Instruction for Good Learning

N. J. Rao, K. Rajanikanth and Chandrashekar Ramanathan

Week 2

W2U1: Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction - Part I

Recap

• We presented in overview of instruction.

W2U1: Outcomes

W2U1: Understand Merrill’s Five First Principles of Instruction (Part 1)

Instruction Design

• Instruction Design is concerned with the organization of appropriate pedagogical scenarios to

achieve the intended instructional goals.
• It provides guidelines which can provide the basis for developing approaches to teaching.
• It is based on learning theories. (How people learn?)
• The models provide guidelines on what should happen during instruction. (activities of learners
and teachers)
• Many theories exist! We present only some of the popular ones.

Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction (FPI)

• Merrill’s Vision: Distill a set of interrelated prescriptive principles for instruction design.
• Merrill reviewed several instructional models to distill such prescriptive principles.
• These principles may be present in different models with some variations in the terminology.
• “Principles are not in and of themselves a model or method of instruction.”
• These principles can be implemented by different models and methods.
• For a principle to be considered as such, Merrill’s criteria were:

o It is present in most of the instructional design models and theories reviewed by him.
o It is supported by empirical research.
o It is general and universal so that it can be applied to all instructional practices.
o It is design oriented, i.e., the principles offer guidance on how the instruction should be
designed.
o It must promote learning rather than describe what learners do on their own while
learning.

Merrill identified 5 such First Principles of Instruction:

• Task-Centered Principle
• Activation Principle
• Demonstration Principle
• Application Principle
• Integration Principle

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Task-Centered Principle

Learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real-world problems.

• Thus, a task-centered instructional strategy promotes good learning.
• Many instructional strategies like Constructivist Learning, Cognitive Apprenticeship incorporate
this principle.
• The concept of a “problem” in this principle includes a wide range of activities including a
simulated task.
• What is important is that the activity is some whole task rather than only components of a task
and that the task is representative of the class of problems the learner is expected to be able
to solve.
• Topic-centered instructional strategies typically teach all relevant component skills required to
solve a problem before actually getting to solve the problem.
• In contrast, the Task-centered instructional strategy starts with a whole task up front.
• Show task: Learning is promoted when learners are shown the task that they will be able to do
or the problem they will be able to solve after completing an instructional unit. (Course
Outcome or competency in the framework of Outcome Based Education)
• Progression of Tasks: Learning from a task-centered instructional strategy is enhanced when
learners undertake a simple-to-complex progression of whole tasks.
• One useful suggestion is that the first problem in the sequence could be a worked example
that shows students the type of whole task that they will learn to be able to do.
• A minimal task-centered instructional strategy is a single task!
• In the framework of Outcome Based Education (OBE), a task is a Course Outcome or
competency when a CO is elaborated further into competencies.
(OBE is discussed in detail in courses like TALE, NATE, OBEA)
• A progression of tasks can be planned based on the CO / Competency.
• It is domain specific.
Examples of whole tasks (Course Outcomes / Competencies):
• Sort a given array of data elements using Merge Sort and Quicksort.
• A series of increasingly complex tasks:
Real-world problem: Ensure maximum power is transferred to the load in
an electrical / electronic system.

o A simple task: A DC circuit with a fixed resistance.

o A more difficult task: A DC circuit with multiple resistances.
o Next task: An AC circuit with complex impedances
o ………

Activation Principle

Learning is promoted when relevant previous experience is activated.

• It has long been a tenet of education to start from where the child is.
• As learners mature, the higher education system seems to feel that providing relevant
experience prior to instruction is no longer necessary.
• Learners, therefore, may lack or may not recall previous mental models based on experience

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 that can be used to structure the new knowledge.
• Instruction jumps immediately into the new material without laying foundation for the
learners.
• Consequently, learners generally resort to memorizing the new material presented.
• If the learners have required prerequisite knowledge, ensure that it is activated so that it can
serve as the foundation on which new knowledge can be constructed.
(Learners progress from where they are at present!)
• If the learners do not have required prerequisite knowledge, proceeding with instruction on
new knowledge is most likely ineffective. (Ensure that the prerequisite knowledge is provided
before introducing new knowledge.)
• Ensure that learners recall , describe or demonstrate relevant cognitive structures learnt
earlier. This will invoke the appropriate mental model promoting learning.
• Learning from activation is enhanced when learners share previous knowledge and experience
with one another. Such a sharing provides vicarious experience to the peers and stimulates
similar recollections in them.
• Recalling or acquiring a structure for organizing the new knowledge helps the learners during
subsequent demonstration, application, and reflection phases of instruction.
Examples:
• Task: Sort a given array of data elements using Merge Sort and Quicksort.
• Activation:

o Knowledge to be activated: Concepts of Sorting, Recursion, and Divide-and-Conquer

(Instructor may direct learners to Recall / Demonstrate / Engage in peer discussion and
sharing etc., as appropriate.)

