high or low.
The patterns of vibration of the pitch of our voice when we speak constitute the intonation
of a language.

1. [ ↖ ] The pitch falls from high to low. The tone is called a falling.

Dr. V. K. Sharma
 2. [ ↗ ] The pitch rises from low to high. The tone is called a rising
3. [ ѵ ] The pitch falls and then rises again. The tone is called a fall-rise.
4. [ ^ ] The pitch rises and then falls again. The tone is called a rise-fall.
5. [ - ] Level tone (rather as though you were trying to speak/sing on a steady note), you
may find the result does not sound natural, and indeed, English speakers do not use
level tones on one-syllable utterances very frequently.

Functions of intonation

The form of intonation has now been described in some detail, and we will move on to look
more closely at its functions.

1. Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and this adds a
special kind of "meaning" to spoken language. This is often called the attitudinal
function of intonation.
The same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry",
"happy", "grateful", "bored", and so on. A major factor in this is the tone used.
(a) Falling tone: a movement from a higher to a lower pitch
Finality, definiteness:
That is the end of the ↖news.
I am absolutely ↖certain.
Stop ↖talking.
(b) Rising tone: a movement from a lower pitch to a higher one
General questions:
Can you ↗help me.
Is it ↗ over.
Listing: ↗Red ↗brown ↗yellow or ↖blue (a fall is usual on the last item)
Move to follow:
I phoned them right a↗way. ('and they agreed to come’)
You must write it a↗gain. (and this time, get it right)
Encouraging:
It wont ↗hurt
(c) Fall-rise: where the pitch descends and then rises again
Uncertainty, doubt:
You ѵmay be righ.t
It is ѵpossible.
Requesting:
Can I ѵbuy it.
Will you ѵlend it to me.
(d) Rise-fall: in which the pitch rises and then descends again
Surprise, being impressed:
You were a ^first.
^All of them

2. Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be

perceived as stressed, and in particular, the placing of tonic stress on a particular

Dr. V. K. Sharma
 syllable marks out the word to which it belongs as the most important in the tone-unit.
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular lexical item or syllable.
This has been called the accentual function of intonation.
3. The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is
being said by using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such
things as the placement of boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the
difference between questions and statements, and the use of grammatical subordination
may be indicated. This has been called the grammatical function of intonation.
4. Looking at the act of speaking more broadly, we can see that intonation can signal to
the listener what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can
suggest when the speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in
another tone-unit and, in conversation, can convey to the listener what kind of response
is expected. Such functions are examples of intonation's discourse function.

Feature Stress Pitch Tone (in Intonation

English)

What is it? Emphasis on frequency of

the Speaker’s Pitch pattern
syllables or vibration of
the emotional across a
words vocal cords attitude sentence
Level Syllable and Acoustic level
Word/phrase Sentence level
word level level
Role To highlight Raw vocal material Expresses Indicates
syllables/words for tone and emotion/sarcasm, sentence type,
intonation etc. focus, attitude.
Affects Loudness, pitch, Delivery and vocal Emotional Grammatical
duration variation interpretation and pragmatic
meaning
Changes Yes (e.g., noun No Not lexically, Yes, it can
meaning? vs. verb but it affects change sentence
distinction). interpretation interpretation.
Sentence stress
may change
interpretation.

English is a stress-timed language, which means that in an English utterance, stressed syllables
tend to occur at regular intervals of time irrespective of the number of unstressed syllables
between two stressed syllables. As in the following sentence, each underlined part of the
sentence consumes equal time duration during utterance.

