PREPAIRED BY JAMES MAGANGI

UNIT ONE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER.

Definition of a Computer:
A computer is an electronic device that processes data under the control of programs stored in its
memory. It takes input data, processes it using specific instructions, and produces output as
information. The computer accepts data from input devices, temporarily stores it in memory,
processes it according to the given instructions, and then sends the processed information to output
devices.

Key points include:

- It operates using electronic components and electrical energy.

- Internal memory holds data and instructions temporarily and retains intermediate results.

- A computer requires instructions to perform tasks and cannot function independently.

- Data is transformed from one form to another during processing.

Program:

A computer program is a collection of related instructions written in a programming language that

directs the computer to perform specific tasks. It specifies how data should be processed and guides
the computer through various functions or operations.

Data:
Data is a collection of raw facts, figures or instructions that do not have much meaning to the user.
Data may be in form of numbers, alphabets/letters or symbols, and can be processed to produce
information.
Types of data.
There are two types/forms of data:
a). Digital (discrete) data:

Digital data is discrete in nature. It must be represented in form of numbers, alphabets or

symbols for it to be processed by a computer.
- Digital data is obtained by counting. E.g. 1, 2, 3 …
b). Analogue (continuous) data:
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Analogue data is continuous in nature. It must be represented in physical nature in order to

be processed by the computer.
- Analogue data is obtained by measurement. E.g. Pressure, Temperature, Humidity, Lengths
or currents, etc
- The output is in form of smooth graphs from which the data can be read. Data
Processing:
Processing is the act of gathering data and converting it into meaningful information. It involves
manipulating the data through calculations, comparisons, or logical operations to produce the
desired results. The outcome of this process is typically informative and useful.

Information:

Information is the data which has been refined, summarized & manipulated in the way you want
it, or into a more meaningful form for decision-making.
- The information must be accurate, timely, complete and relevant.
Comparison between Data and Information.

Data Information

1. Unprocessed (raw) facts or figures. 1. It is the end-product of data processing

(processed data)
2. Not arranged. 2. Arranged into a meaningful format.
3. Does not have much meaning to the user. 3. More meaningful to the user.
4. Cannot be used for decision-making. 4. Can be used to make decisions.
important terms used in computing
ICT Information and communication technologies (ICTs) are the technologies used
in the conveying, manipulation and storage of data by electronic means
Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another
Exchanging Information from computer to another computer
The classic communication system is made up of an information source, an encoder, a transmitter,
a receiver, a decoder, storage, retrieval, and an information destination
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Access time - The performance of a hard drive or other storage device - how long it takes to locate
a file.
Active program or window - The application or window at the front (foreground) on the monitor.
Application - a program in which you do your work.

ASCII (pronounced ask-key ) - American Standard Code for Information

Interchange. a commonly used data format for exchanging information between
computers or programs.
Background - part of the multitasking capability. A program can run and perform tasks in the
background while another program is being used in the foreground.
Bit - the smallest piece of information used by the computer. Derived from "binary digit". In
computer language, either a one (1) or a zero (0).
Backup - a copy of a file or disk you make for archiving purposes.
Boot - to start up a computer.
Bug - a programming error that causes a program to behave in an unexpected way. Bus - an
electronic pathway through which data is transmitted between components ni a
computer.
Byte - a piece of computer information made up of eight bits.
CD-ROM - an acronym for Compact Disc Read-Only Memory.

Client – Server - A common form of distributed system in which software is split between server
tasks and client tasks. A client sends requests to a server, according to some protocol,
asking for information or action, and the server responds.
Clipboard - A portion of memory where the Mac temporarily stores information. Called a Copy
Buffer in many PC applications because it is used to hold information which is to be
moved, as in word processing where text is "cut" and then "pasted".
Clock Rate (MHz) - The instruction processing speed of a computer measured in millions of
cycles per second (i.e., 200 MHz).
Compiler - a program the converts programming code into a form that can be used by a computer.
Compression - a technique that reduces the size of a saved file by elimination or encoding
redundancies (i.e., JPEG, MPEG, LZW, etc.)
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Control panel - a program that allows you to change settings in a program or change the way a
Mac looks and/or behaves.
CPU - the Central Processing Unit. The processing chip that is the "brains" of a computer.

Crash - a system malfunction in which the computer stops working and has to be restarted.
Cursor - The pointer, usually arrow or cross shaped, which is controlled by the mouse.
Daisy chaining - the act of stringing devices together in a series (such as SCSI).

Database - an electronic list of information that can be sorted and/or searched.

Data - (the plural of datum) information processed by a computer.
Defragment - (also - optimise) to concatenate fragments of data into contiguous blocks in memory
or on a hard drive.
Dialog box - an on-screen message box that appears when the computer requires additional
information before completing a command.
Digitise - to convert linear, or analogue, data into digital data that can be used by the computer.

Disk - a spinning platter made of magnetic or optically etched material on which data can be stored.
Disk drive - the machinery that writes the data from a disk and/or writes data to a disk.
Disk window - the window that displays the contents or directory of a disk.
Document - a file you create, as opposed to the application which created it.
DOS - acronym for Disk Operating System - used in IBM PCs.
DPI - acronym for Dots Per Inch - a gauge of visual clarity on the printed page or on the computer
screen.
Download - to transfer data from one computer to another. (If you are on the receiving end, you
are downloading. If you are on the sending end, you are uploading).
Drag - to move the mouse while its button is being depressed.
Driver - a file on a computer that tells it how to communicate with an add-on piece of equipment
(like a printer).
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Ethernet - a protocol for fast communication and file transfer across a network. Expansion slot
- a connector inside the computer that allows one to plug in a printed circuit board
that provides new or enhanced features.
File - the generic word for an application, document, control panel or other computer data.
Floppy - a 3.5-inch square rigid disk which holds data. (so named for the earlier 5.25 and 8 inch
disks that were flexible).
Folder - an electronic subdirectory that contains files.

Font - a typeface that contains the characters of an alphabet or some other letterforms.
Fragmentation - The breaking up of a file into many separate locations in memory
or on a disk.
Freeze - a system error, which causes the cursor to lock in place.
Gig - a gigabyte = 1024 megabytes.
Hard drive - a large capacity storage device made of multiple disks housed in a rigid case.
Head crash - a hard disk crash caused by the heads coming in contact with the spinning disk(s).

High density disk - a 1.4 MB floppy disk.

Highlight - to select by clicking once on an icon or by highlighting text in a document.
Hit rate - The fraction of all memory reads which are satisfied from the cache.

Hz - Abbreviation for hertz, the number of cycles per second, used to measure clock speed
Icon - a graphic symbol for an application, file or folder.

Initialise - to format a disk for use in the computer; creates a new directory and arranges the tracks
for the recording of data.
Insertion point - in word processing, the short flashing marker that indicates where your next
typing will begin.
Installer - software used to install a program on your hard drive.
Interrupt button - a tool used by programmers to enter the debugging mode. The button is usually
next to the reset button.
K - short for kilobyte.
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Keyboard shortcut - a combination of keystrokes that performs some function otherwise found
in a pull down menu.
Kilobyte - 1024 bytes.
Landscape - in printing from a computer, to print sideways on the page.
Launch - start an application.

Measurements (summary) -
*a bit = one binary digit (1 or 0) *"bit" is derived from the contraction b'it (binary digit) -> 8
bits = one byte
*1024 bytes = one kilobyte
*K = kilobyte
*Kb = kilobit
*MB = megabyte
*Mb = megabit
*MB/s = megabytes per second
*Mb/s = megabits per second
*bps = bits per second
i.e., 155 Mb/s = 19.38 MB/s MB - short for megabyte.
Megabyte - 1024 kilobytes.

Memory - the temporary holding area where data is stored while it is being used or changed; the
amount of RAM a computer has installed.
Menu - a list of program commands listed by topic.
Menu bar - the horizontal bar across the top of the screen that lists the menus.
MHz - Abbreviation for megahertz, or millions of cycles per second.

Multi tasking - running more than one application in memory at the same time.
Nanosecond - one billionth of a second.
Operating system - the system software that controls the computer.
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Optical disk - a high-capacity storage medium that is read by a laser light.

Palette - a small floating window that contains tools used in a given application.
Partition - a subdivision of a hard drives surface that is defined and used as a separate drive.
Paste - to insert text, or other material, from the clipboard or copy buffer.

PC - acronym for personal computer, commonly used to refer to an IBM or IBM clone computer
that uses DOS.
PCI - acronym for Peripheral Component Interchange - the newer, faster bus architecture.
Peripheral - an add-on component to your computer.

Pop-up menu - any menu that does not appear at the top of the screen in the menu bar. (May pop
up or down)
Port - a connection socket, or jack.
Power PC - a processing chip designed by Apple, IBM and Motorola (RISC based).
Power Mac - a family of Macs built around the PowerPC chip.
Print spooler - a program that stores documents to be printed on the hard drive, thereby freeing
the memory up and allowing other functions to be performed while printing goes on
in the background.
RAM - acronym for Random-Access Memory.

Resize box - the small square at the lower right corner of a window which, when dragged, resizes
the window.
RISC - acronym for Reduced Instruction Set Computing; the smaller set of commands used by
the PowerPC and Power Mac.
ROM - acronym for Read Only Memory; memory that can only be read from and not written to.
Root directory - the main hard drive window.

Save - to write a file onto a disk.

Save as - (a File menu item) to save a previously saved file in a new location and/or with a new
name.
Scroll - to shift the contents of a window to bring hidden items into view.
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Scroll bar - a bar at the bottom or right side of a window that contains the scroll box and allows
scrolling.
Scroll box - the box in a scroll bar that is used to navigate through a window.
SCSI - acronym for Small Computer System Interface.

Serial port - a port that allows data to be transmitted in a series (one after the other), such as the
printer and modem ports on a Mac.
Server - a central computer dedicated to sending and receiving data from other computers (on a
network).
Shut down - the command from the Special menu that shuts down the computer safely.
Software - files on disk that contain instructions for a computer.
Spreadsheet - a program designed to look like an electronic ledger.
Start up disk - the disk containing system software and is designated to be used to start the
computer.
Surge suppressor - a power strip that has circuits designed to reduce the effects of surge in
electrical power. (Not the same as a UPS)
32 bit addressing - a feature that allows the computer to recognize and use more than 8MB of
memory.
Thin client - A simple client program or hardware device that relies on most of the function of the
system being in the server
Title bar - the horizontal bar at the top of a window that has the name of the file or folder it
represents.
Upload - to send a file from one computer to another through a network.
Uninterruptible Power Source (UPS)- a constantly charging battery pack that powers the
computer. A UPS should have enough charge to power your computer for several
minutes in the event of a total power failure, giving you time to save your work and
safely shut down.
UPS - acronym for Uninterruptible Power Source.
Vapourware - "software" advertised, and sometimes sold, that does not yet exist in a releasable
for.
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Virtual memory - using part of your hard drive as though it were "RAM".
WORM - acronym for Write Once-Read Many; an optical disk that can only be written to once
(like a CD-ROM).
Zoom box - a small square in the upper right corner of a window which, when clicked, will expand
the window to fill the whole screen.

Characteristics / Features of a Computer.

Before 20th century, most information was processed manually or by use of simple machines.
Today, millions of people are using computers in offices and at home to produce and store all types
of information
The following are some of the attributes that make computers widely accepted & used in the dayto-
day activities in our society:
1. Speed.
Computers operate at extremely high speeds, performing complex tasks much faster than
humans. Their speed is measured in fractions of a second, such as milliseconds,
microseconds, nanoseconds, and picoseconds, and is linked to the technology used in their
construction.
1. 1st Generation (1940s-1950s): Built with vacuum tubes, operating speeds measured in
milliseconds (e.g., 5,000 additions per second).
2. 2nd Generation (1950s-1960s): Utilized transistors, improving speed to microseconds (e.g.,
1 million additions per second).
3. Mid-1960s: Introduction of integrated circuits (ICs) increased processing speed to tens of
millions of operations per second.
4. 1971: Intel produced the microprocessor, a small chip with about 1,600 transistors that
performed all processor operations.
5. Today: Modern microprocessors, using Large Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) technologies, are powerful, cheaper, and more reliable, with speeds
measured in nanoseconds and picoseconds..
2. Accuracy:
Computers are highly accurate and can operate for long periods without error. When errors do
occur, they have built-in self-checking features to detect and correct them. However, most errors
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stem from user input, leading to the principle of "Garbage in, Garbage out" (GIGO), which means
that entering incorrect data results in misleading information.