Examples (continued):
• Task: Determine the young’s modulus of a given bar.
• Activation:

o Knowledge to be activated: Concepts of Geometrical moment of inertia, Moment,

Momentum, Cantilever, Uniform and non-uniform bending (Instructor may direct learners
to Recall / Demonstrate / Engage in peer discussion and sharing etc., as appropriate.)

Demonstration Principle

Demonstration (Show me): Learning is promoted when the instruction demonstrates what is to be
learned rather than merely telling information about what is to be learned.
• Demonstration Consistency: Learning is promoted when learners observe a demonstration of
the skills to be learned that is consistent with the type of content being taught.
• Learner Guidance: Learning is promoted when learners are provided appropriate learner
guidance.
• Relevant Media: Learning from demonstration is enhanced when learners observe through
media that is relevant to the content.
Merrill distinguishes between “Information” and “Portrayal” during demonstration.
• “Information” is presentation of general principles and learners must be able to recall it.
• “Portrayal” is demonstration of general principles with a specific case and learners must be

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 able to apply the principles to any given case.
• Merely presenting information, a common form of instruction, is seldom effective.
• When the information is demonstrated via specific situations or cases, i.e, when instruction
includes portrayal level, learning is promoted well.
• Demonstration consistency: Demonstration must be consistent with the intended learning
outcomes for good learning.
• Learner guidance: It can include directing learners to relevant information using multiple
représentations for the demonstrations, etc.
• Relevant media: Learning is promoted when media play a relevant instructional role.
• Learning from demonstration is enhanced by peer discussion and peer demonstration.
Examples:
• Task: Sort a given array of data elements using Merge Sort and Quicksort.

o Show step-by-step working of Merge Sort to sort a specific list of integers, say [21, 33,
113, 17, 42].
o Use pseudocode or code in a specific programming language like C. (The instructional
model to be used by the instructor is not part of Merrill’s principle. The principle merely
requires the inclusion of this phase. What is presented here is only a sample
demonstration.)
o Present an animation video drawing attention to splitting the arrays and then merging
them.

Examples (continued):

o Repeat the same specific problem of sorting the array [21, 33, 113, 17, 42], using
Quicksort now.
o Present an animation video.
o Compare the working of the two algorithms.
o Key Features:

Visual examples, not just code.

Problem worked-out in detail.
Real-time tracing of the algorithm.

(Acknowledgements: We gratefully acknowledge the help from faculty from our earlier workshops
and Gen AI tools including ChatGPT 4.0 in generating examples and associated figures.)

W2U2: Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction - Part II

W2U2: Outcomes

W2U2: Understand Merrill’s Five First Principles of Instruction (Part I1)

Merrill’s FPI

We noted that Merrill’s 5 First Principles of Instruction are:

• Task-Centered Principle
• Activation Principle
• Demonstration Principle

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• Application Principle
• Integration Principle
We discussed the first 3 principles in the previous unit.
In this Unit, we will present the remaining 2 principles and then conclude the discussion of Merrill’s
FPI.

Application Principle

Application (Let me): Learning is promoted when learners are required to use their new knowledge
or skill to solve problems.
• Merrill observes that while there is a near universal agreement on the importance of applying
knowledge to real-world tasks, much instruction merely includes a few multiple-choice
questions that are labeled practice.
• Practice consistency: Learning is promoted when the application (practice) is consistent with
the intended learning outcome.
• Diminishing coaching: Learning is promoted when learners are coached effectively and when
this coaching is gradually withdrawn.
• Varied problems: Learning is promoted when learners are required to solve a sequence of
varied problems.
Practice consistency
• Learning is promoted when the practice is consistent with the learning outcome.
Diminishing coaching
• Learning is promoted when learners are guided in their problem solving by appropriate
feedback and coaching, including error detection and Correction.
• Coaching is quite helpful early in the learning as the students may need considerable support.
As the learning progresses, this support is gradually withdrawn. (Scaffolding)
Diminishing coaching (continued):
• Feedback plays a very significant role in promoting good learning.
• Coaching must help the learners to understand how to recognize their errors, how to recover
from those errors, and how to avoid such errors in the future.
• Here again, diminishing coaching will promote good learning.
Varied problems
• Adequate practice must provide multiple opportunities for learners to use their new knowledge
or skills for a variety of problems to promote good learning.
Examples:
Task: Sort a given array of data elements using Merge Sort and Quicksort.
• Learners are given a specific array to be sorted, say [47, 19, 22, 27, 16]
• Learners sort the array using Merge Sort.
• Results of all the intermediate steps are recorded.
• Tutor provides help by checking the working, pointing out the errors if any, giving appropriate
feedback.
• Learners continue the practice in the laboratory (using a development environment)
Examples (continued):
• Learners repeat the practice with the same specific problem using Quicksort algorithm.