ˈMohan’s ˈfriend has ˈjust reˈceived a ˈmessage from the ˈpresident.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n4NVPg2kHv4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KmoJ-YpvxqQ

Dr. V. K. Sharma
2.2 Enunciation

Pronunciation and enunciation are both aspects of speaking, but they focus on different
things. Pronunciation is about saying words correctly, using the right sounds and stress, while
enunciation is about speaking clearly and distinctly, making sure each sound and word is easily
understood.
Pronunciation is the way a word is spoken according to the rules of a language. It involves
producing the correct sounds of vowels and consonants, and using the right stress and
intonation.
Enunciation is the act of clearly speaking in order to allow someone to understand. It's about
making sure your speech is easy to understand, even if the listener is not familiar with the
language or the specific subject matter.
Poor enunciation:
Mumbling, slurring words together, or speaking too quickly, making it difficult to understand
the message.
Proper Enunciation
(Clear and precise pronunciation of each word and sound)
"She sells seashells on the seashore."
Each word is articulated clearly.
"S" and "sh" sounds are crisp and separated.
The speaker opens their mouth properly and speaks at a moderate pace with proper stress.
Poor enunciation/Mumbling
(Speaking in a low, unclear, and often hurried way)
"Sh’slls… s’sh’ls…on th’ shh sh’r..."
Words blur together.
Sounds are slurred or swallowed.
The speaker may talk too fast, too softly, or without moving their lips properly and without
proper stress.
Why Enunciation Matters:

Aspect Proper Enunciation Poor Enunciation

Clarity High Low

Professionalism Sounds confident and smart Sounds careless or nervous
Comprehension Easy for the audience to follow Listeners may ask you to repeat
Impression Positive and engaging May seem unprepared or disinterested

Learning Basic Enunciation Tips

1. Watch yourself talk in a mirror and compare the movement of the organs of speech
with a native speaker.
2. Show your teeth: to avoid mumble.
3. Lift up your soft palate: to achieve a fuller, more resonant tone.
4. Keep the tongue forward and down: to control interference with the passage of
sounds.
5. Stand up straight: to breathe better. the clearer your breathing, the clearer your speech.
6. Speak slowly and steadily.
7. Go through some consonant-vowel combinations: "Bah Beh Bee Bih Bo Boo Buh".
For warming up your voice before a speech.

Dr. V. K. Sharma
 8. Practice diphthongs
9. Practice tongue twisters. Try to articulate each word in a tongue twister, especially
one that contains sounds you find difficult to pronounce. Start slowly, and go faster
once you can pronounce it perfectly. Here are a few tongue twisters for common
problem sounds, which you can practise.
 James just jostled Jean gently.
 Round the rugged rocks, the ragged rascal ran.
 Silly Susan sells seashells by the seashore.
10. Record yourself speaking. Read a book (or even this article) out loud into a voice
recorder. It will help to articulate every sound clearly so that you can be heard.
11. Vary your speaking speed. People have trouble understanding speech that is too fast
to follow, or slurred because you're speaking too fast for your tongue to follow. Read
aloud while concentrating on the flow of the content, slowing down to emphasize
important points.
12. Pause intentionally: Read aloud again at a slow or moderate pace, this time focusing
on the punctuation. Pause at commas and periods, and take a moment to clear your
throat or inhale deeply at the end of a paragraph. Try to include these intentional pauses
in your speech as well, so the listener has time to process what you have said, and help
you avoid tripping over your words.
13. Speak loudly but clearly: Try to project your voice, or increase your volume without
sounding hoarse or flat.
2.3Vocabulary
Vocabulary is the knowledge of words and their meaning. In every language, vocabulary is
essential to perform the basic skills of Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing. The use of
the correct word can help convey the essence of a statement. Similarly, an incorrect or
inappropriate word can misrepresent or misconvey the meaning of a statement. Building a good
vocabulary is an essential skill that should be taken seriously and should be a part of one’s
everyday learning.

Synonyms:
Different words with the same or similar meaning. It gives insight into using appropriate words
to express a specific thought

Synonyms
Angry – Furious
Bad – Awful, Poor, Terrible
Beautiful – Gorgeous, Stunning
Big – Enormous, Large
Boring - Tedious
Brave – Courageous, Fearless
Bright – Radiant, Shiny
Buy - Purchase
Clean - Neat
Cold – Chilly, Freezing
Dangerous – Hazardous, Perilous
Dark – Dim, Obscure
Difficult – Challenging, Hard
Dirty - Filthy
Easy – Effortless, Simple
Empty – Deserted, Vacant