3. Reliability.
A computer delivers accurate results when given correct instructions and data. If it receives a
multiplication instruction instead of addition, it will execute the multiplication, following the
instructions without recognizing user intent. Additionally, if incorrect data is provided, the
output will be correct based on that data but may not meet expectations. Therefore, the
reliability of a computer's output hinges on the accuracy of both instructions and data.
4. Consistency:
Computers are usually consistent. This means that, given the same data & the same
instructions, they will produce the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
5. Storage:
A computer can store vast amounts of data and instructions in a compact space, allowing for
easy retrieval when needed. Additionally, data can be secured from unauthorized access
through the use of passwords..
6. Diligence:
Unlike human beings, a computer can work continuously without getting tired or bored. Even
if it has to do a million calculations, it will do the last one with the same speed and accuracy as
the first one.
7. Automation:
A computer is an automatic device. This is because, once given the instructions, it is guided
by these instructions and can carry on its job automatically until it is complete.
It can also perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.
8. Versatile:
A computer can be used in different places to perform a large number of different jobs
depending on the instructions fed to it.
9. Imposition of a formal approach to working methods:
Because a computer can only work with a strict set of instructions, it identifies and imposes
rigid rules for dealing with the data it is given to process.

Review Questions.
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1. What is a Computer?
2. Why is a computer referred to as an electronic device?
3. Define the following terms as used in computer science.
a). Data.
b). Programs.
c). Data processing.
d). Information.
4. (a) Briefly explain the two forms of data.
(b) Give THREE differences between Data and Information.
5. The speed of a computer is measured in .
6. What does the term GIGO stands for?
7. List and explain 4 salient features/ properties of a computer.
8. List FIVE advantages of a computerized system over a manual system.
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UNIT TWO : PARTS OF A COMPUTER.

A computer is made up of a collection of different components that are interconnected together in
order to work as a single entity.
Definition
System:
It is a collection of entities that collectively work together to achieve a common goal
Computer system:
A computer system is a collection of entities i.e. hardware, software and live
ware that work together to process and manage information using computers
Components of a Computer System
Three main components of a computer system:
Hardware: Physical components both mechanical and electronic that makes up a
computer system such as monitor, mouse, system unit, keyboard etc.
Software: a set of computer programs that guides the computer in each and every
activity that happens inside the computer during data processing operations
Live ware: the computer user

A Computer consists of the following parts/devices(Hardware): -

1. The System Unit.
2. Input devices.
3. Output devices.
4. Storage devices.

1. System Unit.
This is the casing (unit) that houses electronic components such as the ‘brain’ of the computer
called the Central processing Unit (CPU) and storage devices.
The components in the System unit include: -
◻ Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is also referred to as Processor.
◻ Motherboard.
◻ Power supply unit.
◻ Memory storage devices.
◻ Disk drives, which are used to store, record and read data.
Types of System units
There are two makes of System units:
a) Tower style system unit
This system unit is made to stand-alone. They are designed to be placed on the floor.
- Tower style units have more space for expansion than the typical desktop units.
b) Desktop system units
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Desktop units lie on the desk with the monitor resting on top of the system unit.

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Features of the System unit.

- It houses the CPU.

- It connects to all peripheral devices using ports.
- It has the computer’s Power switch.
The Central processing unit (CPU)

the computer's brain, responsible for executing all processing tasks, is centered within the system
unit, which contains both the processing and main memory devices. The essential components of
the computer's control center, referred to as processing hardware, include:

#### a) Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is the core electronic circuitry that manages the interpretation and execution of
instructions.

#### b) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

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The ALU is tasked with performing fundamental arithmetic and logical operations, comprising two
main sections:

- i) Arithmetic Unit: Handles calculations including addition, multiplication, division, and

subtraction

- ii) Logic Unit: Conducts comparisons and logical operations, determining relationships such as
true/false, greater than, equal to, and less than

#### c) Control Unit (CU)

The control unit processes the stored instructions and data in the computer, directing the flow of
information to the arithmetic logic unit and overseeing the execution of operations.

Together, these components facilitate the computer's ability to process data and execute programs
efficiently.

CPU

MAIN MEMOR Y

CONTROL UNIT
INPUT OUTPUT

External bus ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNI T

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CPU Operation
The operation of most CPUs revolves around executing a sequence of stored
instructions known as a program, which is represented by numbers in memory. This
process consists of four fundamental steps:
1. Fetch: The CPU retrieves an instruction from program memory, with the location
identified by the program counter (PC), which tracks the current position in the
program.
2. Decode: The fetched instruction is broken down into parts meaningful to the CPU.
This interpretation is guided by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA). Some
complex CPUs use a micro-program to assist in decoding, which can be modified even
post-manufacture
3. Execute: The CPU performs the operation specified by the instruction. For example,
if the instruction involves an addition, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is engaged to
process the inputs and produce an output.
4. Write Back: The results of the execution are written to memory, typically into
internal CPU registers for quick access. Results might also go to main memory. Some
instructions manipulate the program counter to control program flow, enabling
functions like loops and conditional execution.

After each instruction is executed and results are written back, the cycle repeats, usually fetching
the next sequential instruction. If a jump instruction was executed, the PC is adjusted to the new
instruction location. More advanced CPUs can handle multiple instructions simultaneously through
parallel processing.

2. Input devices.
These are the devices used to enter/put data into the computer.
• They accept data for processing & convert it into a suitable form that the computer can
understand. They include
### 1. Keying Devices
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- Keyboard: Allows users to input text and commands into a computer using keys.

- Keypad: A smaller version of a keyboard typically used for numeric input or specific functions

### 2. Pointing Devices

- Mouse: Enables users to control the cursor on the screen, allowing for the selection and
manipulation of objects.

- Trackball: A stationary pointing device with a ball that users roll to move the cursor on the screen.

- Joystick: Used primarily for gaming and simulations, it allows for multi-directional control.

- Light Pen: A device that lets users draw or select objects directly on the screen.

- Stylus: Similar to a pen, it allows for precise input on touch-sensitive surfaces.

### 3. Scanning and Other Data Capture Devices

- Optical Scanners: Capture images or documents, converting them into digital data.

- Optical Bar Reader: Reads barcodes for inventory or pricing information.

- Optical Mark Reader: Captures data from marked forms, commonly used in surveys and tests.

- Optical Character Reader (OCR): Converts printed text into editable digital text.

- Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): Reads special ink used in checks, facilitating
automatic processing in banking.

- Magnetic Stripe Card Reader: Reads data encoded on the magnetic strip of credit or identification
cards

### 4. Speech Recognition or Voice Input Devices

- Microphone: Captures audio input, allowing for voice commands or recording.

- MIDI Keyboard: Used for inputting musical notes into a computer, often in digital audio
workstations.
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### 5. Touch Screen

- Allows users to interact with a computer or device directly through touch, enabling selection and
control of applications through taps and gestures.

### 6. Digitizer

- Converts analog signals or drawings into digital format, often used in graphic design or for
creating digital maps.

### 7. Digital Cameras

- Capture images or video that can be transferred to a computer for editing or storage.

### 8. Biometric Devices

- Verify identity through unique biological traits (e.g., fingerprints, facial recognition) for secure
access.

### 9. Interactive Whiteboards

- Allow for collaborative work and learning by enabling users to interact with displayed content
using touch or stylus input.

Examples: Screens (Monitors), Printers, Graph plotters, Speakers, etc

Assignment check on the internet and see how the devices look like
3. Output devices.
Output devices are used to give the end results of data that was entered into the computer.
- They extract/ disseminate processed data (information) from the computer.
- They accept data from processing devices & convert it into human sensible form.
Below is a summary discussing the functions of each type of output device, classified
into soft copy and hard copy output devices.

### Soft Copy Output Devices

Soft copy output refers to information displayed on screens or played through

speakers, making it intangible. Common examples include:
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1. Monitors:

- Function: Display visual output from the computer, including user interfaces,
applications, and multimedia content. They allow users to visually interact with the
information processed by the computer.

2. Sound Output Devices:

- Function: Output audio signals, enabling users to hear sounds, music, or speech
generated by the computer. Examples include speakers and headphones.

3. LCD Projectors:

- Function: Project visual information from a computer onto a larger screen or

surface, facilitating presentations and group viewing in educational or professional
settings.

4. Light Emitting Diode (LED) Displays:

- Function: Provide visual output using LED technology, often used in monitors,
TVs, and signage. They offer bright and energy-efficient displays.

### Hard Copy Output Devices

Hard copy output refers to information that is physically recorded on mediums such
as paper or films. Common examples include

1. Printers:

- Function: Produce physical copies of digital documents and images on paper.

Printers come in various types, including inkjet, laser, and thermal printers.

2. Computer Output on Microfilm (COM):

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- Function: Create miniature film copies of documents and data, often used for
archival purposes, allowing for space-saving storage of large volumes of
information.

3. Facsimile (Fax) Machines:

- Function: Send and receive printed documents over telephone lines, producing
hard copies of documents remotely. Facsimiles are primarily used for quick
document transmission.
Assignment check on the internet and see how the devices look like

4. Memory storage devices.

These are devices used to store programs & data in computers.
• They hold data & programs until they are needed for processing.
• They also hold the results after processing.
Computer storage is divided into 2:

i). Primary (main) storage.

This is the storage found within the computer itself. It is used to hold data, programs &
instructions required immediately (or currently being used) by the Processor.
Examples: Random Access Memory (RAM) & Read Only Memory (ROM).
Below ere are ten points of comparison between RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM
(Read-Only Memory):
1. Definition:
- RAM: A type of volatile memory used to store data temporarily while the computer is in
use.
- ROM: A type of non-volatile memory used to permanently store firmware and system-
level instructions.
2. Volatility:
- RAM: Volatile memory, meaning it loses its data when the power is turned off.
- ROM: Non-volatile memory, retaining its data even without power.
3. Purpose:
- RAM: Used for running applications and processes, providing quick read and write access
to active data and programs.
- ROM: Stores firmware, essential for booting up the computer and hardware initialization.
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4. Speed:
- RAM: Generally much faster than ROM, making it suitable for active data processing.
- ROM: Slower in comparison as it's primarily read-only and does not require frequent
access.

5. Capacity:
- RAM: Available in larger capacities, typically in gigabytes (GB) to accommodate multiple
tasks and applications.
- ROM: Usually smaller in capacity, typically measured in megabytes (MB) or a few
gigabytes.
6. Data Modification:
- RAM: Data can be read from and written to RAM easily and frequently.
- ROM: Data in ROM is primarily read-only and can be modified only through special
processes like flashing.
7. Types:
- RAM: Includes different types such as DRAM (Dynamic RAM), SRAM (Static RAM),
and SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM).
- ROM: Includes various types such as PROM (Programmable ROM), EPROM (Erasable
Programmable ROM), and EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM).
8. Use Cases:
- RAM: Used for running operating systems, applications, and for active processing tasks.
- ROM: Used for storing BIOS or firmware, essential for the hardware to function correctly.
9. Physical Characteristics:
- RAM: Typically comes in modules such as DIMMs or SO-DIMMs that are installed on
the motherboard.
- ROM: Often integrated into the motherboard, chips, or embedded in devices.
10. Cost:
- RAM: Generally more expensive on a per-gigabyte basis compared to ROM, due to its
speed and technology.
- ROM: Less expensive since it is used predominantly for storage of permanent data and
instruction sets.

ii). Secondary (Backing) storage.

It is used by the computer to store backup information that is not needed immediately by the
Processor. It is also used by the computer to supplement the computer’s main memory/
internal memory in case of mass storage purposes.
Secondary storage units provide permanent data storage facilities. They allow large quantities
of information to be stored permanently on some form of magnetic media such Magnetic
tapes or disks.
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The programs & data are transferred to & from the secondary storage units to the Main
memory only when they are required; hence the information is said to be online to the
computer.
Examples of secondary storage devices:
• Hard disk * Floppy disks. * Magnetic Tapes. ,Cassette tapes. * Punched cards. * Zip disks.
• Compact disks * Digital Video Disks (DVDs).

Computer peripherals.
A computer is basically made up of a system unit and other devices connected to the system unit
called Peripheral devices.
Peripheral devices are the elements (components) connected to the system unit so as to assist the
computer satisfies its users.
Peripheral devices are connected to the System unit using special cables called data interface cables
that carry data, programs & information to and from the processor. The cables are connected to
the system unit using connectors called Ports.
Examples of peripheral devices include;
-Monitor, - Keyboard, - Mouse - Printer. - Modem. - Speakers.-
Plotter.
Review Questions.
1. List down the components that make up a computer.
2. Clearly draw and label the main physical parts of a simple computer system.
3. What are computer peripherals?
4. (a). Name and explain the two main divisions of computer storage.
(b). Give two common examples of secondary storage devices.
5. Name two output devices.
6. (a). Explain the term System unit.
(b). Name some of the components found in the System unit. (c).
Give three features of a computer’s System Unit.
7. Why the screen is also called a Monitor?
8. What is a Mouse in relation to computing?
9. Discuss different types of printers
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Printers come in various types, each designed to meet specific printing needs. Here are the
different categories of printers along with their characteristics:

## Impact Printers

Definition: Impact printers work by physically striking an inked ribbon against the paper to produce
text and images.
#### Categories of Impact Printers:
1. Dot Matrix Printers:
- Description: Utilize a grid of pins to form characters by striking the ribbon against the paper.
- Advantages:
- Can produce carbon copies (multi-part forms).
- Generally lower cost for printing in bulk.
- Disadvantages:
- Lower print quality compared to non-impact printers.
- Noisy during operation.
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2. Ball Printers:

- Description: Use a ball with characters imprinted on it that rotates to strike the ribbon and paper.
- Advantages:

- Print quality is higher than dot matrix.