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• Learners trace each recursive call and observe the lists generated after each such call.
• Using appropriate debugging tools in the development environment, the learners continue the
practice in the laboratory.
Examples (continued):
• Progressive withdrawal of coaching (Scaffolding)
Main Task: Solve for voltages and currents in a given Series-Parallel Circuit using Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law (KVL) and Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
1. Fully Guided Coaching
• Task: Solve for currents and voltages in a given resistive circuit.
• Iinstructor provides Step-by-step walkthrough with explicit hints like "Start labelling all node
voltages“, "Apply KCL at Node A” etc.,
• Learner solves the problem closely following the instructor.
2. Coaching is withdrawn partially
Task: Solve a new but similar circuit.
Instructor provides only strategic support and prompts like "Have you considered all loops for
KVL?"
Learner performs steps more independently.
….
n. Complete withdrawal of coaching
Task: Solve a real-world problem, such as a complete Power Supply Circuit.
Instructor Support: None. Learner works solo or in a team. Instructor may only assess the final
report or circuit. Learner is able to apply all learned principles in context and justify the approach
and results.
Progressive withdrawal of Coaching in Electrical Circuit Analysis
Analyzing resistive circuits using Ohm’s Law Kirchoff’s Laws

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Integration Principle

Integration:
• Learning is promoted when learners integrate their newly acquired knowledge into their
internal cognitive structures by being directed to reflect on it. Reflection helps learners in
retaining what is learnt.
• Learning from Integration is enhanced:

o when learners publicly demonstrate their new knowledge.

o by peer discussion and peer critique. ((Learner plays the role of a teacher!)
o when learners create, invent, or explore personal ways to use new knowledge or skill.

• When the learner can observe his or her own progress, Learning becomes a strong motivation
by itself!
• Effective instruction must provide an opportunity for learners to demonstrate their newly
acquired skills.
• This principle of going public with their newly acquired knowledge is emphasized in several
instructional models.
• Learning is promoted when Learner plays the role of a teacher, engages in peer discussion,
receives peer critique and is able to defend his / her newly acquired knowledge and skills.
• Reflection: Learners need the opportunity to reflect on, defend, and share what they have
learned if it is to become part of their internalized cognitive structures.
• Learning is promoted when learners create, invent, or explore personal ways to use new
knowledge or skill.
Examples:
Task: Sort a given array of data elements using Merge Sort and Quicksort.
• Instructor may prompt the learner to Reflect on the differences between Merge Sort and
Quicksort in terms of performance, recursion, and memory use. Further the learner may be
encouraged to explore the contexts where one would prefer one algorithm over the other one.
• Learner may prepare a table comparing the two algorithms.
• He / she can try to explain how one should choose between these algorithms for a real-world
dataset (e.g., sorting marks lists of students, financial records, etc.).

Four-Phase Cycle of Learning

• Merrill’s 5 principles do not form merely a collection of separate ‘blueprints’ that might be used
in designing effective instruction.
• The principles are interrelated and together form a four-phase cycle of effective instruction
needed for teaching any whole task.
• In this cycle, the first phase is activation. This is followed by demonstration. Then we have
the application phase and finally we have the integrate phase.

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 Integration Activation

TASK

Application Demonstration

Structure-Guidance-Coaching-Reflection

reflection structure

Integration Activation

TASK

Application Demonstration

coaching guidance

Levels of Instructional Strategy

• Information-only instruction with “remember-what-I-told-you” questions tacked onto the end

is considered as low-level instructional strategy.
• As more of the first principles of Merrill get implemented in the instructional strategy, the
instructional strategy will reach higher levels.

Comments on FPI

• All most all the instructional models reported in the literature include at least some of the First
Principles. However, the terminology and implementation details do differ considerable among
these models.
• Significantly, none of the models contradict any of these principles!
• Some other models proposed principles like multiple intelligences (Gardner), Collaboration
(Nelson and many other researchers) are missing in FPI! However, instructors can use them as
required as they do not conflict with FPI.

Summary

• Merrill distilled a set of interrelated prescriptive principles for instruction design after reviewing
several instructional models.
• “Principles are not in and of themselves a model or method of instruction.”
• These principles can be implemented by different models and methods.
These 5 First Principles of Instruction are:
• Task-Centered Principle

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• Activation Principle
• Demonstration Principle
• Application Principle
• Integration Principle
As more of these first principles get implemented in the instructional strategy, the instructional
strategy will reach higher levels.
(Acknowledgements: We gratefully acknowledge the help from faculty from our earlier workshops
and Gen AI tools including ChatGPT 4.0 in generating examples and associated figures.)

