Subject: Foreign policy analysis

Name: Hasnain Niaz

Deptt: Political science

Semester: 7th

>Foreign policy

Foreign policy refers to a government's strategy in managing its relationships with other
countries and international organizations. It encompasses a wide range of diplomatic, economic,
military, and political tools that a nation uses to protect its interests, promote its values, and
achieve its goals on the global stage.
Key aspects of foreign policy include:
1. Diplomacy: This is the practice of negotiating with other countries to resolve conflicts,
form alliances, and promote peaceful cooperation. Diplomats work to maintain strong
relationships and open communication channels with other nations.
2. Defense and Security: Ensuring national security is a central goal of foreign policy. This
often involves building military alliances, conducting intelligence operations, and
developing strategies to protect the country from potential threats.
3. Economic Policy: Countries use foreign policy to create beneficial trade relationships,
promote economic growth, and manage economic sanctions or aid. This can include
negotiating trade agreements, supporting international financial organizations, and
fostering investment opportunities abroad.
4. Human Rights and Humanitarian Efforts: Foreign policy can reflect a country's values
and its stance on human rights. This may involve supporting international human rights
laws, providing foreign aid to nations in crisis, or promoting development projects that
improve global living standards.
5. Environmental and Global Issues: Many countries also use foreign policy to address
global challenges, such as climate change, nuclear proliferation, and public health issues.
International agreements, like the Paris Climate Accord, are examples of cooperative
foreign policy efforts on these issues.
Foreign policies can vary widely between countries, depending on factors like geographic
location, economic status, political ideology, and historical relationships.
>Global political structure
Global political structure refers to the organized system of relationships, institutions, and
power dynamics that define interactions between countries, international organizations, and non-
state actors on a global scale. This structure helps govern how countries work together, resolve
conflicts, form alliances, and manage global issues, such as economic stability, security, and
environmental concerns.
Characteristics of Global Political Structure
1. Sovereignty and National Interests: Countries are sovereign entities with distinct
interests, goals, and the right to self-governance. This means each nation prioritizes its
security, economic growth, and values, which can sometimes lead to cooperation or
conflict with other nations.
 2. Hierarchy and Power Distribution: There is often a hierarchy where some countries
(such as the U.S., China, and Russia) wield more global influence due to economic
strength, military power, or political alliances. This distribution of power influences who
leads in setting global agendas or solving crises.
3. International Institutions and Organizations: Bodies like the United Nations, World
Bank, and International Monetary Fund help maintain global order by providing
platforms for negotiation, setting international norms, and addressing issues that affect
multiple countries. These institutions are crucial for mediating disputes and managing
shared challenges.
4. Bilateral and Multilateral Alliances: Nations form partnerships to strengthen their
influence and address common challenges. These alliances can be bilateral (between two
countries) or multilateral (involving multiple nations) and include organizations like
NATO or economic blocs such as the European Union.
5. Global Norms and International Law: Agreements like the Geneva Conventions,
climate accords, and trade regulations set standards for behavior among nations. While
not always enforceable, they help create predictability and establish norms on issues like
human rights, environmental protection, and conflict resolution.
6. Economic Interdependence: In today’s globalized world, countries’ economies are
interconnected. Trade, investment, and technology exchange create mutual dependencies,
making collaboration essential for economic stability. This economic interdependence
often affects foreign policy and alliance decisions.
7. Dynamic and Evolving Power Structures: The global political structure is not fixed; it
changes based on shifts in economic strength, technological advancements, and political
changes. For instance, emerging economies like India and Brazil are gaining influence,
and technological advancements are reshaping how countries interact and compete.
8. Influence of Non-State Actors: Multinational corporations, non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), and even individuals can shape international relations. Companies
like Google or NGOs like Amnesty International have significant influence over
economic policies, human rights, and global communication.
This complex structure creates both opportunities for cooperation and potential for conflict,
making diplomacy and strategic decision-making essential for maintaining global stability.
>World system theory
World-systems theory is a sociological and political-economic framework that examines the
world as a single, interconnected system dominated by capitalist dynamics. Developed by
sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein in the 1970s, this theory views the global economy as a
structured system with a hierarchy of nations that have different roles and levels of power within
it.
Key Components of World-Systems Theory