- Faster than traditional dot matrix printers.
- Disadvantages:
- Limited font options.
- More complex mechanism, generally higher maintenance.
3. Line Printers:
- Description: Print an entire line at a time using a series of hammers or a chain to strike the
ribbon.
- Advantages:
- Very fast for high-volume printing.
- Ideal for printing large amounts of text data, such as reports.
- Disadvantages:
- Generally expensive and bulky.

- Limited graphic capabilities.

### Non-Impact Printers

Definition: Non-impact printers use various technologies to transfer ink or toner to paper without
physical contact.
#### Categories of Non-Impact Printers:

1. Inkjet Printers:
- Description: Spray tiny droplets of liquid ink onto paper to create an image.
- Advantages:
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- High-quality color printing.

- Affordable for home users and small businesses.
- Disadvantages:
- Ink can be expensive, and cartridges may need frequent replacement.
- Print speed can be slower than lasers, especially for text.
2. Laser Printers:
- Description: Use a laser beam to transfer a toner onto paper, creating an image or text.
- Advantages:
- High-speed printing and excellent text quality.
- Cost-effective for high-volume printing due to lower cost per page.
- Disadvantages:

- Initial setup cost can be higher.

- Generally, larger and heavier than inkjet printers.
3. Thermal Printers:

- Description: Use heat to transfer ink from a ribbon or directly on specially coated paper (direct
thermal).
- Advantages:
- Commonly used in retail for receipts (fast printing).
- Smaller and simpler than other types; fewer moving parts.
- Disadvantages:
- Printing is generally monochrome.

- Thermal paper can fade over time.

4. Photo Printers:
- Description: Specialized inkjet printers designed for printing photos.
- Advantages:
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- Produce high-resolution images with vibrant colors.

- Often use multiple ink colors for improved photo quality.
- Disadvantages:
- Often priced higher than standard printers.
- Cost of photo paper and ink can be significant.

Both impact and non-impact printers serve different purposes and are suited to various printing
needs. Impact printers are typically used in environments requiring durability and bulk printing,
while non-impact printers offer superior quality and versatility for home and business applications.
Understanding their differences helps consumers choose the right type of printer based on their
specific requirements.

10. Advantages & disadvantages of the following pointing devices.

Advantages. Devices. Disadvantages.
- Relatively inexpensive - When gripped too tightly can cause muscle
strain
- Very little finger movement needed to Mouse - Uses more desk space
reach buttons than
other pointing devices

- Must be cleaned regularly

- Requires less arm movement than - Wrist is bent during use
mouse
Trackball - More finger movement needed to
reach buttons than with other pointing
devices
- Small footprint - Places more stress on index finger than
other pointing devices do
- Least prone to dust Touch pad - Small active area makes precise cursor
control difficult
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DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS.

HISTORY OF COMPUTING.

Before 1900, most data processing was done manually using simple tools like stones & sticks to
count and keep records.
Around 2000 years ago, Asian merchants came up with a special calculating tool called Abacus
that could be used to calculate large figures.

An Abacus is made up of a rectangular frame and a crossbar at the middle. It is fitted with wires
or strings running across from the frame to the crossbar.

How to represent a number using an Abacus.

Each bead in the lower row has a value of 1, while each bead in the upper row has a value of 5. To
represent a number, the bead is moved to the crossbar. Those beads away from the crossbar
represent zeros.

The Figure
below
represents the
number 6908
(Six thousand
nine hundred
and eight).

After Abacus,
the first
machine that is
usually
regarded as the
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forerunner of modern computers was named the Analytical Engine, and was developed by an
English mathematician called Charles Babbage.

In 1939, Professor Howard Aken of Horrard University designed the first computer-like machine
named Mark 1. Since then, a series of advancements in electronics has occurred. With each
breakthrough, the computers based on the older form of electronics have been replaced by a new
“generation” of computers based on the newer form of electronics.

COMPUTER GENERATIONS.

A Computer generation is a grouped summary of the gradual developments in the computer

technology. The historical events are not considered in terms of individual years, but are classified
in durations (a period of more than a year).

1ST Generation computers (1946 – 1956).

The 1st generation of computers used thousands of electronic gadgets called Vacuum tubes or
Thermionic valves to store & process information.

Vacuum tube
The tubes consumed a lot power, and generated a lot of heat during processing due to overheating.

The computers constantly broke down due to the excessive heat generated, hence were shortlived,
and were not very reliable.

They also used Magnetic drum memories.

Cards were used to enter data into the computers.

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Their internal memory capacity was limited. The maximum memory size was approx. 2 KB (2,000
bytes).

The computers used big physical devices in their circuitry; hence they were very large in size, i.e.
the computer could occupy several office blocks. For example, ENIAC occupied an area of about
150m2 - the size of an average 3-bedroom house.

They were very slow - their speed was measured in Milliseconds. E.g., ENIAC (the earliest
electronic computer) could perform 5,000 additions per second & 300 multiplications per second.

The computers were very costly - they costed millions of dollars.

Examples of 1ST Generation computers:

◻ ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator) built in 1946 for use in World War II.
It contained 18,000 Vacuum tubes.

◻ EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) developed in 1945 by Dr. John Von
Neumann. It was the first computer that used instructions stored in memory.

◻ UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer).

◻ IBM 650.
◻ LEO (Lyon’s Electronic Office).

2ND Generation computers (1957 – 1963).

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The 2nd generation computers used tiny, solid-state electronic devices called Transistors. The
transistors were relatively smaller, more stable & reliable than vacuum tubes.

Transistor

The computers consumed less power, produced less heat, were much faster, and more reliable than
those made with vacuum tubes.

They used Magnetic core memories.

RAM Memory size expanded to 32 KB.

Their operation speed increased to between 200,000 – 300,000 instructions per second. Their
speeds were measured in Microseconds. E.g., a computer could perform 1 million additions per
second, which was comparatively higher than that of the 1st generation computers.

The computers were smaller in size & therefore, occupied less space compared to the 1st G
computers.

They were less costly than the 1st G computers.

Examples of 2nd Generation computers:

◻ NCR 501, IBM 300, IBM 1401, IBM 7070, IBM 7094 Series & CDC-6600 Mainframe
computers.
◻ ATLAS LEO Mark III.
◻ UNIVAC 1107.
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◻ HONEYWELL 200.
3RD Generation computers (1964 – 1979).

Used electronic devices called Integrated Circuits (ICs), which were made by combining thousands
of transistors & diodes together on a semiconductor called a Silicon chip.

Integrated circuit

The processing speed increased to 5 Million instructions per second (5 MIPS).

The storage capacity of the computers (i.e., the RAM memory sizes) expanded to 2 MB.

They were smaller in size compared to 2nd generation computers.

The computers used a wide range of peripheral devices.

The computers could support more than user at the same time. They were also able to support
remote communication facilities.

Magnetic disks were developed for storage purposes.

The 1st microcomputer was produced during this period (1974).

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Examples of 3rd Generation computers:

◻ IBM 360, 370;

◻ ICL 1900 Series;
◻ 8-bit Microcomputers & PDP-11 Mainframe computers.

4TH Generation computers (1979 – 1989).

The 4th generation computers used Large Scale Integrated (LSI) circuits & Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. These circuits were made by compressing more tiny circuits and
transistors into even smaller space of the silicon chip.

Very Large integrated circuit

The computers were small, and very fast. Their processing speeds increased to 50 Million
instructions per second.
Had large storage capacity, i.e., their memory sizes expanded to several hundred Megabytes
Memories used included Magnetic disks, Bubble memories & Optical disks.
Examples of 4th Generation computers:
◻ IBM 308 and 4300;
◻ Amdahl 580
◻ Honeywell DPS-88
◻ Burroughs 7700 and the 16-bit & 32-bit microcomputers. The first microcomputer was called
Apple II.
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5TH Generation computers (1990 – Present).

In this generation fall today’s computers.
The technologies used are Parallel architectures, 3-Dimensional circuit design & super conducting
materials.
These technologies have led to the development of computers referred to as Supercomputers,
which are very powerful, and have very high processing speeds. Their speeds are measured in
Nanoseconds & Picoseconds.
They are able to perform parallel (or multi-processing) whereby a single task is split among a
number of processors.
The memory sizes range between 1 Gigabyte & 1 Terabyte.
The computers are designed using VLSI and the Microchip technology that has given rise to the
smaller computers, known as Microcomputers used today.
The computers have special instruction sets that allow them to support complex programs that
mimic human intelligence often referred to as Artificial Intelligence. Such programs can help
managers to make decisions and also provide critical expert services to users instead of relying on
human professionals.
Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave
like
humans. The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. Artificial intelligence includes:

• Games Playing: programming computers to play games such as chess and checkers
Expert Systems: programming computers to make decisions in real-life situations
(for example, some expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based on symptoms)
• Natural Language: programming computers to understand natural human languages
Neural Networks: Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce
the types of physical connections that occur in animal brains
• Robotics: programming computers to see and hear and react to other sensory stimuli

Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (that is, are able to simulate
human behavior). The greatest advances have occurred in the field of games playing. In
the area of robotics, computers are now widely used in assembly plants, but they are
capable only of very limited tasks. Robots have great difficulty identifying objects based
on appearance or feel, and they still move and handle objects clumsily.
 PREPAIRED BY JAMES MAGANGI

Natural-language processing offers the greatest potential rewards because it would allow
people to interact with computers without needing any specialized knowledge. You could
simply walk up to a computer and talk to it. Unfortunately, programming computers to
understand natural languages has proved to be more difficult than originally thought. Some
rudimentary translation systems that translate from one human language to another are in
existence, but they are not nearly as good as human translators.

There are also voice recognition systems that can convert spoken sounds into written
words, but they do not understand what they are writing; they simply take dictation. Even
these systems are quite limited -- you must speak slowly and distinctly.

In the early 1980s, expert systems were believed to represent the future of artificial
intelligence and of computers in general. To date, however, they have not lived up to
expectations. Many expert systems help human experts in such fields as medicine and
engineering, but they are very expensive to produce and are helpful only in special
situations.
Today, the hottest area of artificial intelligence is neural networks, which are proving
successful in a number of disciplines such as voice recognition and natural-language
processing.

Review Questions.

1. Briefly describe the history of computers.

2. (a) . What do you mean by computer generations?
(b) . Describe the FIVE generations of computers in terms of technology used and give an
Example of a computer developed in each generation.
(c) . Compare computer memory sizes during the five computers generation periods.
3. What was the most remarkable discovery during the second computer generation?
4. (a) . Technology is the basis of computer classification. Based on this, explain briefly the
Difference between the first three computer generations.
(b). What is so peculiar in the fourth and fifth generation of computers?
5. Match the following generations of computers with the technology used to develop them.
 PREPAIRED BY JAMES MAGANGI

Generation Technology
First generation A). Very Large Integrated Circuit
Second generation B). Thermionic valves (Vacuum tubes)

Third generation C). Transistors

Fourth generation D). Integrated Circuits

6. Give four characteristics of First generation computer.

7. Write the following abbreviations in full:
(a). ENIAC
(b). VLSI
(c). IC
8. What is Artificial Intelligence?

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE TYPE OF COMPUTER.

1) Type of processor (Central processing unit – CPU)

Microcomputers use microprocessors, which are manufactured on a single chip, as their CPU.
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In larger computers such as supercomputers, mainframe & minicomputers, the processing is

carried out by a number of separate, high-speed components instead of a single processor.

2) Processing speed.

Every computer has a clock that drives its operations.

Larger computers have faster clocks and therefore can process many instructions per second
compared to small computers, which have slower clocks.

3) Amount of Main memory (RAM).

All computers have some amount of RAM (Random Access memory), which is used to hold
the instructions required to perform a task.

Larger computers have more RAM and therefore can handle large volumes of data & also
support many and sophisticated programs which might require large memory sizes.

4) Storage capacity of the Hard disk.

The storage capacity is the amount of space that is available for storing the instructions
required to manipulate data.

Larger computers have higher storage capacities than microcomputers.

5) Cost of the computer.

The cost of computers is directly related to the size. Microcomputers are less costly compared
to minicomputers, mainframes or Supercomputers.

6) Speed of Output devices.

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The speed of an output device is determined by the amount of information that can be printed
in a specified amount of time.