W2U3: Experiential Learning

W2U3 Outcome

• Understand the features of Kolb’s principles of Experiential Learning.

What is Experiential Learning?

• Experiential Learning is a process where learners acquire knowledge and skills through direct
experience, reflection, conceptualization, and application, fostering deeper understanding and
personal growth
• This approach emphasizes learning as a dynamic, cyclical process that fosters deep
understanding, critical thinking, and personal development.
• It integrates concrete experiences with reflective observation and experimentation in real-
world or simulated contexts.

Main proponents of Experiential Learning

• John Dewey: Advocated for learning through experience and reflection as foundational to
education. (Democracy and Education - 1916),
• Kurt Lewin: Developed the experiential learning cycle and action research, emphasizing
learning through action and reflection.
• Jean Piaget: Focused on cognitive development via active discovery and assimilation of
experiences.
• David A. Kolb: Formalized the Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) and the learning cycle,
emphasizing concrete experience, reflection, conceptualization, and experimentation
(Experiential Learning (1984)).

Dynamic nature of learning

It refers to the continuous and evolving process through which individuals acquire, adapt, and
apply knowledge and skills.
(Alice Y. Kolb and David A. Kolb The Experiential Educator Principles and Practices of Experiential
Learning - 2017)
Key aspects:
• Continuous Change: Learning is not static; it evolves as new information and experiences
influence understanding.
• Adaptation: Learners adjust their thinking and behavior based on new insights, feedback, and
environments.

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• Interaction: Learning involves interacting with different contexts, people, and materials,
which shape and reshape understanding.
• Personalization: As learners bring unique perspectives and prior knowledge, learning
experiences are tailored to individual needs and styles.
• Reflection: Ongoing reflection on experiences helps deepen understanding and encourages
critical thinking.
Educational approaches, by embracing these characteristics can be more responsive and effective
in facilitating meaningful learning experiences.

Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) of Kolb and Kolb (2017)

• Learning as a Process: Emphasizes continuous learning, where knowledge is constantly

modified through experience.
• Integration of Experience: Combines concrete experiences, reflective observation, abstract
conceptualization, and active experimentation in a learning cycle.
• Holistic Approach: Involves cognitive, emotional, and environmental experiences to foster
comprehensive learning.
• Adaptability: Encourages adaptation to change, promoting flexibility and creativity through
experiential activities.
• Personal Reflection: Focuses on learners reflecting on their experiences critically to enhance
understanding and personal growth.
• Learner-Centric: Tailors experiences to meet the diverse needs and learning styles of
individuals.
These principles guide the design of instructional activities that foster engagement, reflection, and
application, aligning with the dynamic nature of learning.

The principle of “Learning is a Process”

• "Learning as a Process" highlights that effective learning is an active, contextual, ongoing cycle
where learners continuously reflect, conceptualize, and experiment based on their experiences.
• It underscores that learning is not static but evolves through structured engagement with real-
world or simulated experiences, integrating reflection and action for meaningful personal and
professional development.

Key Aspects of "Learning as a Process"

• Active and Constructive: Learning involves actively engaging with experiences, reflecting on
them, and constructing new understanding, rather than passively receiving information.
• Cyclical Nature: Learning occurs through a continuous cycle of concrete experience,
reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. In other words,
learners repeatedly move through these stages, which reinforce and deepen understanding.
• Personalized and Contextual: The process is unique to each learner, influenced by their
prior experiences, context, and individual differences. Learning adapts as the learner navigates
through the cycle.
• Dynamic and Interconnected: The stages are interconnected; progress in learning depends
on the fluid movement between experiences and reflection, leading to the development of new

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 insights and skills.
• Developmental: As learners traverse the cycle, they develop increasingly sophisticated ways
of understanding and applying knowledge, facilitating growth over time.

The principle of "Integration of Experience"

• "Integration of Experience" involves actively synthesizing and connecting diverse experiences,

knowledge, and reflections to build a coherent, holistic understanding.
• This process promotes critical thinking, practical application, and meaningful learning that
extends beyond isolated experiences, fostering ongoing personal and professional
development.

Key aspects of "Integration of Experience"

• Synthesizing Multiple Experiences: Learning involves bringing together different concrete

experiences, reflections, and insights to form a cohesive understanding. It is not enough to
have isolated experiences; the learner must integrate them to see patterns, relationships, and
overarching principles.
• Connecting Theory and Practice: Effective learning links theoretical knowledge with
practical experience, allowing learners to see how concepts apply in real-world contexts.
Integration helps in translating abstract ideas into concrete actions and vice versa.
• Developing Coherent Understanding: Through the integration of experiences, learners
develop a holistic perspective, making sense of diverse information and experiences in a
meaningful way. This synthesis aids in constructing mental models that guide future thinking
and action.
• Enhancing Critical Thinking and Problem Solving: By linking various experiences, learners
can analyze complex situations more effectively, leading to innovative solutions. Integration
promotes higher order thinking by encouraging learners to see connections across disciplines
and contexts.
• Fostering Personal and Professional Growth: The process of integrating experiences leads
to self-awareness, value clarification, and development of professional identity. It enables
learners to apply past experiences to new situations, building confidence and competence.