1. Core, Semi-Periphery, and Periphery:
o Core Countries: These are the most developed nations with advanced economies,
high levels of technology, and strong political power. Core countries tend to
dominate global trade and economic policies and often exploit resources from less
developed countries. Examples include the U.S., Western European nations, and
Japan.
 o Periphery Countries: These are the least developed nations, often rich in natural
resources but economically dependent on the core. They tend to have weaker
political influence, lower industrialization, and are often exploited for cheap labor
and raw materials. Examples include many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Latin
America, and parts of Asia.
o Semi-Periphery Countries: These countries fall in between the core and
periphery, often displaying characteristics of both. They may have moderate
industrialization and growing economies but still depend on core countries for
trade and capital. Semi-periphery countries can play a stabilizing role by
absorbing tensions between the core and periphery. Examples include Brazil,
India, and Mexico.
2. Global Capitalist System:
o World-systems theory argues that capitalism, with its drive for profit, organizes
the global economy. Core countries benefit from this system by exploiting labor
and resources from peripheral countries, leading to unequal development and
reinforcing existing inequalities.
3. Division of Labor:
o The theory proposes a global division of labor where core countries focus on
producing high-skill, capital-intensive goods (e.g., technology and finance), while
peripheral countries produce low-skill, labor-intensive goods (e.g., raw materials,
agriculture). This division reinforces economic dependence and limits the growth
of peripheral countries.
4. Historical Perspective:
o Wallerstein argued that the modern world system emerged around the 16th
century with the rise of European colonial empires, which allowed core countries
to accumulate wealth and build industrial economies by exploiting their colonies.
This historical process, he suggested, continues to shape global power dynamics.
5. Dynamic and Cyclical Nature:
o World-systems theory emphasizes that the global system is dynamic. Countries
may shift positions within the hierarchy (e.g., from semi-periphery to core)
depending on changes in economic or political power. However, this mobility is
limited by entrenched economic and structural inequalities.
6. Geopolitical Implications:
o Power relations within the world system influence global political stability and
conflict. Core countries have a vested interest in maintaining the status quo to
secure their economic and political dominance, while peripheral countries may
struggle for independence or support reformist policies within international
institutions.
Criticisms of World-Systems Theory
Critics argue that world-systems theory:
 Overemphasizes the role of economic factors while underestimating cultural, social, and
political dynamics.
 Is overly deterministic, implying that countries have little agency to improve their status.
 Does not account sufficiently for globalization, technological advancements, and the rise
of non-state actors that also influence global dynamics.
World-systems theory remains influential as it helps explain persistent global inequalities and
provides insight into why some nations struggle to achieve development, while others maintain
economic and political dominance.
>Theories of realisms and idealism in the context of foreign policy
Realism and Idealism are two major theories in international relations that offer distinct views
on how countries should conduct their foreign policies. Each approach reflects a different set of
assumptions about human nature, power, and the possibility of cooperation in the global arena.
1. Realism
Realism is a pragmatic theory of international relations that centers on power and national
interests. It views the international system as anarchic (i.e., lacking a central authority), where
states must rely on their own resources for security. Realists argue that nations act in their self-
interest and pursue power to ensure their survival and security.
Key Principles of Realism in Foreign Policy:
 Anarchic World Structure: Realists see the world as inherently chaotic, where no single authority
enforces rules. This anarchy drives countries to prioritize security and self-reliance.
 National Interest and Power: States act primarily to protect their national interests, often
defined by power—whether military, economic, or political. Realism assumes that power is a
zero-sum game, where one nation’s gain is often seen as another’s loss.
 Balance of Power: Realists argue that the best way to maintain stability is through a balance of
power, where states or alliances counterbalance each other to prevent any one state from
dominating. Alliances and strategic partnerships are thus often temporary and transactional.
 Skepticism of International Cooperation: Realists are skeptical of lasting international
cooperation. They argue that, ultimately, every state is motivated by self-interest and will
abandon agreements if they no longer align with their interests.
Realism in Practice:
 Realist foreign policies prioritize military strength, alliances that enhance security, and actions
that assert national interests. Examples include arms buildups, strict immigration policies for
security reasons, and economic sanctions against rival states.
 During the Cold War, for example, the U.S. and the Soviet Union pursued realist policies through
nuclear deterrence and forming competing alliances to maintain a global balance of power.