The speed of microcomputer output device is less than that of the larger computers in that:

For a microcomputer, the speed of its output device is measured by the number of characters
printed per second (cps). For larger computers, their output devices are faster and their speeds
are measured depending on the number of lines or pages printed per minute (lpm / ppm).

7) Number of users who can access the computer at the same time.

Most microcomputers can support only 1, 2 or 3 users at the same time. However, they can
be networked to share resources.
Larger computers can support hundreds of users at the same time.

Review Questions.

1. Briefly explain five factors that can be used to determine the type of a computer.
 PREPAIRED BY JAMES MAGANGI

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers can be classified according to the following factors:

1. Physical size & processing power.

2. Purpose for which they are designed.
3. Functionality (Method/ mode of operation).

A. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL SIZE.

Computers can be classified into 5 main groups according to their size as:

◻ Supercomputers.
◻ Mainframe computers.
◻ Minicomputers.
◻ Microcomputers.
◻ Portable computers (Laptops, Notebooks & Palmtops).

Supercomputers.

Supercomputers are the fastest, largest, most expensive & also the most powerful computers
available.

They are very fast in processing. They can perform many complex calculations in a fraction of
a second.

Most Supercomputers use multiple processors. In this case, a single task is split among the
processors for faster execution. However, all the processors are controlled by a single central
processor.
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Supercomputers generate a lot of heat, & therefore require special cooling systems. Sometimes,
the whole CPU is deeped in a tank containing liquid Fluorocarbon to provide cooling.

Supercomputers are very large & heavy, and are usually kept under special environmental
conditions (i.e., in a special room).

They are operated by computer specialists. A Supercomputer can be operated by over 500 users
at the same time.

Areas where supercomputers are used:

Supercomputers are mainly used for complex scientific applications that involve many
calculations & require a lot of computational power. Some of the applications that use
supercomputers include;

◻ Weather forecasting.
◻ Petroleum research.
◻ Defence and weapon analysis.
◻ Aerodynamic design and simulation.

Note. These tasks use large amounts of data, which need to be manipulated within a very
short time.

Examples of Supercomputers:

◻ CRAY T3D, NEC-500.

Mainframe computers.

Mainframes are less powerful & less expensive than supercomputers.

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They are big in size but smaller compared to Supercomputers.

Are powerful computers with very high capacities of Main storage? They also have a large
backing storage capacity.

Have a very high processing speed, i.e., can process large amounts of data very quickly.

They can support a large number of peripherals of different types (can support between 5–300
terminals).

They can handle hundreds of users at the same time, e.g., they can be operated by 200 users at
a time.

Mainframe computers are general-purpose, and can handle all kinds of problems whether
scientific or commercial.

Areas where mainframe computers are used:

Mainframe computers are mostly found in government departments, big organizations and
companies which have large information processing needs, e.g., they are used;

◻ In Banks & Hospitals for preparing bills, Payrolls, etc.

◻ In communication networks such as the Internet where they act as Servers.
◻ By Airline reservation systems where information of all the flights is stored.

Examples of Mainframes:

◻ IBM 4381.
◻ ICL 39 Series.
◻ CDC Cyber series.
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Mini computers.

A Minicomputer is physically smaller than a mainframe. However, it can support the same
peripheral devices supported by a mainframe.

A Minicomputer can support several users at a time, e.g., can be operated by 6 users at a time.
Several workstations/ terminals are connected to one central minicomputer so that the users
connected can share its resources (C.P.U time, storage, etc).

Minicomputers are easier to manufacture & maintain compared to mainframes.

Minicomputers are cheaper than the mainframes, but more costly than the microcomputers.

They handle small amounts of data, are less powerful, & have less memory than the
mainframes.

Minicomputers are slow compared to mainframe computers.

Areas where minicomputers are used:

Minicomputers are used mainly in:

◻ Scientific laboratories & research institutions.

◻ Engineering plants/factories to control of chemical or mechanical processes.
◻ Space industry.
◻ Insurance companies & Banks for accounting purposes.
◻ Smaller organizations as Network Servers.

Example of Minicomputer:
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◻ PDP-8 built in 1965 by Digital Equipment Corporation in U.S.

Micro computers.

Microcomputers are the PCs mostly found today in homes, schools & many small offices. They
are called Personal Computers (PCs) because they are designed to be used by one person at a
time.

They consist of very few connected units, i.e. can support very few peripheral devices (usually
1 or 2).

The data processing in microcomputers is done by a Microprocessor (a single chip containing

the Arithmetic Logic unit & Control unit).

Microcomputers are smaller in size & also cheaper than minicomputers. Their design is based
on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) that confines several physical components into an IC.

They are less powerful than minicomputers & their internal memory is smaller than that of
minicomputers.

Areas where microcomputers are used:

Microcomputers are commonly used in:

◻ Training and learning institutions such as schools.

◻ Small business enterprises, and ◻ Communication
centres as terminals.

Microcomputers have become very popular because of the following reasons:

1) Are cheaper than both mini & mainframe computers.

 PREPAIRED BY JOHN ORINA KMTC NYAMACHE

2) Are very fast (i.e. have high processing speeds).

3) Small in size, hence they occupy less space in an office.
4) Is more energy efficient (i.e., consume less power)?
5) Are more reliable than the early Mainframe computers.

Examples:

◻IBM PCs such as Apple Macintosh, Dells, Compaq, etc.

Laptops & Notebooks.

A Laptop is a PC sufficiently small & light such that a user can use it comfortably on his/her
lap. It is designed to be used by placing it on the lap.

- Laptops are very small in size & are portable. They are small enough to fit inside a briefcase;
still leaving room for other items.
- A Laptop computer operates mainly on electricity or by rechargeable batteries.

- Laptops normally have in-built disk drives & Flat screens (Liquid Crystal Displays).

- Can only support a limited number of peripheral devices.

- Have limited storage capacities.

Note. The smaller computers like Laptops tend to be more expensive than Desktop computers
because of the following reasons:

1) The technology of producing smaller devices is expensive.

2) They are convenient because they are portable.
3) They have advanced power management capabilities (they consume less power since a
laptop can operate on rechargeable batteries).
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Palmtops.
Palmtops are small enough to fit in the pocket, and can be held in the palm when being used.

- Have limited storage capacities.

- Palmtops are mainly used as Personal Organizers, with some minimal programs for
calculations, Word processing, Spreadsheets, & E-mail.

Example of a Palmtop; Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).

Desktop computer.

This is the name given to any computer designed to be used when placed on a desk in an office
environment.

- They are not portable.

Examples of desktop computers:

1) Home computer.

This is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability designed for domestic use. It has
programs that are used typically for computer games or controlling family finances.

2) Personal computer (PC).

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This is a microcomputer designed for independent use by an individual at work or in the

home mainly for business purposes.

- A PC can support only 1 user at a time.

- PCs are mostly used in offices, schools, business premises, and at home for various
applications like computer literacy, Games, Database management, Accounting, Word
processing, Telecommunications, etc.

- A PC can be connected to a mini & mainframe computer so as to enable the user access
the facilities offered by the larger machines.

3) Workstation.

A workstation is usually a desktop computer with all the facilities but interlinked to a
network.

A typical workstation works in a similar way to a Personal computer. However, it is more

advanced than a typical PC in the following ways:

i). It is larger & more powerful than a PC. E.g., workstations use 32-bit
microprocessors, while PCs use 16-bit microprocessors.
ii). It has in-built capabilities for its interconnection & operation with other computers,
i.e., it is fully connected to a computer network as any other computer on the network
in its own right.
iii). It has high-resolution graphics.
iv). It has a Multi-tasking operating system, i.e. it is able to run multiple applications at the
same time.

An Embedded computer.
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This is a computer that is within another device or system but is not accessed directly. E.g.,
there are embedded computers operating within Petrol pumps, Watches, Cameras & Video
recorders.

B. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE.

Digital computers can be classified further according to the tasks they perform either as:

◻ General-purpose.
◻ Special purpose ◻Dedicated computers.

General-purpose computers.

General-purpose computers are designed to perform a wide variety of tasks. They use
specifically written instructions (programs) to carry out the desired processing tasks.

Example;

A single computer can be used to process documents, perform calculations, process the Payroll,
simulate the loading on a bridge, process Insurance policies, and play games, among others.

The programs used in a general-purpose computer are exchangeable. This means that, to
perform a particular task, the appropriate set of instructions required to perform that particular
task are loaded into the computer memory.

E.g., if you want to play a game, the appropriate program is loaded into the computer’s memory
& the computer is instructed to execute the instructions which make up the game.

Examples of general-purpose computers: Mainframes, Minicomputers, Microcomputers &

Laptops used in most offices & schools.
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Special-purpose computer.

A special-purpose computer is designed to handle/accomplish a particular specific task only.

Such computers cannot perform any other task except the one they were meant to do.
Therefore, the programs which are used in a special-purpose computer are fixed (hard-wired)
at the time of manufacture.

For example;

In a computer Network, the Front End Processor (FEP) is only used to control the
communication of information between the various workstations and the host computer.

A Special-purpose computer is dedicated to a single task; hence it can perform it quickly &
very efficiently.

Examples of special-purpose computers:

◻ Robots used in a manufacturing industry for production only.

◻ Mobile phones used for communication only.
◻ Calculators that carry out calculations only.
◻ Computers used in Digital watches.
◻ Computers used in Petrol pumps.
◻ Computers used in Washing machines.
◻ An Automatic pilot – a computer dedicated to the task of operating an aircraft.
◻ A Word processor – a special-purpose computer used in the production of office documents,
letters, etc.

Reasons why a Mobile phone is regarded to be a computer.

◻ It is electronic.
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◻ Has a screen.
◻ It has a Keypad.
◻ Has a Memory.
◻ It is programmable.

Dedicated computer.

A Dedicated computer is a general-purpose computer that is committed to some processing

task; though capable of performing a variety of tasks in different application environments.
E.g., the computer can be dedicated to carrying out Word processing tasks only.

C. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO FUNCTIONALITY.

Usually, there are two forms of data; Digital data, and Analogue data. Computers can be
classified according to the type of data they can process as either.

◻ Digital computers. ◻Analogue computers, or ◻Hybrid computers.

Digital computers.

This is the most commonly used type of computers.

A Digital computer is a computer that operates on discrete data only. It can process both
numeric & alphabetic data within the computer, e.g., 0, 1, 2, 3… A, B,C….

Their operation is based on 2 states, “ON” & “OFF” or on digits “1” & “0”. Therefore, any
data to be manipulated by a digital computer must first be converted to digital form.

Their output is usually in form of numbers, alphabets, & symbols.

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Digital computers are usually general-purpose computers; hence, they are widely used in
different areas for data processing.

Most of the devices found at homes today are digital in nature.

Digital computers are less accurate, i.e. may not solve all your problems since the facilities
provided are generalized.

Examples:

◻ A Television with a button which is pressed to increase or decrease the volume.

◻ Digital watches.
◻ Calculators.
◻ Microcomputers. They are said to be digital because they posses the ALU.

Analogue computers.

An Analogue computer is a computer that operates on continuous data.

They carry out their data processing by measuring the amount of change that occurs in physical
attributes/quantities, such as changes in electrical voltage, speed, currents, pressure, length,
temperature, humidity, etc.

An Analogue computer is usually a special-purpose device that is dedicated to a single task.

For example, they are used in specialized areas such as in:
- Scientific or engineering experiments,
- Military weapons,
- Controlling manufacturing processes like monitoring & regulating furnace temperatures and
pressures.
- Weather stations to record & process physical quantities, e.g., wind, cloud speed, temperature,
etc.
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The output from analogue computers is in form of smooth graphs produced by a plotting pen
or a trace on a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) from which the information can be read.

Note: Analogue computers usually use one characteristic, e.g. a length, to give information
about another physical characteristic, such as weight.

Analogue computers are very accurate & efficient since they are dedicated to a single task.

They are very fast since most of them use multiple processors.

Examples of analogue devices:

◻ The computer used to control a flight simulator for training pilots.

The computer responds to the Cockpit simulator control movements made by the pilot to
physically change the environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling an actual
aeroplane.

◻ A Bathroom scale.

It uses the weight of a person to move a pointer smoothly/continuously over calibrated

scale, which shows the person’s weight.

◻ Thermometer.

It uses a volume of Mercury to show temperature. The Thermometer is calibrated to give

an exact temperature reading.
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◻ Speedometer.

In Speedometer, the rotation of the wheel is converted to a voltage, which causes a pointer
to rotate over a dial calibrated in Km/h or Miles/h.

◻ A Petrol pump measures the rate of flow of Gasoline (petrol) & converts the volume
delivered to 2 readings; one showing the volume & the other showing the cost.
◻ A Post-office scale converts the weight of a parcel delivered into a charge for posting.

◻ A Monitor with knobs that are rotated to increase brightness.

◻ A Television with knobs that are rotated to increase or decrease the volume.

◻ A Radio with a knob that slides in a slot to increase volume.

Hybrid computers.