Dr. V. K. Sharma
 Enemy –Foe, Adversary
Exciting - Thrilling
Fast - Quick
Finish - End
Friend – Buddy, Pal
Full – Overflowing, Satisfied
Good – Decent, Excellent, Great
Happy – Content, Ecstatic, Glad, Joyful
Hard - Tough
Hardworking - Diligent
Hate - Despise
Heavy – Massive, Weighty
High - Tall
Hot – Scorching, Warm
Hungry – Famished, Starving
Important - Significant
Lazy - Idle
Light – Bright, Illuminated, Luminous
Light - Lightweight
Listen - Hear
Loud - Noisy
Love – Adore
Low – Short, Small, Little, Dwarfish
Mean - Nasty
New – Fresh, Novel
Nice – Pleasant
Old – Aged, Ancient
Poor – Destitute, Impoverished, Penniless, Destitute, Indigent
Quiet - Silent
Rich – Affluent, Wealthy
Right - Correct
Sad – Melancholy, Mournful, Unhappy
Safe – Harmless, Secure
Scared – Frightened, Terrified
Sell - Trade
Slow - Gradual
Small – Little, Tiny
Smart - Intelligent
Soft – Gentle, Mushy, Pulpy, Slushy, Squashy
Start - Begin
Strong – Powerful, Robust
Stupid - Dumb
Talk - Speak
Ugly – Hideous, Unattractive
Weak – Feeble, Fragile
Worthless - Valueless
Wrong - Incorrect

Dr. V. K. Sharma
Antonyms

Antonyms: a different word with the opposite meaning

Accept - Reject
Add - Subtract
Always - Never
Awake - Asleep
Big – Little, Small, Tiny
Brave – Cowardly, Brave
Bright - Dark
Buy - Sell
Clean – Dirty, Filthy, Messy
Close - Distant
Connect - Disconnect
Construct - Destroy
Day - Night
Easy - Difficult
Empty - Occupied
Expand – Contract, Shrink
Fast - Slow
First - Last
Forward - Backward
Fresh - Stale
Friend - Enemy
Full – Depleted, Empty
Gain - Loss
Good – Bad, Evil, Wicked
Happy – Angry, Miserable, Unhappy, Sad
Hard - Soft
Here - There
Hero - Villain
High - Low
Hot – Cold. Cool
Hungry - Full
In - Out
Joy - Sorrow
Kind - Cruel
Left - Right
Light - Heavy
Loose - Tight
Loud - Quiet
Love - Hate
Lucky - Unlucky
Male - Female
More - Less
Narrow – Broad, Wide
Near – Distant, Far
New – Ancient, Old

Dr. V. K. Sharma
Nice - Mean
Open – Closed, shut
Push - Pull
Reject - Accept
Rich – Penniless, Poor
Right - Wrong
Rough - Smooth
Safe – Dangerous, Risky
Shallow - Deep
Start – Finish, Stop
Stop - Go
Strong - Weak
Sweet - Sour
Tall - Short
Tight - Loose
Top - Bottom
True - False
Truth - Lie
Up - Down
Upstairs - Downstairs
Wet - Dry
Win - Lose
Wise - Foolish
Young - Old
Homonyms
Homonyms: words that have the same spelling and pronunciation but have different
meanings. For example: fair (good), fair (fair or exhibition), light (illumination), light (less
weight).
I hope you are not lying to me. = telling a lie
My books are lying on the table. = being in a horizontal position

The kids are going to watch TV tonight. = look at

What time is it? I have to set my watch. = small clock worn on the wrist

Which page is the homework on? = one sheet of paper

Please page the doctor if you need help. = to call a person using a loudspeaker or send a
message on a pager

Let’s play soccer after school. = participate in a sport

The author wrote a new play. = theatre piece or drama

Ouch! The mosquito bit me! = past tense of bite

I’ll have a little bit of sugar in my tea. = a tiny amount

My rabbits are in a pen outside. = an enclosed area

Please sign this form with a black pen. = a writing instrument which uses ink
Homophones

Dr. V. K. Sharma
Homophones: words that are pronounced the same way but have different meanings and
usually have different spellings. For example:
Fare: the money that you pay for a journey in a vehicle such as a bus or train.
Fair: treating someone in a way that is right or reasonable.