The principle of "Holistic Approach"

"Adaptability" refers to the capacity of learners and educators to remain flexible and responsive,
adjusting their understanding and actions in the face of new experiences and changing
circumstances, thereby fostering resilience, innovation, and continuous development.

Key aspects of "Holistic Approach"

• Integration of Multiple Dimensions: Learning involves not just acquiring facts or skills but
also engaging emotions, attitudes, and values. It recognizes that cognitive understanding,
emotional engagement, and social interaction are interconnected and essential for meaningful
learning.
• Engagement of the Whole Person: Facilitates active participation of the learner's mind,
emotions, and actions. Incorporates reflection, practice, and emotional experiences to foster

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 deeper learning.
• Recognition of Context and Environment: Learning is situated within real-life contexts,
considering social, cultural, and environmental influences. It emphasizes that understanding
comes from experiencing and reflecting within authentic settings.
• Fostering Personal and Social Growth: Supports development of values, attitudes, and
interpersonal skills alongside technical competencies. Encourages learners to develop self-
awareness, empathy, and ethical reasoning.
• Promoting Well-rounded Development: By addressing multiple aspects of the learner, the
holistic approach aims to cultivate responsible, reflective, and adaptable individuals capable of
contributing meaningfully to society.

The principle of "Adaptability"

It emphasizes that learning is an evolving process where individuals adjust, modify, and refine
their understanding and actions in response to new experiences, insights, and changing
environments.

Features of "Adaptability"

• Flexible Learning Process: Learners are encouraged to remain open to new experiences and
willing to alter their perspectives, strategies, and approaches based on ongoing feedback and
reflection. It underscores that learning is not fixed but adaptable to different contexts and
challenges.
• Responding to Change: As the environment or circumstances change (technological shifts,
societal needs, personal goals), learners modify their skills and understanding to stay relevant
and effective. This flexibility supports resilience and lifelong learning.
• Encouraging Innovation and Creativity: Adaptability fosters a mindset that seeks
innovative solutions and embraces uncertainty, complexity, and diversity. Learners develop the
capacity to navigate unfamiliar situations by applying their existing knowledge flexibly.
• Personal Growth and Development: Adaptive learners reflect on their experiences
continually and are willing to revise their beliefs, attitudes, and skills to improve performance.
It supports continuous self-improvement and professional development.
• Creating a Learning Culture: At an organizational or educational level, adaptability
promotes a culture that values experimentation, feedback, and evolution, leading to sustained
growth and improvement.

The principle of “Personal Reflection”

"Personal Reflection" is the intentional process of examining and making sense of one's
experiences to gain insights, foster self-awareness, and promote ongoing personal and
professional development. It transforms learning from mere activity into meaningful growth.

Features of “Personal Reflection”

• Critical Self-Assessment: Learners examine their experiences, questioning what happened,

why it happened, and what they can learn from it. This process involves honest evaluation of
strengths, weaknesses, emotions, and reactions.

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• Deep Processing of Experiences: Reflection encourages learners to go beyond surface-level
understanding and explore underlying reasons, assumptions, and biases. It supports the
development of deeper insights and self-awareness.
• Linking Experience to Learning: Personal reflection helps connect practical experiences with
theoretical knowledge, enriching understanding. It facilitates the integration of new insights
into one's existing mental models and future actions.
• Facilitating Change and Growth: Reflective thinking promotes openness to change,
adaptation, and continuous improvement. Learners develop the ability to modify their
behaviors, strategies, and attitudes based on reflective insights.
• Supports Emotional and Attitudinal Development: Reflection fosters emotional
intelligence by helping learners understand their reactions, motivations, and values. It
contributes to personal development and ethical reasoning.
• Encouragement of Reflective Practice: Regular, deliberate reflection becomes a habit,
supporting lifelong learning and professional competence. It can be facilitated through
reflective journals, discussions, or self-assessment exercises.

Example Instructional Unit

Solar Power System Design and Testing

1. Learning as a Process

• Students engage in a cyclical process: they design the system (concrete experience), reflect
on their design (reflective observation), develop theoretical models (abstract
conceptualization), and prototype/test (active experimentation). This cycle repeats as they
refine their work.