Hybrid computers are designed to process both analogue & digital data. They combine both
the functional capabilities of the digital and analogue computers.

Hybrid computers are designed by interconnecting the elements of a digital computer &
analogue computer directly into one processor, using a suitable interfacing circuitry.

Hybrid computers are more expensive.

Example;

In a hospital Intensive Care Unit, an analogue device may be used to measure the functioning
of a patient’s heart, temperature and other vital signs. These measurements may then be
converted into numbers and send to a digital device, which may send an immediate signal to
the nurses’ station if any abnormal readings are detected.
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Comparison between a Computer and Calculator.

Computer Calculators
1. Costly due to the technology used. 1. Cheaper – they imitate simple computer
technology.
2. Comparatively smaller.
2. Bigger in size.

3. Operate at very high speeds. 3. Slower than computers.

4. Are more accurate – they give up to over 4. Less accurate – most calculators give up to 8
10 decimal places of accuracy. dp of accuracy.
5. Flexible – can be used in solving any 5. Mostly used for numerical calculations
problem. involving arithmetic/ mathematical operations
6. Work under the control of programs. 6. Calculators are non-programmable, but if
programmable, the range is limited.
7. They only use Display units & Keyboards of
7. Support a variety of peripherals, e.g. limited capabilities.
keyboard, mouse, light pen, printer, etc. 8. their internal memory is very small. Most
8. Have large internal memory of several calculators only use Registers for temporary
KB’s. storage during calculations.
9. Some calculators have got some sort of fixed
Backing store, though very limited.
9. Support large Backing storage media.
10. A calculator can serve only 1 user at a time.

10. A computer can support several people at

the same time. 11. Have no telecommunication capabilities.
11. Have got telecommunication capabilities. 12. Do not require well-monitored environmental
12. Require well-monitored environmental conditions.
conditions.

Review Questions.
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1. State three methods of classifying computers. In each case, list the different types of
computers.
2. What is a Personal computer?
3. Differentiate the following types of computers.
a). Supercomputer and Mainframe computer.
b). Minicomputer and a Personal computer.
c). Special-purpose (dedicated) computers and General-purpose computers.
d). Desktop computers and Laptop computers
4. Briefly describe terms “Analogue” and “Digital computers” as used in computer science.
5. Give three examples of Special-purpose computers.
6. Name any FOUR classes of computers based on size and complexity.

ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.

Computers have many advantages over other types of office and business equipments that are used
for data processing functions. Some of the advantages are:

1) Computers process data faster:

The processing speed of a computer when measured against other devices like typewriters &
calculators is far much higher.

2) Computers are more accurate & reliable:

Computers produce more accurate results as long as the correct instructions & data are entered.
They also have the ability to handle numbers with many decimal places.

3) Computers are more efficient:

A computer requires less effort to process data as compared to human beings or other machines.
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4) Computers can quickly and effectively store & retrieve large amounts of data.

5) They are very economical when saving information, for it can conserve a lot of space.

6) Computers occupy very little office space.

7) Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.

8) Computers are flexible:

A computer can perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.

9) Computers are cheap:

They can be used to perform a number of organizational functions/ activities, which are meant
for individual persons, hence reducing the number of employees & the costs.

10) Computers enhance security & confidentiality:

Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals.

11) Have made communication easier.

12) Computers produce better information:

Computer output is usually tidy and error-free (accurate).

13) Computers reduce the problems of data or information duplication:

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14) Computers can operate in risky environments, e.g. volcanic sites, dangerous chemical plants,
where human life is threatened:

DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.

1) Computers are very costly in terms of purchase & maintenance.

2) Computers can only be used areas where there is source of power.

3) Requires skilled manpower to operate, i.e., one has to have some knowledge so as to operate
a computer.

4) The records are usually kept in a form that is not visible or human-readable. This makes it
difficult to control the contents of the computer’s master file.

5) A computer, like any other machine can break down.

6) Information stored in computers can easily get lost due to power interruptions or machine
breakdown.

7) A computer doesn’t have its own intelligence, i.e., it cannot do any useful job on its own, but
can only work as per the set of instructions issued.

8) Installation of computers causes retraining or retrenchment of staff/ employees.

9) The computer technology is changing very fast such that the already bought computers could
be made obsolete/ out dated in the next few years.
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In addition, this rapid change in the computer technology makes computers & related facilities
to become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.

10) The emergence of computers has increased the rate of unemployment since they are now being
used to perform the jobs, which were done by human beings.

11) Computers have led to increase in computer crimes especially in Banks. The computer
criminals steal large amounts of funds belonging to various companies by transferring them
out of their company accounts illegally. In addition, they destroy vital data used in running
the companies.

AREAS WHERE COMPUTERS ARE USED.

The following are some of the areas where computers are used:

1. Supermarkets.

- Supermarkets and other retail stores use computers for stock control, i.e., to help them manage
their daily activities.
The stock control system keeps record of what is in store, what has been sold, and what is
out of stock. The Management is automatically alerted when a particular item or items are
running out of stock and need to be reordered.

- For calculating customer’s change.

- For production of receipts.
- It can be used as a barcode reader.

2. Industries.

The use of computers has made Industries more productive & efficient. They are used:
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◻To monitor and control industrial processes. The industries use remote controlled devices
called Robots. A Robot is a machine that works like a human being, but performs tasks that
are unpleasant, dangerous, and tedious to be done by human beings.

◻For management control, i.e. to keep track of orders, bills and transactions.

◻By companies as a competitive tool. E.g., they are used to assist in defining new products &
services. They also help industries form new relationships with suppliers and therefore,
enable the producers maintain a competitive edge against their competitors.

◻For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more customers.

3. Banks/Insurance industries

Computers are used by Banks & Insurance industries:

◻To manage financial transactions. They use special cash dispensing machines called
Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) to enable them provide cash deposit & withdrawal
services.
◻ For processing of Cheques.
◻ For preparation of Payrolls.
◻ For better record keeping and processing of documents.

◻To provide electronic money transfer facilities.

4. Process control.

Computers are used in production environments such as factories to control chemical &
mechanical processes. The computers are usually loaded with specialized programs & each
computer is designed to do a specific job.
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5. Hospitals.
Computers are used in hospitals:

◻To keep & retrieve patient’s medical records.

◻For automatic diagnosis of diseases like Cancer, electro-cardiogram screening & monitoring.
They are used to get a cross-sectional view of the patient’s body that enables physicians to
properly diagnose the affected part of the body with high levels of accuracy.

◻ In medical equipments, e.g. blood pressure monitors, blood analyzers, etc.

◻ To control life supporting machines in the Intensive Care Units (ICU).

◻To enable medical experts in different countries to share their expertise or labour, thus
reducing the transportation of patients & professionals.

6. Offices.

◻For receiving & sending of messages through e-mails, fax, etc.

◻Production of documents.
◻Keeping of records.

7. Government Institutions.

Computers are used in government ministries & agencies:

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◻To store/keep records and improve the efficiency of work within the Civil service. If
computers were not used, the large number of files in government registries would make
information recovery extremely difficult.
◻ To produce bills &
statements.

8. Education.

Computers are widely used in the teaching & learning process. Learning and teaching using
computers is referred to as Computer Aided Learning (CAL) and Computer Aided Teaching
(CAT).

◻Computers are used in learning institutions (schools & colleges) as teaching aids, i.e. to help
in teaching various subjects.

E.g., they are used to demonstrate experiments in subjects like Chemistry or Physics using a
special program that can illustrate them on the screen through a process called Simulation.

◻To assist the Long distance learning in universities usually referred to as the Open University
Concept.
◻ To analyze academic
data.

◻Computers are used in Aviation for training of pilots. Flight simulators are used to monitor
the control movements made by the pilot while the computer is used to physically change the
environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling an actual aircraft.

9. Research.
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Computers can be used for research in various fields. They are used by:
◻ Scientists to analyse their experimental data, e.g., in weather forecasting.
◻ Engineers & Architects to design & test their work.
◻ Computers have greatly assisted in space exploration.

◻ They are used to study the movement of stars.

◻ They have made manned & unmanned space exploration possible – they are used to launch
space vehicles and monitor the flights & activities both onboard and around them.

10. Communication industry.

The integration of computers & telecommunication facilities has made the transmission and
reception of messages very fast and efficient.

◻They are used in telephone exchanges to switch incoming & outgoing calls.

◻For sending & receiving electronic messages, e.g. fax and e-mails, if connected to a computer
network.

11. Transport industry.

Computers are used in:

◻Automobile traffic control, e.g., to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town.

◻Railway corporations to co-ordinate the movement of their goods & wagons.

◻Shipping control. The computers are used for efficient management of fleets &
communication.
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◻ Airports (Airline industry). The computers are used;

◻ To control the movement of aircrafts, take off & landing through the use of radar equipment.
◻ Making reservations (booking purposes).
◻ Storing flight information.

12. Police (Law enforcement agencies).

◻Computers are widely used in fighting crime. The Police use computers to keep databases
on fingerprints and also analysed them.

◻The Police also use computers for face recognition, scene monitoring & analysis, which help
them to arrest traffic offenders and criminals.

The information held in computers such as fingerprints, photographs and other identification
details helps law enforcers to carry out criminal investigations speedily.

13. Defence.

◻Computers are used in electronic news gathering, efficient communication, detecting and
tracking of targets; in radar systems, warning systems & in guided missile systems.
◻Computers are used in military defence equipments, e.g. Fighter jets, Rockets, Bombers, etc.

14. Multimedia applications.

◻Computers are used to prepare business presentations for advertisement purposes.

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The presentations are done using overhead projectors attached to computers running slide
shows & digital video clips taken using a Camcorder. An overlaid voice is used to describe
the product.

◻Computers are used in music related equipment such as Synthesizers.

◻In entertainment (i.e., games & movies), computers are used to add stereo sound & digital
video clips, which make games more realistic.

◻In Education & Training, Multimedia discs are used as teaching aids for all types of subjects.

15. Domestic and Entertainment systems.

Computers are used at homes:

◻For watching movies, playing music and computer games.

◻For storing personal information.
◻For calculating and keeping home budgets.
◻For shopping purposes. They provide people with lists of shopping items as well as their
prices. They also provide electronic money transfer facilities.

◻In household items, such as, Microwave ovens, Televisions, etc.

16. Library services.

Computers can be used in a library:

- To enable the library personnel to easily access & keep updated records of books and other
library materials.
- To search for book titles instead of using the manual card catalogue.
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17. Employment.

The emergence of computers has provided employment opportunities to very many people.

Review Questions.

1. Explain exhaustively the importance of computers in the following areas: i). Industries. ii).
Hospitals. iii). Education iv). Research.
v). Communication industry.
vi). Law enforcement agencies.
vii). Domestic and Entertainment.
2. Explain various ways computers have been mostly used in our country.
3. List down and explain 6 uses of computers in our society.
4. Explain the similarities and differences between human beings and computer systems.
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What is a Network?

A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as
printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a
network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light
beams.

• Internet: You’re on it. A huge public network of networks to allow you to see cat pictures
• Intranet: Internal network, like a closed off internal network and platforms in a company
where you share information, mostly in web technologies.
• Extranet: A closed off network. Usually it’s a web platform that the customers of a company
can log onto, to make or track orders.
• Ethernet: A network technology that powers most of the cabled networks in the world.
Types of networks

• LAN: Local Area Network A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short
distance. A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN,
though sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and
occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings
• WAN: Wide Area Network As the term implies, a WAN spans a large physical distance.
The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth. A WAN is a geographically-dispersed
collection of LANs.
• Wireless Local Area Network - A LAN based on Wi-Fi wireless network technology

• Metropolitan Area Network - A network spanning a physical area larger than a LAN but
smaller than a WAN, such as a city. A MAN is typically owned and operated by a single
entity such as a government body or large corporation.
• Campus Area Network - A network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such
as on a university or local business campus.

• Storage Area Network - Connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like
Fibre Channel.
• System Area Network (also known as Cluster Area Network) - Links high-performance
computers with high-speed connections in a cluster configuration.

• Private Area Network/PERSONAL- A small network meant for personal use or an office
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Network topology is the schematic arrangement of

computers in a network BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single
cable.
When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.
Features of Bus Topology 5. Easy to expand joining two cables
together.
1. It transmits data only in one direction. RING Topology
2. Every device is connected to a single cable Disadvantages of Bus Topology
Advantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network
1. It is cost effective. fails.

2. Cable required is least compared to other 2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes

network topology. are more the performance of the
network decreases.
3. Used in small networks.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is easy to understand.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another computer,
with the last one connected to the first.
The transmission is unidirectional ,Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit.
Advantages of Ring Topology Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by 1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring

high traffic or by adding more nodes, as topology.
only the nodes having tokens can transmit
data. 2. Adding or deleting the computers
disturbs the network activity.
2. Cheap to install and expand
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the
whole network
STAR Topology

In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub
is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

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5. Only that node is affected which has failed, 3. If the hub fails then the whole
rest of the nodes can work smoothly. network is stopped because all the
nodes depend on the hub.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
4. Performance is based on the hub that
1. Cost of installation is high.
is it depends on its capacity
1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.