Cell: the smallest basic unit of a plant or animal.

Sell: to give something to someone else in return for money.

Night: the part of every 24-hour period when it is dark because there is very little light from
the sun.
Knight: a man given a rank of honour by a head of state in some countries because of his
special achievements. Or a man of high social position trained to fight as a soldier on a horse.
Directions: Choose the correct word.
1. Please try not to …..paper. (waste, waist)
2. Can I go to the party ….? (to, too, two)
3. This is my favourite …….of jeans. (pare, pair, pear)
4. I …….a letter to my aunt in Vietnam. (sent, scent, cent)
5. The children got …….during the lecture. (bored, board)
6. Mr. and Mrs. Rodriguez like to work in …. garden. (there, they’re, their)
7. Alec is going to ……his work boots today. (wear, ware)
8. Do you think it is going to ……. this afternoon? (rein, rain, reign)
9. I saw a restaurant just off the ……about a mile back. (rode, road)
10. David’s brother is in a …….which plays Russian music. (band, banned)
11. Juana wants her socks because her …….are cold. (tows, toes)
12. The teacher walked down the ……between the rows of desks. (aisle, isle)
13. Hadil has a …..in her shoulder. (pane, pain)
14. The school ……spoke to a group of parents. (principal, principle)
15. The clerk wants to ……as many TVs as possible. (sell, cell)
16. I don’t want to talk about the …..anymore. (passed, past)
17. Nobody ……what you are thinking. (knows, nose)
18. I have …….dollars in my pocket. (for, four, fore)
19. I need to take a …….from this exercise! (break, brake)
20. Humans have hands. Dogs have………. (paws, pause).
21. ……….be here in a few minutes. (He’ll, Heel, Heal)

Homographs
Homographs: a word that has the same spelling, and different meaning, but often have a
different pronunciation, or they may or may not have the same pronunciation. Examples:
Bow: /baʊ/ - the movement of bending your head or body forward.
Bow: /bəʊ/ - a knot with two curved parts. Or a weapon for shooting arrows.

Minute: /ˈmɪn.ɪt/ - one of the 60 parts that an hour is divided into, consisting of 60 seconds. Or
to make a written record of what is said at a meeting.
Minute: /maɪˈnjuːt/ - extremely small

Dr. V. K. Sharma
.
Present: /prɪˈzent/- to give = The boss will present the award at 10:00.
Present: /ˈprez.ənt/ - gift = He gave me a present yesterday.
Present: /ˈprez.ənt/ - be in a particular place = All the students are present today.
Close: /kləʊz/ -shut = Please close the door.
Close: /kləʊs/ - having direct family connections or shared beliefs, support, and sympathy
Close: /kləʊs/ - near - The boy sat close to his uncle.

Wound: /wuːnd/ - an injury = The soldier received a wound in the battle.

Wound: /waʊnd/ - tied around (past simple and past participle of wind /waɪnd/) = The rope was
wound around his ankles.

Wind: /wɪnd/ - a current of air = There isn't enough wind to fly a kite.
Wind: /waɪnd/ - to turn or cause something to turn. She wound the handle but nothing
happened.

Live: /lɪv/ - to have life = I don’t know if I will live or die.

Live: /laɪv/ - in real-time performance = Last night I saw the band play live in concert.

Heteronyms (a type of homograph)

Heteronyms are homographs that are spelt identically/ same spelling but have different
pronunciations and meanings.
Lead: /liːd/ - means to guide or give direction
Lead: /led/ - means a metallic element

Note: Homophones are words that sound the same but are different in meaning or spelling.
Homographs are spelt the same, but differ in meaning or pronunciation. Homonyms can be
either or both.