2. Integration of Experience
• Students incorporate hands-on activities such as assembling solar panels, wiring, and system
configuration while integrating classroom theory about PV cells, electrical circuits, and power
management. They synthesize these experiences into a cohesive system design.
3. Holistic Approach
• The unit addresses technical skills (circuit design, power calculations), cognitive understanding
(solar energy principles), emotional aspects (sustainability motivation), and social components
(collaborating on a team project). Reflective discussions include societal impacts of renewable
energy.
4. Adaptability
• Students are encouraged to adapt their design based on real-world factors like available
materials, environmental conditions, and economic constraints. They modify their prototypes
and strategies throughout the project as they learn from testing results.
5. Personal Reflection
• After each testing phase, students maintain reflective journals documenting what worked,
difficulties faced, and lessons learned. This fosters self-awareness, critical thinking, and
continuous improvement.
6. Learner-Centric
• Students choose specific design goals based on their interests (e.g., maximizing efficiency,

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 minimizing cost, or designing for a specific community). They work in teams, adopting
leadership roles and personal responsibilities, with instructors acting as facilitators.
Outcome
• By the end of this unit, students will have experienced the entire learning process - designing,
building, testing, reflecting, and refining - in a real-world engineering context, demonstrating
the holistic, adaptive, and active nature of experiential learning.

W2U4: Gagne’s Events of Instruction – Part I

W2U4: Outcomes

• Understand Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction (Part I)

Gagne’s Theory

• Gagne, considered the pioneer in designing and thinking in the direction of a systematic
approach to instructional design and its related concepts, proposed a Theory of Instruction
Design called “Nine Events of Instruction”.
• It is designed to enhance the teaching and learning process.
• This theory is based on behaviorism but draws from cognitivism also.
• The focus is on how information is effectively processed and retained.
• Each event in this theory corresponds to a step in the internal learning process and helps guide
instructional design.
• Gagne’s theory uses the concept of “conditions of learning”.
• “Conditions of learning“: Internal and External.

o Internal conditions deal with previously learned capabilities of the learner; what the
learner knows prior to the instruction.
o External conditions: Stimuli (a purely behaviorist term) that is presented externally to
the learner; the instruction provided to the learner.

• Conditions of learning get reflected in the model of instruction.

• According to Gagne, the nine events of instruction need to be planned based on the intended
learning outcomes.

Nine Events of Instruction

Event Description/Purpose

1. Gain attention Motivate the student. Present a good problem, an anecdote, ask questions
etc

2. Describe the goal State what students will be able to do at the end of the instructional unit –
the outcome

3. Stimulate recall of prior Remind the student of prior knowledge relevant to the current lesson
knowledge (facts, rules, procedures or skills). Show how knowledge is connected and
provide the student with a framework that helps learning.

4. Present the material to be Text, figures, graphics, simulations, etc. Present in small units of
learned instruction. Avoid memory overload

5. Provide guidance for Presentation of content is different from instructions on how to learn.
learning

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6. Elicit performance “practice” Let the learner apply the newly acquired knowledge. At least, use MCQs.

7. Provide informative Analyze the learner’s practice performance; provide feedback; and
feedback perhaps present a good solution of the problem.

8. Assess performance Test the depth of learning. Provide general progress information

9. Enhance retention and Inform the learner about similar problem situations and provide additional
transfer practice.

Event 1: Gain Attention

Motivate the student. Present a good problem, an anecdote, ask questions etc.,
• In order, for any learning to take place, you must first capture the attention of the student.
• This is a necessary event to ensure that the students become ready to learn and participate in
the subsequent learning activities. Instructor implements this event by presenting a stimulus
to capture the attention of learners.
• Instructor must motivate the students.
• The theory does not prescribe any specific approaches for gaining the attention of learners.
• Approach to be used for gaining the attention of learners is Instructor’s choice.
Some methods suggested in the literature for capturing learners’ attention:
• A relevant multimedia presentation that startles the learners.
• A thought-provoking question or interesting fact in the very beginning. Curiosity motivates
students to learn.
• Stimulate students with novelty, uncertainty, and surprise related to the topic of study.
• Have learners pose questions to be answered by other learners in a group discussion.
Example:
(Learning Outcome: At the end of the instructional unit, learners will be able to apply Nyquist-
Shannon Sampling Theorem.)
• Start with a relatable multimedia demo: Play a short audio clip sampled at different rates
(e.g., 44.1 kHz vs. 4 kHz) to demonstrate distortion/quality difference.
• Ask a thought-provoking question: “Why does music on an old cassette sound different from a
digital recording on your phone?”
• ……
Example:
(Learning Outcome: Apply Bernoulli’s equation to solve engineering problems involving fluid flow in
pipes and nozzles.)
• Demo video clip: Show a real-world failure due to fluid pressure miscalculation (e.g., a pipe
burst).
• Prompt: What caused this failure? Let the learners share briefly their reasonings.