3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology 3. Easy to troubleshoot.

1. Fast performance with few nodes and

4. Easy to setup and modify. low
network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.

2. Expensive to use.

MESH Topology

It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to
each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices. Types of Mesh Topology
1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same
fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.

2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.
Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.

2. Robust.

3. Not flexible.
Advantages of Mesh Topology Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load. 1. Installation and configuration is
difficult.
2. It is robust.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
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3. Bulk wiring is required.

4. Provides security and privacy.

TREE Topology

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called

hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology 2. Expansion of nodes is possible and

1. Extension of bus and star topologies. easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained. HYBRID Topology
2. Costly.
4. Error detection is easily done.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance
Disadvantages of Tree Topology is difficult.

1. Heavily cabled. 4. Central hub fails, network fails

It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example
if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used,
connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).
Features of Hybrid Topology
1. It is a combination of two or topologies

2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included Advantages of

Hybrid Topology
1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
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2. Effective.

3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.

4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.
 Introduction to Computers

Advantages of networking

1. It enhances communication and availability of information.

2. It allows for more convenient resource sharing. , particularly for larger companies that really
need to produce huge numbers of resources to be shared to all the people
3. It makes file sharing easier.Computer networking allows easier accessibility for people to
share their files
4. It is highly flexible. it gives users the opportunity to explore everything about essential things,
such as software without affecting their functionality.
5. It is an inexpensive system. no need to change the software regularly,
6. It increases cost efficiency.
With computer networking, you can use a lot of software products available on the market which can just
be stored or installed in your system or server, and can then be used by various workstations.

7. It boosts storage capacity.

Since you are going to share information, files and resources to other people, you have to ensure all data
and content are properly stored in the system. With this networking technology, you can do all of this
without any hassle, while having all the space you need for storage.
Disadvantages of Computer Networking
1. It lacks independence.
people rely more of computer work, instead of exerting an effort for their tasks at hand. Aside from this,
they will be dependent on the main file server, which means that, if it breaks down, the system would
become useless, making users idle.

2. It poses security difficulties.

Because there would be a huge number of people who would be using a computer network to get and share
some of their files and resources, a certain user’s security would be always at risk. There might even be
illegal activities that would occur, which you need to be careful about and aware of.

3. It lacks robustness.
if a computer network’s main server breaks down, the entire system would become useless. Also, if it has
a bridging device or a central linking server that fails, the entire network would also come to a standstill.

4. It allows for more presence of computer viruses and malware.

There would be instances that stored files are corrupt due to computer viruses.

5. Its light policing usage promotes negative acts.

It has been observed that providing users with internet connectivity has fostered undesirable behavior
among them. Considering that the web is a minefield of distractions—online games, humor sites and even
porn sites—workers could be tempted during their work hours. The huge network of machines could also
encourage them to engage in illicit practices, such as instant messaging and file sharing, instead of working
on work-related matters. While many organizations draw up certain policies on this, they have proven
difficult to enforce and even engendered resentment from employees.

6. It requires an efficient handler.

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 Introduction to Computers

For a computer network to work efficiently and optimally, it requires high technical skills and know-how
of its operations and administration. A person just having basic skills cannot do this job. Take note that the
responsibility to handle such a system is high, as allotting permissions and passwords can be daunting.
Similarly, network configuration and connection is very tedious and cannot be done by an average
technician who does not have advanced knowledge.

7. It requires an expensive set-up.

Though computer networks are said to be an inexpensive system when it is already running, its initial set
up cost can still be high depending on the number of computers to be connected. Expensive devices, such
as routers, switches, hubs, etc., can add up to the cost.
Conclusion
Computer networking will always be a fast and convenient means of transferring and sharing information,
but people should be aware of its consequences as well. They should remember that often relying on this
system can put them at certain risks that can be cause by its flaws and other malfunctions.

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET AND EMAIL

Objective: Ability to conduct basic operations required to use Internet and email independently

1. TCP/IP

Just like two people can communicate easily if they talk in the same language and its rules.
Similarly, all computers connected to Internet follow same rules and procedure, also called
protocols, to communicate with each other. These protocols, or the common language, of the
Internet are known as Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol or TCP/IP.

Every computer on the Internet has a unique address. This is a four-part numeric address called
Internet Protocol Address or IP address, and it contains information that identifies the location of
this computer. Some examples of IP addresses are 255.230.54.1, or 10.11.0.220. Therefore, we
can see that each part of IP address is a number ranging between 0 and 255.

2. DNS

Most computers also have an address called a Domain name system address or DNS address. A
DNS address has two parts: a host name which stands for the name the computer; a domain name
that identifies the type of organisation from which the computer is connected. Some of the most
used domain names today are .com which is used by commercial organisations; .edu used by
educational institutions; .net used by network service providers; .org used by non-profit
organisations; and .gov used by government departments and organisations.

3. World Wide Web

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 Introduction to Computers

For the purpose of this tutorial, when we mention Internet, we are actually referring to the World
Wide Web (WWW or the web). The web was developed as a method for incorporating footnotes,
figures, and cross-references into online hypertext documents, also called web pages. These web
pages are files encoded by using the hypertext markup language or HTML, and this language
allows developers to insert hypertext links in the documents. It is through this facility that the
web has become so useful for all of us. The web users can click any link on a web page to access
more information about these links. A collection of related web pages is called a website. The
first page of a website is called its home page. On the home page, links to various webpages of
the website are listed.

Back to Chapter Outline

4. Web Browsers

You need a web browser to access web pages on the web. A web browser is a software application
specially designed to look up and open web pages on the user's computer. The two most popular
web browsers are Microsoft Internet Explorer, and Netscape Navigator. For the purpose of this
tutorial we will refer to the Microsoft Internet Explorer 5.0 which is used by a vast majority of
web users.

5. URL

The World Wide Web is built on a set of rules called the Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP).
This protocol requires the Internet addresses in a special format, called URL or Uniform
Resource Locator. A typical example of a URL is as follows:

http://www.enablingdimensions.com/home/home.html

Let us see what the various parts of a URL stand for:

a. http://

b. www

c. enablingdimensions

d. home

e. home.html

stands for a server that uses the hypertext transfer protocol means the website is on the
World Wide Web part of the Internet stands for the name of the
service/company/organisation whose website you are accessing refers to a web folder

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 Introduction to Computers

belonging to the website of enablingdimensions. refers to the specific web page in the
web folder named home.
EMAILS -send and receive mails in electronic format, Email Address. Every email user
has a unique email address. Eg [email protected]
• 'To': This is a text box in which you will type the email address of the person to whom
you want to send your email. When the email form opens, the cursor will be in this field.
Press enter to turn on the forms mode and type the email address of the recipient. Press
tab to go to the next field.
• CC: It refers to carbon copy, that is if you want to send a copy of this email to some other
persons then type the email IDs of these persons in this field. Press tab to go to the next
field. All the recipients will see who else has received this message. To send the same
mail to more than one recipient, separate the email addresses of the recipients by a comma
or a semi-colon.

• BCC: If you want to send a copy of your message to someone, but do not want others to
know, then use the blind carbon copy (BCC) option for this undisclosed recipient. Type
the email IDs of such person/s in this field. Press tab to go to the next field.
• Subject: Type the subject of your email in this field and press tab to go to the next field.
• Text: This is the place where you would write your message. This is like notepad and you
just need to start typing. When you are done, press tab once to go to send button. Press
enter on Send button.

COMPUTER LABORATORY.

Definition:

A Computer laboratory is a room that has been specially prepared to facilitate installation of
computers, and provide a safe conducive environment for teaching & learning of Computer
Studies.

SAFE USE & CARE OF COMPUTERS (COMPUTER HYGIENE)

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 Introduction to Computers

Computer systems are expensive to acquire & maintain, and should therefore be handled with
great care. Most computer breakdowns are caused by failure to follow the correct instructions
on use of equipment, carelessness, and neglect.

Computer hygiene involves keeping the computers in good care & order.

Factors to consider when preparing a computer laboratory.

The following factors must be considered when preparing a computer laboratory:

1. Security of the computers, programs and other resources.

2. Reliability of the source of power.
3. Number of computers to be installed and the amount floor space available.
4. The maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate.

Requirements of a Computer Laboratory.

i). Standard and Enough furniture.

ii). Good ventilation. iii). Reliable & Enough
source of power supply. iv). Free from Dust and
Moisture. v). Enough floor space.
vi). Proper cabling of electric wires. vii). Fire fighting
equipment. viii). Good lighting equipment. ix). Strong
rooms & doors for the security of computers.

Review Questions.

1. Define a computer Laboratory.

2. Give three factors to be considered when preparing a computer laboratory.
3. What are the requirements of a computer laboratory?

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS & PRACTI CES IN A COMPUTER LABORATORY.

After establishing the computer laboratory, a number of safety precautions, rules, and practices
need to be observed in order to avoid accidental injury to the users, damage of computers or lack
of a conducive environment for teaching and learning.

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 Introduction to Computers

The safety precautions and practices include;

1. BEHAVIOUR IN THE COMPUTER LABORATORY.

The following rules must be followed in and around a computer laboratory.

a). Entering the computer room.

◻ Only authorized people should enter the computer room.

◻ Remove your shoes before entering the computer room to prevent dust.
◻ Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust. This is because; smoke & dust
contain small abrasive particles that can damage computer components and cause
wearing of the moving parts.
◻ Do not carry foods such as Toffees, chocolates, chewing gums, & drinks/beverages
to the computer room.

Food particles may fall into the moving parts of the computer and damage them.
Liquids may spill into the computer parts causing rusting or electrical faults.

◻ Collect any waste materials (e.g., paper bits) which might be lying in the computer
room & put them into the dustbin.
◻ Avoid unnecessary movements, because you may accidentally knock down the
peripheral devices.
◻ Computer users should be trained on how to use computers frequently.
◻ Computer illiterates should not be allowed to operate the computers.
◻ Shut the door of the computer room properly.

b). Starting and shutting down the computer.

◻ Always follow the proper procedure for starting & shutting down the computer to
avoid loss of data and damage to computer programs.

◻ Avoid turning the computer on & off frequently as it is harmful. Every time a PC is
turned on, the internal components get heated and again cool down when the

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 Introduction to Computers

computer is turned off. As a result, the circuit boards expand & contract and this can
badly affect the solder-joints of the computer.

◻ Do not open up the metallic covers of computers or peripheral devices without

permission and particularly when the computer’s power is still on.

2. PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE AND ACCIDENTS.

Fire outbreaks in the laboratory can be caused by either:

a). Inflammable chemicals, such as those used for cleaning & servicing the computer
equipment.
b). Electrical faults, such as open wires or cables.
c). Smoking.
◻ Keep the chemicals away in a store after using them to avoid any accidents.
◻ Ensure that all electrical wires are properly insulated. Open wires or cables
must be properly covered with an Insulating tape or replaced with new ones as
they can cause fire leading to damage of equipment.

◻ The computer room must always have a gaseous fire extinguisher especially those
containing Carbon dioxide in case of any accidents.

Note. Water based or Powder extinguishers should not be used in the computer room
because; they can cause damage to computer components.

Water causes rusting of the metallic parts and short circuits, while Powder particles
normally settle on storage devices and may scratch them during read/write operations.

◻ Any incidence that may result in damage to equipment should be reported to the person
in charge of the laboratory.
◻ No student should attempt to repair the equipment as this may lead to complete damage
of the equipment.

3. INSULATION OF CABLES.

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 Introduction to Computers

◻ All power cables in the computer room must be properly insulated and laid away from
busy pathways in the room (i.e., preferably along the walls). This prevents the user from
stumbling on the cables, which might cause electric shock or power interruptions.

◻ System cables should be of the best quality & type, and should also be properly clipped
(fixed).
◻ The cables should be handled carefully especially at the ends to avoid breaking the pins.

4. STABLE POWER SUPPLY.

Computers are delicate devices that require a stable source of power.

◻Ensure that there is a steady flow of input power to the computer in order to prevent loss
of data or information & also prevent damaging the computer’s secondary storage media.

Note. Power from main supply is not always stable and may sometimes experience power
surges or under voltage (also referred to as Brownout). To protect the computer from being
damaged due to power instabilities especially in areas where power fluctuates, avoid
connecting it directly to the main supply. Instead, it is important to connect the computer to
a special power correction equipment or device such as a Stabilizer or Uninterrupted power
supply /source (UPS), and then connect the UPS to the main supply.

The UPS gets charged when the main power is on. When the main power goes off, the UPS
gives some sound (usually a beep) to alert the user.