2.4 Fluency
Some people cannot speak clearly. They could have a slower pace, hesitant manner, fumbling
rendition, or lack of clarity.
Fluency is the ability to speak easily, clearly, at a reasonable speed, and without fumbling. A
person who speaks with too many or unreasonable pauses and stops, is repetitive, and uses too
many expletives or fillers such as ‘aa’, ‘uh’, and ‘err’ is said to fumble.
Tips on Fluency in English: Good speakers communicate well and get their message across
smoothly, even if they make mistakes. Communication is the most important part of speaking,
and it is important to communicate ideas as naturally as possible. Here are some tips to improve
fluency.
Use every opportunity to speak English. Speak with classmates, peers and teachers in English.
The more English you speak, the more fluent you will be. Practice makes perfect! Be confident
while speaking. Use your awareness of the language to communicate
The goal of communication
Be very precise and clear about what you want to communicate.
Don’t worry about making mistakes.
Your goal is to communicate what you want to say.

Dr. V. K. Sharma
Learn to practice language at home with a speaking game.
Speak for one minute without stopping. gradually increase the duration
How useful are expressions, fillers or expletives like ‘err’ or ‘erm’ to fill the gaps while you are
thinking about what to say?
Observe your friends and neighbours and identify the fillers they use while thinking about what
to say.
What are the communication strategies you can think of to make your spoken language sound
more natural?
The following videos on fluency may help you

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2.5 Common Errors

Common Mistakes We Make While Speaking English
English is a global language, thus knowing how to speak English correctly can help you in
various aspects of your life. Since we’re not native speakers, there are some common mistakes
that we make whenever conversing in English.
1. Use of double negative.
Since most of the us try to translate a sentence to English from our native language, thus, we
end up adding double negative while speaking out. This is wrong.
For example:
We say - “I don’t know nothing.”, this means that we know something, but the correct one is
Correct - “I don’t know anything.”
2. Use of the wrong tense.
Many of us have the tendency to use the wrong tense.
For example:
We say - “I didn’t cried when I saw the movie.” Here the word didn’t is never followed by a
past tense verb. So, the correct one is
Correct - “I didn’t cry when I saw the movie.”
3. Use of two comparatives/superlatives together.
A sentence must not have two superlatives or comparatives together.
For example:
We say - “This could never have turned out to be more better.” Here, better is the comparative
of the adjective good, and more is the comparative of the adjective much. Thus, the correct one
is
Correct - “This could never have turned out to be better.”
4. Me v/s I.
Clear it in your mind that “I” is the subject and “me” is the object. We usually confuse between
the two.
We say - “They are going to send my wife and I a package.” Here, if we remove the person
and the preceding I. It would sound, “They are going to send I a package.” This is wrong!
Correct - “They are going to send me a package.”
Similarly, if we say “Jim and me are going to the gym.” what’s wrong here? When we remove
“Jim and”. The sentence becomes “Me am going to the gym”. This is also wrong. The correct
one is

Dr. V. K. Sharma
Correct - “Jim and I are going to the gym.”
5. Say v/s tell.
While we speak in English, most of us make mistakes using say and tell.
For example:
First with “Say”
We say - “Say me your name.” Here, “say” is not the appropriate word because it is used to
express something in words. Whereas, the sentence demands to say something. The correction
done is as follows:
Correct - “Tell me your name.”
Now, with “Tell”
We say - “So I told what a good idea.” Told is the inappropriate word, because here, the
sentence wants to express the phrase “what a good idea”. So, the correct one here is:
Correct - “So I said, what a good idea.”
6. Fewer v/s less.
The word fewer is only used for items that can be counted, whereas less is used for the
uncountable.
For example:
We say - “Today, the market has less people.”
Correct - “Today, the market has fewer people.”
7. Using ‘s’ unnecessarily after every word.
This is a very common mistake we usually make. For example:
We say - “Unless you gets your act right.” This is wrong! Only if you is replaced by he/she
and your is replaced by his/her. The correct sentence is:
Correct - “Unless you get your act right.”
8. Does v/s do.
“Does” is used for the singular form of the subject, while “do” is used to indicate the plural
form of the subject.
We say - “Why does they bother you a lot?”
Correct - “Why do they bother you a lot?”
9. Blunder and mistake.
Another common mistake we make while speaking is mixing blunder and mistake. Blunder is
a synonym for mistake; thus, it cannot be used together. For example:
We say - “It was a blunder mistake”
Correct - “It was a blunder”, or “it was a mistake.”
10. Cope up v/s cope with.
It is a common mistake that people make while speaking. We generally use both cope up and
with together.
We say- “let’s cope up with the classmates.”
Correct- “Cope with the classmates”
11. Revert back/ reply back and revert/reply.
This mistake is mostly made by all of us. We always use ‘revert back.’ However, the meaning
of both word is similar.
We say- “Please revert back or reply back to the mail.”
Correct- “Please revert or reply to the mail.”
12. It’s or Its
Example Mistake: The spider spun it’s web. Its a very beautiful web.