2. Idealism (or Liberalism)

Idealism (often referred to as Liberalism in international relations) is an optimistic approach that
emphasizes cooperation, ethical values, and the potential for peace. Idealists believe that through
international institutions, rule of law, and democratic principles, states can work together to
achieve shared goals and reduce conflicts.
Key Principles of Idealism in Foreign Policy:
 Human Nature and Moral Values: Idealists believe that human nature is not inherently self-
interested and that states can act in the interest of the global good. They emphasize values like
justice, human rights, and ethical responsibilities.
 Interdependence and Cooperation: Idealism argues that countries are increasingly
interdependent and can benefit from cooperation. International organizations, trade, and
diplomacy are viewed as ways to manage conflict and promote peace.
  Promotion of Democracy and Human Rights: Idealists hold that democracies are less likely to go
to war with each other (known as the “democratic peace theory”). Therefore, promoting
democracy and human rights internationally is considered a way to reduce global conflict.
 International Institutions and Norms: Idealists advocate for the establishment of institutions like
the United Nations, World Trade Organization, and International Criminal Court to mediate
disputes, promote cooperation, and enforce international norms.
Idealism in Practice:
 Idealist foreign policies prioritize diplomacy, international agreements, and multilateral
approaches to global problems. They may focus on foreign aid, humanitarian interventions, and
climate agreements.
 Examples of idealism include the creation of the United Nations after World War II to promote
peace and cooperation, and international efforts to address climate change, like the Paris
Agreement, where countries commit to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Comparison of Realism and Idealism

Aspect Realism Idealism (Liberalism)

Worldview Anarchic, conflict-prone Cooperative, interdependent

Human Nature Self-interested, power-seeking Ethical, capable of cooperation

Global stability, peace, and ethical

Primary Goal National interest and security
governance

Means to Achieve
Military power, alliances, deterrence Diplomacy, international institutions, trade
Goals