Functions of the UPS

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 Introduction to Computers

1. It regulates power from an unstable power source to the required clean stable voltage.

2. It prevents power surges and brownouts that might destroy the computer.

3. It temporarily provides power to the computer in case of the main power failure. This
allows the user to save his/her work and shutdown the computer using the correct
procedure.

4. Alerts the user of any power loss (by beeping).

To ensure that work continues even in the absence of main power, organizations that give
important services such as banks, schools, & hospitals usually install devices that provide
alternative sources of power such as standby generators, solar panels, rechargeable batteries,
etc that automatically comes on in case of a power failure. Such devices are referred to as
Power backups.

However, note that, power from a generator must pass through a UPS before being fed to the
computer, because it is also not stable.

◻ Ensure that all power or electrical sockets are firmly fixed.

5. BURGLAR PROOFING.

Physical access to the computer room should be restricted to ensure that only authorized
persons get access to the computers.

To prevent unauthorized access to the computer room, the following controls should be
implemented:

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 Introduction to Computers

- Fit strong metallic grills and locks on the doors, windows & roofs (in case the roofing is
weak).

- Lock the doors, (i.e., keep the computers in a strong room, which should remain firmly
locked when not in use).
- Avoid welcoming strangers into the computer room.
- Use of Personal Identification cards.
- Use of fingerprint identification.

- Install security alarms at strategic access points so as to alert the security personnel in case
of a break in.

- Use of special voice recorders that would be able to analyse the voice of a trespasser &
check against the database containing the voice patterns of valid users.

- Secure/protect the computers with Passwords to minimize chances of theft.

6. VENTILATION.

Both computers and human beings emit heat energy into the environment. Therefore, the
computer room must have good circulation of air to avoid overheating and suffocation.

Proper ventilation enables the computers to cool, and therefore, avoids damaging the
electronic parts.

The following facilities can ensure proper ventilation in a room:

◻ The room should have large & enough windows & doors. ◻
Installing an air-conditioning system.
◻ Installing cooling fans.
◻ Avoid overcrowding of either machines or people in the room.

7. DUST CONTROL

◻ Set up the computer laboratory in a location away from excessive dust.

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 Introduction to Computers

◻ Remove your shoes before you enter the computer room to prevent dust.
◻ The computer room should be fitted with special curtains that would reduce entry of dust
particles.
◻ The floor should be covered with Carpets in order to absorb dust, and also absorb the
noise made by chairs.
◻ Cover the computer devices with Dust covers when not in use or when cleaning the
computer room.

NB: If the environment is dusty, the computers should be regularly serviced to get rid of
harmful dust.
The service should include; blowing dust from the System unit, cleaning the floppy drives,
cleaning the Keyboard, cleaning the Monitor externally, and also cleaning all peripheral
devices such as Printers and Mouse.

8. DUMP CONTROL.

Humidity in the computer laboratory must be regulated to remain at an optimum 50%. If the
humidity is low, it allows static electricity to build up and causes damage to sensitive
electronic components. Similarly, high humidity of over 70% causes rusting of the metallic
parts of the computer system.

To eliminate low humidity, place humidifiers in the room, while high humidity can be
controlled by installing dehumidifiers in the room.

9. HANDLING OF MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT.

Computer devices must be handled with a lot of care as they are extremely fragile and can
easily get damaged. Dropping or bumping can cause permanent damage on the device, e.g.,
to transport the System unit always handle it on its frame.

◻ Always use the manufacturer’s shipping carton when transporting the devices.
◻ Do not place heavy objects on the computers.
◻ Protect the computer devices especially the Monitor & the disks from any electrostatic
discharge.

◻ The computer devices should not be exposed to direct sunlight or warm objects. This
causes the internal components of the computer to get heated, and as a result, effects the
computer’s solder-joints.

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 Introduction to Computers

◻ Students should only perform operations on the computer that they are sure of and under
supervision. If in doubt, the student should ask to ensure that no damage is caused due
to lack of proper knowledge.
◻ Computer equipment should be regularly checked and serviced.

Floppy disk management.

Floppy disks are used to store data, and if properly taken care of, they reduce the likelihood
of destroyed or corrupted data.

Note. Data is very difficult & expensive to reconstruct, unlike application software, which
can easily be re-loaded.

Handling precautions for diskettes.

1). Insert the diskette in the drive with the correct side up & in the correct direction. The
diskette should slide in easily (with no force at all) until it locks in the drive. To
remove the diskette out of the drive, press the Eject button.
2). Don’t touch the exposed surface of the diskette when inserting or removing it.

3). Don’t remove the diskette from the drive if the drive light is shining. This indicates that
the diskette is in use, and removing it might damage the files on the diskette.

4). Never leave the diskette in the computer after finishing its job.

5). Ensure that all your diskettes are labelled carefully using meaningful names that indicate
the right contents of the diskette. The labels should be applied at the slightly depressed
region at the top surface of the diskette.
Labelling prevents confusing the data in the different diskettes, and also mixing diskettes
that are used everyday with those used for long-term storage of important data.

6). Use a soft writing material such as a soft felt pen to write on the diskette.

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 Introduction to Computers

7). Use the shutter at the bottom of the diskette to write-protect it in order to protect the
data stored in it.
Note. To write-protect the diskette, the shutter is pushed up until the hole is covered &
no data can be written to the diskette. To write to the diskette, the hole must be left open.

8). Avoid overusing the diskette. If used for long (usually over 6 months), its surface wears
out.

9). Never place heavy objects on the diskette to avoid damaging it.

10). Keep your disks safely away from extreme temperatures or direct sunlight, i.e., avoid
placing the diskette near possible heat sources, e.g. on top of monitor displays.

11). Keep floppy disks away from any magnetic media, e.g., near power supplies & magnets.
They can corrupt the data.

12). Never carry disks in loose bags or in pockets to prevent dust from getting in & harming
them.
Store your diskettes in disk banks or a proper storage jacket. Use envelopes or enclosed
polythene when carrying them.

13). Always store the disks vertically in the storage box/container.

14). Never use clips or staples to hold the disks to avoid damaging them.
15). Do not bend the diskette, or leave it lying on top of the desk.

16). Protect the diskettes against computer viruses, i.e. you should not use foreign diskettes
in your computer, especially if you suspect that they might have viruses in them.

Use of Printers.

1. Different printers have different sensitivity to printing papers. Using the wrong quality
paper in a particular printer can make the paper get stuck.

2. Printers are very specific to manufacturer’s cartridges & ribbons. Use of clones or
imitations (i.e., the wrong make & model) can damage the printer mechanism.

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 Introduction to Computers

3. Avoid refilling of cartridges or re-inking of Ribbons. This can spoil the printer due to
leakage or use of poor quality materials.

10. LABORATORY LAYOUT.

◻ The computer laboratory should have enough floor space to facilitate free movement from
one place to another.
◻ The laboratory furniture must be well arranged to prevent accidents.
◻ Your working surface must be large enough to hold the computer
equipment & any other additional items required. This prevents
squeezing the devices together & also minimizes breakages.

◻ The sitting arrangement of users should be proper.

11. STANDARD FURNITURE & POSTURE.

◻ The table/bench on which a computer is placed must be strong and wide enough to bear
the weight and accommodate all the peripheral devices.

◻ The seat for the user must be comfortable, and have a straight backrest that allows
someone to sit upright. This prevents muscle pains & backaches caused by poor sitting
posture.

◻ Adjust the furniture to meet your needs for comfort.

For example;

- Adjust the height of the chair or working surface so that your forearms are parallel with
the floor and your wrists are straight.

- The seat must be high enough relative to the table to enable the user use the hands on
the keyboard comfortably.
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 Introduction to Computers

- The eyes must be at the same level with the top of the screen when the user is seated
upright.

◻ You should be able to maintain your proper arm position and place your feet firmly flat
on the floor.

◻ Adopt a relaxed, upright working posture. Avoid slouching (bending) forward or leaning
far backwards.
◻The Chairs should have low back support & footrest and should also be adjustable.

Keyboard, Mouse and Input devices.

Place frequently used work materials within easy reach.

For example;

◻ The Keyboard, Mouse & other input devices should be positioned such that your hands
are in a relaxed, comfortable position.

◻ Position the Keyboard directly in front of you. This makes it possible to type with your
shoulders relaxed and your upper arms hanging freely at your sides.

◻ Position the Mouse at the same level as the keyboard.

12. LIGHTING & VISION CARE.

A computer room must be well lit to avoid eyestrain that eventually leads to headaches, stress,
and fatigue. Similarly, when you work at your computer for long periods of time, your eyes
may become irritated. Therefore, special care should be given to your vision.

◻ Tilt the computer so that the display faces away from the windows. This will minimize
glare (or bright reflections) on the screen.
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 Introduction to Computers

◻ Position the lighting equipment or sources of light such that glare (or bright reflections)
on the display are minimized. Where necessary, use indirect lighting to avoid bright spots
on the display.

◻ Use/fit radiation filter screens that are specially tinted to reduce the light that reaches the
eye.

◻ Avoid using a flickering monitor. This causes extreme eyestrain that can damage your
eyesight.

◻ The wall paints used should not be very bright as they reflect too much light causing
eyestrain.

◻ Use the brightness & contrast controls on the Monitor to adjust the brightness of the
computer monitor until the eyes feel comfortable, and also to improve image quality of
your display.

◻ Turn off the screen when not in use or reduce its brightness in order to prevent screen
burnout.

◻ If the room has windows, use blinds or shades to control the amount of daylight in the
room.
◻ Take frequent breaks and rest your eyes.

◻ You should have glasses that are specifically suited for working with the computer
display.
◻ Keep your glasses and the display clean.
◻ Have your eyes examined regularly by a vision care specialist.

◻ The distant between the user & screen should be between 450 – 500 mm.

Review Questions.

1. List down THREE safety precautions one should observe when entering a Computer
laboratory.
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 Introduction to Computers

2. Why must foods and beverages be kept out of the computer room?
3. Discuss TWO main causes of fire or accidents in the computer laboratory and give the
precautions that should be taken to guard against them.
4. (a). Give Six safety precautions you should take when handling diskettes.
(b). Where should the arrow on a diskette point when being inserted into the floppy drive.
5. List THREE things that can spoil a Printer if they are not of the correct specification, and
explain what damage may be caused.
6. Why are powders based and water-based fire extinguishers not allowed in the computer
room?
7. Identify three facilities that will ensure proper ventilation in a room.
8. Give THREE reasons why it is important to regularly service the computer.
9. Explain precisely how the Keyboard, mouse, and other Input devices should be arranged to
avoid strain while working on the computer.
10. (a). What name is given to alternative sources of power in a computer. (b). Name any THREE
sources of power in a computer system.
11. State two reasons why a computer needs to be connected to a stable power supply.
12. State two functions of the UPS.
13. State two reasons that are likely to cause eyestrain in the computer room.
14. Identify three proper sitting postures while using the computer.

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 Introduction to Computers

STARTING-UP (BOOTING) A COMPUTER.

1. Before switching on a computer, make sure that all the components are properly connected,
and that the computer is connected to an active power source.

2. Turn on the switch at the source of the power supply. If your computer is connected to a
constant voltage Stabilizer or an uninterrupted power supply (UPS), turn it on after switching
the main supply.

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 Introduction to Computers

3. Turn on the switches on the System unit and the Monitor. Switch on the power button on the
Monitor first, then followed by that of the System unit.

After the power is on, the computer automatically goes through a process called Booting.
Booting is a term used to describe the starting up of a computer. It is the entire process that
makes the computer ready for use.

Types of Booting.

There are 2 types of booting, namely;

a). Cold booting.

b). Warm booting.

Cold booting.

This happens when a computer that was originally off is switched on by pressing the power button
on the system unit.

Warm booting.

This happens when a computer that was originally on is forced to restart by pressing the Restart
button on the System unit or by pressing a combination of keys on the keyboard (Ctrl+Alt+Del).

In Windows operating systems, one can use the Restart option on the Shutdown dialog box to
perform a warm boot.

When Power is switched on, the computer starts by checking all its components to determine
whether they are available for use and whether they are functioning correctly. It does this by
executing a small program called the Power-On-Self-Test (POST) that is permanently stored in
ROM.

POST prepares the computer for use by instructing it to perform a number of diagnostic tests
when booting up. It instructs the computer to check the memory (RAM) to make sure it is

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 Introduction to Computers

operating correctly; check the CMOS (BIOS), Hard disk controller, Floppy disk drive controller
& the Keyboard.

During this process, some monitors display information showing the status of each device being
tested. If a problem is found, e.g., in case one of the devices is faulty or missing, the process will
halt and display an appropriate error message on the screen indicating to the user where the
problem is located. Sometimes, an error code is displayed with the message, or an abnormal
number of beeps are sounded.

The special program that directs the POST process is called the Basic Input Output System
(BIOS).

Shutting down a computer.

After finishing working with the computer, the user must follow the correct procedure of shutting
down the computer in order to ensure that loss of data, damage of programs and computer
components does not occur.