Event 2: Describe the Goal

• It is well-established that students learn better when they are made aware, upfront, of what
they will be able to do at the end of the instructional unit. (Outcome as discussed in the earlier
courses such as TALE, NATE, OBEA on OBE (Outcome Based Education))
• The outcome may be elaborated into competencies.
• As discussed in the above courses, this event initiates the internal process of expectancy and

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 helps motivate the learner to engage with and complete the lesson. Further, we know that
such outcomes should form the basis for assessment and such an alignment will improve
learning.
• When an outcome is elaborated further into a set of competencies, Instructor has the choice of
designing an instruction plan

o considering each competency as an unit by itself (all the nine events of Gagne are
implemented separately for each competency)
OR
o considering the entire set of competencies as one unit (all the nine events of Gagne
are implemented in an integrated way for the set of competencies. This does not
exclude specific events to be planned separately for specific competencies!)

Example Competencies:
At the end of the Instructional Unit, learners will be able to:

• Define heat transfer and explain its significance in mechanical systems.

• Differentiate among conduction, convection, and radiation.
• Identify real-life examples of each heat transfer mode.
• Solve simple problems of Heat Transfer applying the basic laws including Fourier’s Law,
Newton’s Law of Cooling, and Stefan-Boltzmann Law.

Another set of competencies:

• Determine appropriate sampling rate for a given signal using Nyquist-Shannon Sampling
Theorem.
• Understand aliasing and how to prevent it.

Event 3: Stimulate Recall of Prior Knowledge

• Help students make sense of new information by relating it to something they already know or
something they have already experienced.
• Remind the student of prior knowledge relevant to the planned current learning.
• The prior knowledge can include facts, concepts, procedures or skills.
• Show the learners the knowledge linkages and provide the learners with a framework that
helps learning.
• We have seen in the earlier Unit on Merrill’s Principles that building the new knowledge on the
foundation of prior knowledge facilitates good learning.
Some useful approaches for stimulating recall of prior knowledge:
• Ask questions about previous experiences.
• Guide the learners in a group discussion about the relevant previous concepts
• Help the learners in establishing the necessary knowledge connections.
Stimulate recall of prior knowledge: Example
(Current Topic: Heat Transfer Modes)
• Ask the learners to recall the first law of thermodynamics.
• Quick discussion on the differences between heat and temperature.
• Refer to previous knowledge about basic properties of materials including thermal conductivity.

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Stimulate recall of prior knowledge: Example
(Current Topic: Bernoulli’s Principle)
Ask focused questions on:
• Conservation of energy (from physics).
• Continuity equation from Fluid Mechanics.

Event 4: Present the Material to be Learned

• This event of instruction is where the new content is actually presented to the learners in an
effective, engaging, and efficient way.
• A common misconception is that Instruction is all about this single event only.
• Several instructional methods are available to the instructors today.
• In later Units, we discuss some of these including Direct Instruction, Problem-Based
Instruction, Project-Based Instruction, Instruction for Design Thinking. Instruction for
Metacognition, Instruction for Critical Thinking and Problem Solving, Instructional Methods that
leverage Generative AI tools and so on.

W2U5: Gagne’s Events of Instruction – Part II

W2U5: Outcomes

• Understand remaining five of Gagne’s “Nine Events of Instruction’.

Event 5: Provide Guidance for Learning

• Presentation of content is different from guidance for learning.

• Guidance supports deeper understanding and long-term memory storage.
• Guidance should be provided to help learners encode information for long-term storage
(Semantic encoding).
• Help students learn how to learn!
Some methods of providing guidance for learning:
• Use mnemonics, analogies, visual images, metaphors … …
• Use examples as well as non-examples.
• Help the learners use strategies like Concept Maps, Note Making, … (We will discuss these in
detail in later Units)
• Scaffolding
• Case studies
Example:
(Topic: Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem.)
• Use analogies: Flipping pages of a flipbook too slowly → missed motion.
• Provide sampling simulations using software tools like SCILAB / MATLAB.
• Provide practical applications like audio clips, medical imaging.
Example:
(Current Topic: Bernoulli’s Principle)
• Misconceptions to Watch: Emphasize limits of the principle (e.g., not valid across shockwaves
or in turbulent, viscous flows).
• Concept Map: Show where Bernoulli’s Equation fits in the broader context of fluid mechanics.