View on International Skeptical, sees as weak without

Supportive, promotes rule of law globally
Law enforcement

Arms buildup, sanctions, balancing Peace treaties, foreign aid, multilateral

Foreign Policy Actions
power agreements

Both theories influence contemporary foreign policies. For example, realist elements can be seen
in national security strategies focused on military strength, while idealist policies are visible in
initiatives like human rights advocacy and climate accords. Most countries’ foreign policies
reflect a mix of both approaches, balancing pragmatic national interests with idealistic goals of
cooperation and peace.
>Foreign policy formulation
Foreign policy formulation is the process by which a government defines and develops its
approach to international relations. It involves analyzing, planning, and deciding on actions to
protect national interests, maintain security, promote economic prosperity, and further the
country’s values on the global stage.
Steps in Foreign Policy Formulation
1. Identifying National Interests and Objectives:
 o The foundation of any foreign policy is a clear understanding of national interests,
which may include economic growth, security, territorial integrity, access to
resources, and alliances.
o Objectives are often framed around protecting these interests, for instance, by
fostering trade relations, promoting regional stability, or supporting global
initiatives that align with the country’s values.
2. Assessment of the International Environment:
o Foreign policy formulation requires an understanding of the current global
environment, including trends in international politics, economic conditions,
alliances, and threats.
o Analyzing other countries’ foreign policies, regional stability, global issues (such
as climate change or pandemics), and emerging threats (like terrorism or
cyberattacks) helps inform a responsive and adaptive foreign policy.
3. Setting Policy Priorities:
o Not all objectives can be pursued simultaneously; limited resources and
diplomatic bandwidth require prioritization.
o Governments often rank objectives based on urgency, strategic importance, and
feasibility. For example, immediate security threats may take precedence over
long-term goals like climate diplomacy.
4. Consultation and Input Gathering:
o The formulation process involves input from various actors within and outside of
the government. These can include diplomats, intelligence agencies, military
officials, economists, and think tanks.
o Public opinion and the interests of domestic political groups (business sectors,
advocacy groups, etc.) can also shape policy decisions, especially in democracies
where leaders are accountable to citizens.
5. Formulating Policy Options:
o With a clear understanding of the international environment and national
priorities, policymakers then develop different policy options. Each option
considers available resources, potential outcomes, and risks.
o These options may range from diplomatic approaches (e.g., treaties, alliances) to
economic measures (e.g., trade agreements, sanctions) or military actions.
6. Decision-Making:
o After evaluating options, leaders (e.g., the president, prime minister, or foreign
minister) make final policy decisions. The chosen course of action reflects a
balance of strategic interests, political constraints, and anticipated effectiveness.
o In some countries, decisions may need approval from legislative bodies (like the
U.S. Congress), adding another layer of scrutiny.
7. Implementation and Execution:
o Once a decision is made, various government agencies and departments (e.g., the
foreign ministry, defense ministry, intelligence agencies) work to implement the
policy.
o This stage involves diplomatic missions, forming alliances, enforcing trade
agreements, deploying military resources, or promoting cultural exchanges,
depending on the policy.
8. Monitoring and Feedback:
 o Effective foreign policy is not static. Policies are regularly monitored, and
feedback is gathered to assess their impact and effectiveness.
o If outcomes deviate from expected results, policies may be adjusted or revised to
better align with national goals or respond to new developments.
Influences on Foreign Policy Formulation
 Domestic Influences: Political leadership, public opinion, interest groups, and the
economy influence how foreign policy is shaped. Elections, changes in government, or
shifts in public sentiment can lead to significant shifts.
 External Influences: The global political landscape, alliances, and interactions with
other states also shape foreign policy. Changes in international power dynamics,
economic conditions, and crises influence priorities and strategies.
 Historical and Cultural Context: A country’s past, its identity, and cultural values play
a role in shaping foreign policy. For example, post-war trauma may lead to non-
interventionism, while colonial legacies might impact alliances and regional relations.
Example of Foreign Policy Formulation
Consider the response of many countries to climate change:
 Identification of Interest: Countries identify environmental protection, economic
stability, and public health as national interests.
 Assessment: They analyze climate data, global environmental trends, and economic
impacts.
 Priority Setting: Balancing environmental goals with economic growth, countries may
prioritize certain sustainable practices.
 Consultation: Governments consult scientists, environmental agencies, businesses, and
international allies.
 Policy Formulation: Options may include investing in renewable energy, joining
international treaties, or implementing domestic regulations.
 Decision and Implementation: Leaders decide to join climate accords, enforce emission
standards, or fund green technologies.
 Monitoring and Adjustment: Policies are adjusted based on emission reports and
economic data.
Foreign policy formulation is a complex and dynamic process. It aims to craft a balanced,
responsive approach that upholds national interests, maintains international credibility, and
addresses global issues effectively.

>state strength, weaknesses or limitation

The strengths, weaknesses, and limitations of states refer to factors that influence a state’s
ability to achieve its objectives, uphold security, and exert influence both domestically and
internationally. Understanding these aspects can help clarify a state's role and power in the global
system.
Strengths of a State
1. Economic Power: A strong economy enables states to finance defense, welfare,
infrastructure, and technological development. Economic stability and growth can also
increase a state’s international influence and provide leverage in trade and negotiations.
 2. Military Strength: Military capabilities, including advanced technology, training, and
resources, empower a state to protect its borders, project power abroad, and maintain
order domestically.
3. Political Stability and Effective Governance: States with strong institutions and
efficient governance are better able to manage resources, respond to crises, and enact
long-term policies. Political stability also attracts investment and strengthens
international partnerships.
4. International Alliances and Diplomatic Influence: Membership in international
organizations (like the UN, NATO, or the EU) and alliances with other powerful states
can enhance a state’s security, influence, and ability to pursue common goals.
5. Geographic and Natural Resource Advantage: Geography can impact a state’s
security, with natural barriers like mountains or oceans providing protection. Access to
resources like oil, minerals, or fertile land can boost economic strength and international
leverage.
6. Technological Advancement and Innovation: States that lead in science, technology,
and education can foster economic growth, national security, and soft power through
cultural influence and technological exports.