1. Save all the work done on the computer, and close all programs that may be currently running.
2. Remove any floppy disk you might have inserted in the computer.
3. Follow the proper shutdown procedure required before switching off the computer. For
example;
To turn off any computer running Windows operating systems:

a). Click the Start button on the screen, and then select Shut Down from the list.
b). In the prompt that appears, select Shut down, then press the Enter key on the keyboard.
c). After a few seconds, the message “It is now safe to turn off the computer” appears on the
screen. Switch off the System unit, then the Monitor.

Note. Some system units switch themselves off automatically. In such a case, press the
button on the Monitor to turn off the screen.

4. Press the button on the monitor to turn off the screen.

5. Switch off your Printer and any other output devices.

Review Questions.

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 Introduction to Computers

1. (a). What is meant by the term ‘booting up’?

(b). Differentiate between cold booting and warm booting.
2. Write down the procedure to be followed when switching on a computer.
3. Complete the abbreviation ‘POST’ in computer technology and explain briefly its purpose.
4. List down the steps that must be followed before switching off the computer.

KEY BOARD.

The Keyboard is a computer input device by which data & instructions are typed into the
computer memory.

It enables the user to enter data & instructions into the computer by pressing its keys.

Types of Keyboard.

1. Standard Keyboard – has 99 keys.

2. Enhanced Keyboard – has between 102 & 105 keys.

KEYBOARD LAYOUT.

The Keyboard of a computer consists of keys similar to those of a typewriter. It contains the
usual range of alphabetic characters (A – Z), digits 0 – 9, and other symbols frequently used to
represent data items. However, it has some command keys for giving special instructions to the
computer.

Data & programs are input into the computer by pressing the appropriate keys. When you type
data into the Keyboard devices, it converts it into machine-sensible forms.

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 Introduction to Computers

SECTIONS OF THE KEYBOARD.

Most Keyboards have a total of 101 keys, which are divided into 5 different groups: -

(a). Function/ Command keys.

These are the keys located along the top of the Keyboard marked F1 up to F12. They are
used to issue commands into the computer.

Each of these keys is used to perform a special function in various application packages,
e.g., F1 is used in most applications for help.

Function keys are used differently by different applications, i.e. their functions vary with
different programs, and are therefore sometimes called Programmable Keys.

(b). Alphanumeric keys.

This section consists of alphabetic & numeric keys. Alphanumeric keys are mostly used
for typing of text.

It has the 26 letters of the English alphabet marked on them in capital letters, and Number
keys arranged in their natural order from 0 – 9. Along with these keys are Punctuation
marks (comma, full-stop, etc) and some Symbols.

At the bottom of the alphanumeric keys, is the Space bar, which is used to separate words
or sentences from each other (or to create a blank space after typing each word).

(c). Numeric Keypad keys.

It is on the rightmost part of the Keyboard. It has keys with digits (numbers) 0 - 9 marked
on them in rows from the bottom upwards.

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 Introduction to Computers

The keypad also has some mathematical symbols marked on its keys. They include: the
multiplication sign (*), subtraction sign (-), addition sign (+), division sign (/) & the decimal
point (.).

The Keypad is used for fast entry of numeric data into the computer.

Note. The numbers on the Numeric keypad can only be used when the Num Lock key is
turned on.

(d). Directional (or Cursor positioning) keys.

They are used to move the Cursor (insertion point) within the window of an application.

They include; Page Up, Page Down, Home, End, & the four Arrow Keys.

◻ Arrow keys:

To move the cursor one character to the right in a Word processing document, press the
Right arrow key; to move the cursor one character to the left, press the Left arrow key.

To move the cursor one line up, press the Up arrow key; to move the cursor one line
down, press the Down arrow key.
◻Page Up & Page Down:

To move the cursor up one page in case the document has many pages, press the Page
Up key; to move the cursor down one page, press the Page Down key.

◻ Home & End keys:

To move the cursor to the beginning of the current line, press the Home key; to move
the cursor to the end of the current line, press the End key.

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 Introduction to Computers

Editing Keys.
They are used to delete or insert characters in a document. These are:

i). Backspace key.

It has a backward arrow (◻) marked on it.

√ Used to erase characters to the left of the cursor (i.e., from right to left on the same
line).

When pressed, it makes the cursor move one space backwards and the immediate
letter or number to the left is erased.
ii). Delete (Del) key.
It is used to erase characters to the right of the cursor, (i.e., from left to
right).

iii). Insert (Ins) key.

√ Used in a word processor to switch between the Insert mode & Overtype mode.
When pressed, it helps the user to insert text in the middle of a sentence or replace
a character at the cursor position (i.e., overwrite the text).

(e). Special PC operation keys

They are used in combination with the other keys or on their own to perform special
functions/tasks, or to give special instructions to the computer.

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 Introduction to Computers

Examples; Esc, Tab, Caps Lock, Shift, Ctrl, Alt, Enter, Num Lock, Scroll Lock.

TAB key ( ).

It is used in certain programs such as Word processors to move the text cursor or a certain
text at set intervals on the same line to the required position on the screen, e.g., 10mm,
20mm, etc.

A Cursor is a blinking underscore ( ) or a vertical beam (I ) that shows where the next
character to be typed will appear.

CAPS Lock.

Used to switch between capital (uppercase) letters & small (lowercase) letters.

When pressed on, an indicator with a Green light appears on the top-right hand corner of
the Keyboard, and all the text typed will appear in capital letters. When pressed off, all the
text typed will appear in small letters.

SHIFT key ( ).

This special key works in combination with other keys.

√ It can be used to get single capital letters. Hold down the SHIFT key & press an alphabet
key to get the letter in its capital form.

√ It is used to get the punctuation marks on top of the Number keys or the symbols on top
of certain keys especially on the alphanumeric section.

To get the punctuation mark on top of a number key or the symbol on top of a certain
key; press & hold down the SHIFT key before pressing the required key.

ENTER key (↵).

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 Introduction to Computers

√ It is used as a RETURN key. When pressed at the end of a text line or paragraph in a
word processor, it forces the text cursor to move to the start/ beginning of the next line
or paragraph.

√ Itis used to issue completion commands to the computer. It is used to instruct the
computer to carry out (execute) a command that has been typed or selected on the screen.

ESCAPE (ESC) key.

It generates special code for the computer. In some programs, it is used when you want to
quit doing some task, i.e. escape from or to cancel a task.

CONTROL (CTRL) key.

It controls various functions in combination with other keys, e.g. CTRL+”S” is used to give
the command for saving the text/object.

Commonly confusing keys.

Some key shapes cause much confusion. If you use the wrong key, the process you are
working on may not work as expected, but it may be very difficult to determine what is
wrong.

The I, 1, l and o, O, 0 keys.

Look closely to spot the difference between capital “I”, one (1) and “l” (lowercase “L”), and
between small “o”, capital “O” and zero “0”.

The Slash (/) and Backslash (\) keys.

The slash (“/”) is used as:

- A division symbol when writing a formula.

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 Introduction to Computers

- A command key to get into the menus in Lotus 1-2-3.

- To separate parts of a path in a UNIX file name.

The backslash (“\”) is used:

- In Lotus 1-2-3 to fill a cell with a character.

- In MS-DOS to separate parts of a path in a file name.

The Space, Hyphen ( -) and Underscore ( _ ) Keys.

The Space is entered using the Spacebar on the keyboard.

Note. A blank space is a printing character; it takes up memory, has an ASCII code, and is
printed on the screen in the same manner as any other character.

The Hyphen key (dash or minus) & the Underscore (underline) are on the same physical key
top. To get the underscore, use the SHIFT.

The Underscore is often used in places where a space is needed to separate individual words,
but is not legal in the context. E.g., the filename TAX 1990 is illegal in MS-DOS because of
the blank space between TAX and 1990, but TAX_1990 is legal. The Underscore takes the
places of the blank space.

Single & Double quote, Accent grave, and Tilde.

Single quote (‘) & Double quote (“).

Both symbols are on the same physical key top. To get the double quote, use the SHIFT.

Accent grave (`) & Tilde (~) are found on the same key top. The Tilde is used in Mathematics,
foreign languages, or in UNIX operating system to indicate the home subdirectory.

The Parenthesis ( ), Square brackets [ ], & Curly braces { }

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 Introduction to Computers

Each of these symbols is used differently depending on what program you are running.

Mathematical symbols (+, -, *, /, ^).

Slash (/) - used for division,

Asterisk (*) - for multiplication,
Plus (+) symbol - for addition,
Minus (-) symbol - is used for subtraction,
Up carat (^) - indicates exponential (raising to a power).
Practical Keyboard skills.

When using the keyboard, observe the following typing rules:

1). Sit upright with both feet firmly on the ground, maintaining an alert posture.
2). Place the material to be typed on your left in a position you can read without strain.
3). Rest both hands on the keyboard with fingers resting on the Home keys.

Home keys are the keys on which fingers rest during typing in readiness to press other
keys. The home keys for the left hand starting with the small finger are A, S, D, F with the
thumb on the Spacebar, while those of the right hand are the apostrophe (‘), semicolon (;),
L, K with the thumb on the Spacebar.

4). Start typing the text slowly at first, making sure you are using all the ten fingers, and that you
press the key nearest to the home keys with the closest finger, e.g., to press Q, use the small
finger on the left hand, while to press J, use the index finger on the right hand.

Descriptive Questions.

1. Define a Keyboard.
2. (a) Give the TWO types of Keyboards found in the current market.
(b) State and briefly explain the functions of five categories of keys found on a standard
keyboard.
3. State the use of each the following section or combination of keys on the keyboard: a).
Function keys.
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 Introduction to Computers

b). Numeric keypad.

c). Arrow keys.
d). Control key.
4. Name 3 main sections of the Keyboard that are used in typing.
5. What is the difference between Function keys and Special PC operation keys?
6. State the functions of the following keys on the keyboard.
i). Caps Lock.
ii). Spacebar.
iii). Shift Key.
iv). Enter Key.
v). Backspace.
vi). Delete. vii).
Escape.
viii). Num Lock.
7. Give two uses of the SHIFT key.

MOUSE.

A Mouse is a pointing device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer by
controlling a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.

A Mouse consists of 4 parts: -

1). A Casing - to assist in holding the mouse in the hand.

2). A Roller ball – used to slide/move the mouse on a flat surface. It also enables the cursor to
move on the screen as required.

3). The Sensor Buttons (Right & Left) – used for making selections.

4). A Cable - connects the mouse to the System unit.

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Using the Mouse.

To use a mouse, hold it in your hand and move it across a flat surface or on top of a table. When
you move the mouse, an arrow-shaped pointer called the Mouse pointer moves across the
computer screen in the same direction. The pointer is usually controlled by moving the mouse.

To select an option/ item on the screen;

◻Position the tip of the pointer (cursor) over the item to be selected; ◻
Press a button on the mouse to make your selection.

When using the mouse, observe the following rules:

a). Place the mouse on a flat smooth surface.

b). Gently hold the mouse with your right hand, using the thumb and the two rightmost fingers.
c). The index finger should rest on the left button, while the middle finger rests on the right
button.

Terminologies associated with the use of a Mouse.

Point: - this means moving the mouse until the tip of the pointer on the screen is over the item
you want to select.
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To select an item on the screen, point the item, then press a mouse button. Use the Left button
(Primary button) for most tasks or the Right button (Secondary button) to quickly accomplish
common tasks.

Clicking: - pressing & releasing the left mouse button once. A click usually selects an object/item
on the screen.

Double-clicking: - pressing the left button twice in a row (in a quick succession) without moving
the mouse. Double-clicking usually opens a file or starts a program.

Right clicking: - pressing the right mouse button once (or, selecting an item by use of the right
mouse button).

A right click usually displays a list of commands from which the user can make a selection. This
list of commands is called a Shortcut menu or Context-sensitive menu. This is because; the
commands on this menu apply to the specific item that has been right-clicked.

Shortcut menu:

◻ A list of commands that appears when you right-click an object.

◻ A menu that shows a list of commands specific to a particular right-clicked item.

Drag and drop: This is whereby the user moves an item from one location on the screen to another.

To move an item on the screen by dragging;

1. Point to the item you want to drag.

2. Press & hold down the left mouse button.
3. Slide the mouse until the pointer reaches the desired position on the screen while still holding
down the mouse button.
4. Release the mouse button to ‘drop’ the item in its new location.

Review Questions.

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1. What makes a mouse move a pointer on the screen?

2. State THREE advantages of using a Mouse instead of a keyboard.
3. Explain the meaning of the following terms associated with the use of a mouse: (a). Mouse
pointer.
(b). Clicking.
(c). Double-clicking.
(d). Right-clicking. (e).
Drag and drop.
4. Distinguish between:
(a). Click and right-click.
(b). Double-clicking and dragging.
5. What is a Shortcut menu?

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