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Event 6: Elicit Performance “Practice”

• Let the learners apply what they have learned to reinforce their newly acquired knowledge and
skills.
• Eliciting performance provides an opportunity for learners to confirm their correct
understanding.
• Ask learners to complete exercises, solve problems, or answer questions.
• Let the learners engage in group activities or simulations.
• The repetition further increases the likelihood of retention.
Example:
(Topic: Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem.)
Let the students solve a short, focussed, targeted problem:
• A signal contains frequencies up to 8 kHz. What is the minimum sampling rate required?
Group Activity:
• Sample a Sine Wave at 3 different sampling rates using Simulation Software and discuss the
results. Plot the results and explain them in the group.
Example:
(Topic: Heat Transfer Modes)
Let the students solve a short, focussed, targeted problem:
• Calculate the heat loss through a 1 cm thick steel plate when one side is at 150°C and the
other is at 10°C.
Let the students work in pairs to classify different heat transfer modes in the given cases:
• Microwave Owen
• Baking
• ……

Event 7: Provide Informative Feedback

• As learners practice new knowledge and skills, provide specific and immediate feedback of
their performance.
• Such timely and constructive feedback facilitates learning and allows learners to identify gaps
in understanding early. It strengthens correct knowledge.
• Use positive reinforcement and correct mistakes gently.
• The importance of this event in reinforcing the learning is well known.
• Exercises in tutorials may be used to help learners in their comprehension and encoding. It is
not desirable to use scores in such exercises as a part of formal assessment (for grading
purposes).
• Review student answers and explain reasoning for incorrect responses. (and even for correct
responses if it helps learner’s understanding).
• Encourage students to explain their reasoning during problem-solving.
• Additional guidance and answers provided at this stage are part of formative feedback.

Event 8: Assess Performance

• Upon completing Instructional Unit, the learner is required to undergo a final, summative
assessment.

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• The learner is not to be provided any coaching, hints, or any other form of help during such an
assessment
• The performance of the learner in such an assessment contributes to the award of a grade for
the learner.
• This event of “Assess Performance” allows the instructor to determine the extent to which the
learning outcome stated up front has been achieved by the learners and adjust “Instruction” if
required when the same topic is offered again to the learners.
• Several methods of assessment are available to the instructor and include Quizzes,
Assignments, Project works, Oral Presentations so on.
• It is essential that the assessment is in alignment with the stated learning outcome.
• Technology can be leveraged to assess the performance effectively and efficiently.
• In a formal education program, assessment and computation of the attainment of learning
outcomes is an integral part of Outcome Based Education (OBE) framework and is discussed in
detail in courses like TALE, NATE, OBEA.

Event 9: Enhance Retention and Transfer

• Help learners retain more information by providing them opportunities to connect course
concepts to potential real-world applications.
• Help learners apply knowledge in new contexts.
Some methods to enhance retention and transfer:
• Ensure that the learner clearly sees the connections among the currently mastered knowledge
and skills with those acquired earlier and with a preview of those to be acquired in the
subsequent courses. (Avoid isolating course content.)
• Continually incorporate questions from previous assessments tests in subsequent assessments
to reinforce the learning.
• Have students summarize the learning using tools like concept maps. (We will discuss tools
like Concept Maps, Mind Maps in later Units)
• To promote deep learning, clearly articulate the learning outcomes, ensure that there is a
strong alignment among Outcomes, Instruction, and Assessment (central idea of OBE).
Example:
(Topic: Nyquist-Shannon Sampling Theorem.)
• Discuss real-world consequences of violating the Sampling Theorem (e.g., distorted images,
poor audio quality).
• Recommend watching a demo of aliasing in video (e.g., wagon-wheel effect).
• Connect to future topics: Quantization, A/D conversion, Digital filters
Example:
(Topic: Bernoulli’s Principle)
• Project: Analyze the fluid dynamics in a real-world engineering system like Fuel Injector.
• Group Discussion: Form small groups of learners and ask them to study and prepare a report
on applications of Bernoulli’s Principle in different domains (e.g., Hydraulics, Aerodynamics,
Automobile, Biomedical)
• Simulation Assignment: Use a simulation tool like MATLAB to visualize pressure vs. velocity in
varying pipe geometries.

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Summary

Event Description Purpose

1. Gain Attention Capture interest Engage learners
2. Inform Objectives State goals Set expectations
3. Stimulate Recall Activate prior knowledge Build connections
4. Present Content Deliver material Teach new info
5. Provide Guidance Support understanding Deepen learning
6. Elicit Performance Practice Reinforce concepts
7. Provide Feedback Correct and support Improve learning
8. Assess Performance Evaluate learning Measure success
9. Enhance Retention & Transfer Apply knowledge Ensure long-term use

• Gagne’s nine events of instruction provides a good framework for Instruction Design.
• It takes into consideration conditions for learning.
• The theory lists nine events in order. However, instructor may adapt this framework based on
the identified learning outcomes, background of the students, and resource constraints.
(Implementation details for each event including time allocated, resources committed etc., can
be fine tuned.)

W3

• Understand Instructional Components.

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