Weaknesses or Limitations of a State

1. Economic Dependence and Vulnerability: Economies reliant on a single sector or
foreign aid are vulnerable to market fluctuations, trade restrictions, or political instability
in partner countries. Economic dependence can limit a state’s autonomy in decision-
making.
2. Political Instability or Corruption: States with weak governance structures, frequent
changes in leadership, or corruption may face internal conflicts, inefficient
administration, and a lack of trust in government, all of which can hinder policy
implementation.
3. Limited Military Capacity: States with weak or underfunded militaries may struggle to
defend themselves or maintain internal security, making them vulnerable to external
threats or domestic insurgencies.
4. Internal Divisions and Social Conflict: Ethnic, religious, or ideological divides within a
state can lead to conflicts that drain resources, disrupt governance, and impede economic
growth.
5. Geopolitical Disadvantages: Some states are geographically disadvantaged, lacking
access to vital resources or trade routes. Additionally, being surrounded by hostile
neighbors can increase security risks and limit diplomatic options.
6. Population Challenges: States with rapidly growing populations may face strain on
resources and services, while those with aging populations may struggle with labor
shortages and increased health care demands.
7. Environmental and Climate Vulnerabilities: States facing frequent natural disasters or
adverse climate conditions may face economic disruptions, population displacement, and
greater expenditure on disaster response, limiting resources for other areas.

Limitations of State Power in the Modern Era

 1. Globalization and Economic Interdependence: While globalization offers
opportunities, it also means that states are more interdependent. This limits a state’s
ability to pursue fully autonomous policies without impacting or being impacted by the
global economy.
2. Influence of Non-State Actors: Corporations, international organizations, NGOs, and
even powerful individuals (e.g., technology CEOs) now hold significant sway in global
affairs. States may struggle to control or compete with these entities on certain issues,
especially in areas like technology and information.
3. International Law and Norms: Membership in international organizations and
adherence to treaties impose limitations on states, as violating these can lead to sanctions,
loss of reputation, or military responses.
4. Cyber Threats and Technological Dependence: Increased reliance on technology
exposes states to cyber threats from other states or non-state actors. Cyberattacks can
disrupt infrastructure, elections, and military operations, potentially diminishing state
sovereignty.
5. Global Issues Requiring Multilateral Action: Issues like climate change, pandemics,
and terrorism cannot be addressed by any one state alone, requiring cooperation that may
limit unilateral action or force compromise.
6. Public Opinion and Domestic Constraints: In democratic states, leaders may be limited
by public opinion and electoral considerations. If a policy is unpopular, leaders may need
to alter or abandon it to retain support, which can impact long-term strategy.
7. Economic Constraints and Debt: High levels of national debt limit government
spending, reducing a state’s ability to invest in defense, public services, or infrastructure.
Economic constraints can also restrict a state's ability to respond effectively to crises.

The strengths, weaknesses, and limitations of a state shape its role and influence in the world.
States with strong institutions and resources generally have more power to shape their destinies,
while others may face challenges that limit their autonomy and effectiveness.