Dr. V. K. Sharma
“Its” (without an apostrophe) is the possessive version of a pronoun. It also happens to be one
of the most commonly misused words in English.
“It’s” (with an apostrophe) is a contraction of “it is” or “it has.”
When talking about the beauty of the web, we’re saying that it is a very beautiful web.
Therefore, we should use the contraction “it’s” instead of “its.”
Correction: The spider spun its web. It’s a very beautiful web.
13. Subject-verb Agreement
Example Mistake: The list of items are on the desk.
In the above sentence, the list of items is one singular list, so it’s incorrect to use “are.” We
should use “is.”
Correction: The list of items is on the desk.
14. Gone or Went
Example Mistake: She had already went to the bathroom before they got in the car.
If you aren’t sure whether to use “gone” or “went,” remember that “gone” always needs an
auxiliary verb before it.
Auxiliary verbs include: has, have, had, is, am, are, was, were, be.
“Went” can’t have an auxiliary verb before it.
In the sentence above, we used “went” even though the auxiliary verb “had” is also present.
Since the word “had” is there, we should use “gone” instead of “went.”
Correction: She had already gone to the bathroom before they got in the car.
15. Watch, Look, See
Example Mistake: Stop watching my private journal. / I look at the snow falling. / I don’t
play tennis, but I look at them playing every day.
“See,” “look” and “watch” are often confusing because their meanings are similar. Here’s the
difference between the three verbs:
 Look — to look at something directly.
 See — to see something that comes into our sight that we weren’t looking for.
 Watch — to look at something carefully, often at something that’s moving.
So, we can “see” something even if we don’t want to, but we can only “look” at something on
purpose.
Correction: Stop looking at my private journal. / I watch the snow falling. / I don’t play
tennis, but I see them playing every day.
16. May vs. Might
(a) Example Mistake: He is late. He is a rash driver. He might have met with an accident.
Deciding when to use “may” rather than “might” can be tricky because the difference between
these two verbs is quite small. They both indicate that something is possible, but “might”
suggests slightly more uncertainty than “may.”
Correct: He is late. He is a rash driver. He may have met with an accident.
Example Mistake: He is late. He is a careful driver. He may have met with an accident.
Correct: He is late. He is a careful driver. He might have met with an accident.

The rule that “may” becomes “might” in the past tense is even more confusing. With the perfect
form of might, the action of the main verb did not take place.
The car so nearly hit me, I might have been killed.
= There was a possibility of being killed but it didn’t happen.
He might have gone for lunch/tea.
= There was a possibility of his going to lunch but he didn’t.

Dr. V. K. Sharma
 17. Could, Should or Would
Example Mistake: That shirt looks great on you. I think you would buy it.
“Should” is used to give advice:
That shirt looks great on you. I think you should buy it.
“Would” is used to describe unlikely or unreal situations:
I would love to go to Italy, but I don’t have enough money.
“Could” can be used in two ways:
 To describe a past ability (“When I was younger, I could run twice as fast.”).
 To make polite requests (“Could I have a cup of tea?”).
Correction: That shirt looks great on you. I think you should buy it.
18. Bring vs. Take
Example Mistake: Please take me a snack.
“Bring” suggests movement toward the speaker, making it similar to “come.” You ask people
to bring things to the place where you already are.
“Take” suggests movement away from the speaker, making it similar to “go.” You take things
to the place where you are going. You could say “Don’t forget to take your book to school” or
“Please take me home.”
Correction: Please bring me a snack.
19. Adjective Order
Example Mistake: It’s a red big car.
If you’re using more than one adjective to describe a noun, they need to go in a specific order
in the sentence. This is why “it’s a big red car” is correct, but “it’s a red big car” sounds wrong.
The normal adjective order is:
1) quantity or number
2) demonstrative
3) quality or opinion or manner
4) size
5) age
6) shape
7) colour
8) nationality
9)style/type
10) material