Past paper solution

Q 1. Discus formulation and implementation of foreign policy of a state?
The formulation and implementation of foreign policy are critical processes through which a
state defines its approach to international relations and executes its objectives. Understanding
these processes is essential for analyzing how states interact on the global stage.
1. Formulation of Foreign Policy
Formulation is the initial stage where a government identifies its interests, sets objectives, and
devises strategies to achieve those goals. This process involves several steps:
Steps in Formulation:
1. Identifying National Interests:
o National interests are the core priorities that guide a state’s foreign policy. These can
include security, economic prosperity, territorial integrity, and the promotion of cultural
or ideological values.
o Decision-makers assess what is essential for the country’s survival and growth, often
reflecting both long-term strategic goals and immediate concerns.
 2. Analyzing the International Environment:
o Policymakers conduct assessments of the global landscape, including trends in
international relations, economic conditions, and potential threats.
o This analysis involves examining the actions of other states, international organizations,
and non-state actors, as well as geopolitical dynamics.
3. Setting Objectives and Priorities:
o After assessing interests and the international environment, policymakers prioritize
specific objectives. These might include strengthening alliances, enhancing security, or
promoting trade agreements.
o Objectives must be realistic and achievable, taking into account available resources and
potential risks.
4. Gathering Input and Consultation:
o Formulation often involves consultation with various stakeholders, including government
agencies, military officials, economists, academics, and representatives from interest
groups or civil society.
o This broad consultation helps ensure that policies are comprehensive and consider
diverse perspectives and expertise.
5. Developing Policy Options:
o Various policy alternatives are generated to address the identified objectives. These
options can range from diplomatic efforts and economic sanctions to military actions
and humanitarian interventions.
o Each option is evaluated for its feasibility, costs, risks, and potential impacts.
6. Decision-Making:
o Ultimately, a key decision-maker (e.g., president, prime minister, or foreign minister)
selects the preferred policy option based on the information and recommendations
provided.
o In democratic contexts, this decision may require legislative approval or public support.
2. Implementation of Foreign Policy
Implementation follows formulation and involves executing the selected policies. This stage
translates plans into actions that align with the state’s foreign policy objectives.
Steps in Implementation:
1. Coordination among Government Agencies:
o Effective implementation often requires coordination among various government
departments and agencies (e.g., foreign affairs, defense, trade) to ensure a unified
approach.
o Clear communication and collaboration are vital for aligning objectives and resources.
2. Diplomatic Engagement:
o Diplomats play a crucial role in implementing foreign policy by negotiating treaties,
forming alliances, and managing relationships with other states.
o They represent the state’s interests at international forums, engage in dialogue, and
work to build coalitions around shared goals.
3. Military Actions:
o If a policy involves security measures, implementation may require deploying military
resources or conducting operations to protect national interests or respond to threats.
 o Military actions are often coordinated with diplomatic efforts to ensure a comprehensive
strategy.
4. Economic Measures:
o Implementation can include economic strategies such as trade agreements, sanctions, or
foreign aid. Economic policies are executed through agreements with other countries or
through international organizations.
o Monitoring and adjustment are necessary to assess the effectiveness of these measures
and their impacts on foreign relations.
5. Public Communication and Domestic Support:
o Governments must communicate their foreign policy decisions to the public to garner
support and understanding. This can involve speeches, press releases, and engagement
with media.
o Public opinion can influence the sustainability of foreign policy, particularly in
democracies, so maintaining transparency and justifying actions is essential.
6. Monitoring and Evaluation:
o The effectiveness of implemented policies must be continuously monitored and
assessed to ensure they are achieving desired outcomes.
o Feedback mechanisms help policymakers understand the impacts of their actions,
enabling them to make adjustments as necessary or to re-evaluate objectives.
Example of Formulation and Implementation
U.S. Foreign Policy in Response to Climate Change:
1. Formulation:
o Identifying National Interests: The U.S. identifies climate change as a national security
risk that impacts health, economy, and global stability.
o Analyzing the Environment: Analysts review international climate reports, evaluate
global commitments (like the Paris Agreement), and assess the U.S.’s role.
o Setting Objectives: Objectives might include reducing greenhouse gas emissions,
transitioning to renewable energy, and leading global climate initiatives.
o Gathering Input: Consultations occur with scientists, environmental NGOs, businesses,
and international partners.
o Developing Options: Policy options could range from domestic regulations to rejoining
international agreements.
o Decision-Making: Leadership decides to rejoin the Paris Agreement and implement
domestic policies aimed at reducing emissions.
2. Implementation:
o Coordination: Various agencies (e.g., Environmental Protection Agency, Department of
State) work together to enact policies.
o Diplomatic Engagement: U.S. diplomats participate in international climate negotiations
and collaborate with other countries on climate initiatives.
o Economic Measures: The U.S. invests in renewable energy technologies and incentivizes
green practices through subsidies and tax breaks.
o Public Communication: The administration communicates the importance of climate
action to the public and seeks to build support for policies.
o Monitoring: Progress on emission targets is monitored, and adjustments are made as
necessary based on feedback and evolving scientific understanding.
Conclusion
The formulation and implementation of foreign policy are complex, multi-faceted processes that
require careful consideration of national interests, international dynamics, and the need for
effective action. Successful foreign policy relies on clear objectives, coordinated efforts among
various actors, and ongoing evaluation to adapt to changing global circumstances. By
understanding these processes, we can better analyze how states navigate the challenges of
international relations and pursue their goals on the global stage.
Q 2. What are the short and long term objectives of foreign policy of a state?
In the context of foreign policy, understanding the distinction between short-term and long-
term objectives is crucial for analyzing a state's international strategy and actions.
Definitions
1. Short-Term Objectives:
o Definition: Short-term objectives are specific goals that a state aims to achieve
within a brief time frame, typically from a few months to a few years. These
objectives often address immediate challenges or opportunities in the international
environment.
o Characteristics: Short-term objectives are generally tactical and reactive,
focusing on urgent issues that require prompt action. They may involve crisis
management, negotiation of agreements, or immediate responses to external
events.
2. Long-Term Objectives:
o Definition: Long-term objectives are broader goals that a state seeks to
accomplish over an extended period, usually spanning several years or decades.
These objectives reflect the state's overarching vision and strategic priorities in
international relations.
o Characteristics: Long-term objectives are strategic and proactive, focusing on
sustainable outcomes that align with the state's fundamental interests, values, and
goals. They often involve building relationships, shaping global norms, and
addressing systemic issues.

Short-Term Objectives of Foreign Policy

Short-term objectives often respond to pressing situations and require immediate attention.
Examples include:
1. Crisis Management:
o Goal: Addressing urgent situations like natural disasters, humanitarian crises, or
conflicts.
o Example: Providing immediate humanitarian assistance or military support in
response to an earthquake or a civil war.
2. Negotiating Agreements:
o Goal: Quickly achieving agreements on trade, security, or diplomatic issues.
o Example: Negotiating a ceasefire during an ongoing conflict or reaching a trade
agreement to resolve a trade dispute.
3. Responding to Security Threats:
o Goal: Reacting to immediate threats, such as terrorism or cyberattacks.
 o Example: Increasing security measures, conducting counter-terrorism operations,
or deploying military forces in response to a threat.
4. Public Diplomacy:
o Goal: Building goodwill or improving relationships through cultural exchanges
and diplomatic outreach.
o Example: Hosting foreign leaders or cultural events to strengthen bilateral ties.
5. Economic Engagement:
o Goal: Addressing immediate economic challenges or opportunities.
o Example: Implementing trade measures or tariffs in response to sudden market
shifts.

Long-Term Objectives of Foreign Policy

Long-term objectives are strategic goals that guide a state's actions over an extended period.
Examples include:
1. National Security:
o Goal: Ensuring a stable and secure environment for the state and its citizens.
o Example: Building strong military alliances, modernizing defense capabilities,
and investing in intelligence and security measures.
2. Economic Prosperity:
o Goal: Fostering sustained economic growth through trade partnerships and
international cooperation.
o Example: Pursuing comprehensive trade agreements that open markets for
domestic industries and support long-term economic strategies.
3. Promotion of Values and Ideologies:
o Goal: Advocating for democracy, human rights, and the rule of law globally.
o Example: Supporting democratic movements in other countries and participating
in international organizations that promote human rights.
4. Global Stability and Peace:
o Goal: Contributing to international peacekeeping efforts and conflict resolution to
foster global stability.
o Example: Engaging in diplomatic negotiations to resolve long-standing conflicts
or supporting peacebuilding initiatives in post-conflict areas.
5. Influencing Global Norms and Institutions:
o Goal: Shaping international norms and standards that align with national interests.
o Example: Actively participating in global initiatives addressing climate change,
such as the Paris Agreement, to promote sustainable practices.