All those big old red Indian wooden chairs are on sale.
Number + Demonstrative + Size + Age + Colour + Nationality + Material

All these beautiful, big, old, square, red, Indian, handmade, wooden chairs are on sale.
Number + Demonstrative + opinion + Size + Age + Shape + Colour + Type + Nationality +
Material
Note: Some users use the shape adjective before the age adjective.
20. There, Their or They’re
Example Mistake: Their are five cafes on this street.
“There” is used to specify a place, as in this sentence:
The book is over there on the table.
It can also be used with the verb “to be” to indicate the existence of something.
“Their” is a possessive adjective—like my, your, or his. For example:
That’s their house.

Dr. V. K. Sharma
Lastly, “they’re” is a contraction of “they are,” so it is the subject “they” plus the verb “are.”
For example, you could say:
They’re going to play soccer with us tonight.
Correction: There are five cafes on this street.
21. A vs. The
Example Mistake: A movie was very interesting.
When you’re talking about something in a general way, use the indefinite article “a.”
But if you’re talking about something specific that everyone in the conversation is familiar
with, then use “the.”
For example, if I say “Let’s watch a movie,” I’m suggesting that we watch any movie.
However, if I say “Let’s watch the movie,” I’m referring to a specific movie that you and I
have already talked about watching together.
Correction: The movie was very interesting.
22. Future Tense
Example Mistake: I will be going to the dance party yesterday.
The future tense is being used to talk about the wrong time in the sentence above, since it’s
talking about something that happened in the past.
You should only use the future tense when something has not happened yet but will happen in
the future.
Correction: I will be going to the dance party tomorrow.
23. Casual or Formal
Example Mistake: (At a job interview) “Hey, what’s up?”
Know your audience!
Casual talk is for friends, not your boss. This isn’t formal—it’s slang. It can even be considered
inappropriate or rude.
To speak more formally in English, you should avoid contractions (say “how is” instead of
“how’s”) and try to be more polite.
Correction: “Hello, how is everything going?”
24. Since or For
Example Mistake: I have known him for always. I saw him since last year.
You use “for” if you don’t have to calculate the time (because the amount of time is indicated
in the sentence already) You use “since” if you do have to calculate it, because you only have
the starting point.
Correction: I have lived here for two months. / I have lived here since 1975.
Note: For is used for counting time, and since, is used for naming time.
25. Hyphens
Example Mistake: He is an eight year old boy.
Hyphens connect ideas. They’re the glue that holds descriptions together. They’re a pretty big
deal!
For example, the phrase: “dog-eating cat.”
By placing that little line between the words “dog” and “eating,” you’re marking them as a
single description. This means that, with the hyphen, you have a cat who eats dogs.
Without the hyphen, the words “dog” and “eating” are not connected, changing the way the
phrase is read. You now have “dog eating cat,” or a dog that’s actually eating a cat.
Correction: He is an eight-year-old boy.
Note: After a hyphen noun is always singular.

Dr. V. K. Sharma
 26. Some correct use of prepositions:
She is in tears
He is blind in one eye.
The map is on page 32. (BUT I opened the book at page 32,)
I invited him to lunch.
What is for lunch?
I told him to his face.
He is blind in one eye.
She is lame in one leg.
Hea reached __ the station.
He made __ the station.
He arrived at the station.
He got to the station.
I pity __ her. (pity is verb)
I took pity on her. (pity is noun)
He did not answer __ my question. (answer is verb)
It is no answer to my question. (answer is noun)
He did not reply to my question.
Tansen lived under Akabar. (Meaning: During the reign of.)
Foreign policies under Congress. (Meaning: During the reign of.)
A cheque for a hundred pounds.
I bought a book for ten rupees.
He came on Saturday morning.
I met him on the evening of 26th January.

Dr. V. K. Sharma