Conclusion
Both short-term and long-term objectives are vital components of a state's foreign policy. While
short-term objectives allow states to respond effectively to immediate challenges, long-term
objectives guide strategic planning and foster relationships that shape the future of international
relations. A balanced approach that addresses both types of objectives is essential for navigating
the complexities of the global environment and achieving national interests.
Q 3? Explain impacts of liberal school of thought on foreign policy of a state?
The liberal school of thought in international relations emphasizes cooperation,
interdependence, and the role of international institutions and norms in shaping state behavior.
Unlike the realist perspective, which focuses on power and conflict, liberalism advocates for a
more optimistic view of international relations, positing that states can achieve their goals
through diplomacy, economic cooperation, and adherence to international law. The impacts of
liberal thought on the foreign policy of a state can be significant and multifaceted. Here’s an
overview:
1. Promotion of International Cooperation
 Multilateralism: Liberalism encourages states to engage in multilateral diplomacy and
collaborate on global issues. This often leads to participation in international
organizations such as the United Nations, World Trade Organization, and regional
alliances (e.g., NATO, EU).
 Collective Security: States may pursue foreign policies that emphasize collective
security arrangements, wherein nations agree to respond jointly to threats. This fosters a
sense of shared responsibility for maintaining peace and stability.
2. Emphasis on International Institutions
 Rule-Based Order: Liberalism advocates for a rules-based international order where
states adhere to established norms and agreements. This can lead to the creation and
strengthening of international treaties and organizations that facilitate cooperation and
conflict resolution.
 Institutionalism: States influenced by liberal thought are more likely to support the
development of international institutions that provide frameworks for cooperation,
dispute resolution, and monitoring compliance with agreements.
3. Economic Interdependence
 Trade and Investment: A liberal approach promotes economic interdependence through
trade agreements and foreign investments, as states recognize that economic ties can
create incentives for peace and stability. Policies may focus on reducing tariffs,
enhancing trade relations, and promoting foreign direct investment.
 Globalization: Liberalism supports globalization, emphasizing that interconnected
economies contribute to mutual prosperity. States may implement policies that facilitate
international trade, economic integration, and technological exchange.
4. Promotion of Democracy and Human Rights
 Democratic Peace Theory: Liberals often subscribe to the idea that democracies are less
likely to go to war with one another. This can influence foreign policy toward promoting
democracy, human rights, and governance reforms in other states, often through
diplomatic means, aid, or conditionality in trade agreements.
 Soft Power: States may leverage soft power—cultural influence, values, and diplomacy
—rather than military force to achieve foreign policy objectives, emphasizing moral
leadership and ethical considerations.
5. Addressing Global Issues
 Humanitarian Intervention: Liberal thought supports the idea of intervening in states
for humanitarian reasons, advocating for actions to prevent atrocities and protect human
rights. This can manifest in policies aimed at responding to genocides or large-scale
human rights abuses.
  Global Governance: A focus on transnational challenges such as climate change,
terrorism, and pandemics leads states to pursue collaborative approaches and agreements
(e.g., the Paris Agreement). Foreign policy may prioritize engagement in global
governance frameworks to address these shared challenges.
6. Conflict Resolution and Diplomacy
 Negotiation and Mediation: States influenced by liberalism may prioritize diplomatic
solutions over military interventions. Foreign policy often emphasizes negotiation,
mediation, and dialogue to resolve conflicts and disputes, fostering peaceful relations.
 Peacebuilding: Following conflicts, liberal-oriented states may engage in peacebuilding
efforts, supporting reconstruction, reconciliation, and the establishment of democratic
institutions in post-conflict societies.
7. Influence on National Security Strategy
 Comprehensive Security: Liberalism broadens the concept of security beyond military
threats to include economic, environmental, and human security. Foreign policy may
incorporate strategies that address these diverse aspects of security.
 Focus on Non-State Actors: A liberal perspective recognizes the importance of non-
state actors, such as NGOs and multinational corporations, in influencing international
relations. States may engage with these entities to achieve foreign policy goals and foster
cooperation.
Conclusion
The liberal school of thought profoundly influences the foreign policy of states by promoting
cooperation, interdependence, and adherence to international norms and institutions. It
encourages diplomatic engagement, economic ties, and the pursuit of shared global goals,
ultimately aiming for a more peaceful and stable international order. By emphasizing the
importance of soft power, human rights, and multilateralism, liberalism shapes how states
interact with each other and respond to global challenges, fostering a vision of international
relations based on collaboration rather than conflict.