SCIENCE REVIEWER

Plate Tectonics Types of Body Waves:

Tectonic Plates (lithospheric plates) - is a massive Primary waves or P waves

irregularly shaped slab of solid rocks. Secondary waves or S Waves
Lithosphere - the crust and part of the upper mantle. Types of Surface Waves
Asthenosphere - It is located below the lithosphere. Love Waves
It is malleable or partially malleable, allowing the
lithosphere to move around. Rayleigh Waves

Crust - It is the thickest part of the earth. It is made Body wave - is a seismic wave that moves through
of a variety of solid rocks like sedimentary, the interior of the earth.
metamorphic, and igneous.
Surface wave - is a seismic wave that is trapped near
Oceanic Crust - Water or Sea Land, the surface of the earth.

Relatively thinner but denser than continental crust. P waves or Primary waves - are the first

Continental Crust - Land, thicker but less dense. waves to arrive at a seismograph.

Earthquake - sudden and violent shaking of the P waves are the fastest seismic waves and can move
ground. through solid, liquid, or gas.

Magnitude - is a measure of earthquake size and S waves or Secondary Waves - are seismic body
remains unchanged with distance from the waves meaning they travel through the Earth's
earthquake. interior.

Intensity - ground shaking at that location by S waves velocity is slower than that of P waves.
considering the effects of the shaking on people
Love waves - is a surface wave having a horizontal
Epicenter - part of the earth's surface directly above motion that is transverse (or perpendicular) to the
the focus of an earthquake (point where the crust direction the wave is traveling.
breaks).
Rayleigh Waves - move the surface of the earth
Focus - Where the earthquake begins. around in a circle, forward and down then back and
up.
Fault - a weak point in the tectonic plate where
pressure within the crust is release to last waves. Triangulation method - can be used to locate an
earthquake.
Seismograph - is an apparatus to measure and
record vibration (Device). Pacific Ring of fire, ring of Fire or Circum-pacific belt
- is a region around much of the rim of the Pacific
Seismogram - Result or the output. Ocean where many volcanic eruptions and
Seismometer - is the data or the main part of earthquakes.
seismograph. 75% of Earth's volcanoes-more than 450 volcanoes-
Main Types of Waves: are located along the Ring of Fire. 90% of Earth's
earthquakes occur along its path, including the
Body Waves planet's most violent and dramatic seismic events.

Surface Waves
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Primary Plates - (Pacific, North America, Eurasia, Subduction zone - is the place where two
Africa, Indo-Australian, Antarctica, and South
lithospheric plates come together, one riding over
America) that make up the majority of the earth's
the other (overlapping).
surface and the Pacific Ocean.
Subduction zone form when a continental crust and
Secondary Plates - Caribbean, the Cocos, the Juan de
oceanic crust collide.
Fuca, the Nazca, the Philippines Sea, and the Scotia
Oceanic - Oceanic Convergence – A boundary
Oceanic Plates - plates below the ocean
between the crusts is created -trench.
Continental Plates - are plates below a continent.
Trench - a long, narrow depression in the ocean floor
Types of Boundaries: and a crack on the crust which is underwater.
Tsunamis may be formed. Earthquakes may happen.
Convergent (Collide)
Volcanic Island Arc - series of volcanoes surrounded
Divergent (separation)
by water.
Transform (Sliding)
At the mantle, the leading edge of the subducting
Divergent plate boundaries - mostly happen under plate melts and becomes fluid which turns into a hot
the oceans. molten material called Magma.

Rift Valley - a vertical space that may extend deep Mantle Plume - the column of rising magma
down into the lowest layer of the crust is created as
Volcanic Arc - a group of volcanoes is formed at the
plates pull away from each other.
surface of the continental crust along the boundary
Mantle Convection - is the very slow creeping where the two crusts converged.
motion of Earth's solid silicate mantle as convection
Tsunami - a Japanese term for harbor wave. This
currents carrying heat from the interior to the
event is very dangerous when it moves in land and
planet's surface.
destroys lives and properties.
These materials pile up near the tension zone
Collision Zone - occurs when two continental crusts
forming mountain-like structures called oceanic
or plates converged and could cause shallow
ridges.
earthquakes.
Seafloor Spreading - is the filled-up space between
In Continental - Continental Convergence
the plates becomes a new seafloor.
there is NO VOLCANOES OR TSUNAMIS may form
Convergent Plate Boundary - It occurs when two
and happen.
plates slide towards each other and form either a
SUBDUCTION ZONE (if one plate moves underneath The convergence will result in the formation of a
the other) or an OROGENIC BELT (if the two simply group of high landforms - Mountain Ranges.
collide and compress)
Density - is the mass of a unit volume of a material
Orogenic belt - is a region of deformed racks. substance.

Subduction - is when the less dense plate will go up Granite - made in continental crust and has a low
and the denser plate will go down. density.

The granite and recycled material are much lighter

than the heavy basalt layers of the ocean plates.
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Basalt - Made in oceanic crust and has a high
density.
Wegener came up with his theory by noticing the
Basalt is denser and heavier than the granite that similarity in the coastlines Eastern South America
makes up the continental plates. and Western Africa of seemed to fit together, rather
like jigsaw pieces.
Transform fault plate boundary - The plates slide
against each other in opposite directions. No Brazil and Western Africa - are places were in
mountains, trenches or volcanoes are produced. physical contact when the fossilized animals and
plants were alive.
Processes and Landforms along with the
convergence of plates Fossil and geological evidence - are evidences that
Wegener found in Brazil and Western Africa.
Oceanic - Oceanic
Greenland - Second Expedition
Oceanic Continental
His work on continental drift then suffered two
Continental – Continental
interruptions: a second expedition to Greenland,
The Layers of the Earth followed by the outbreak of World War 1-Wegener
was conscripted into the German Army.
Crust: The thinnest layer, composed of solid rock and
minerals, including the continental and oceanic The Origin of Continents and Oceans - while being in
crust. prison Wegener published his groundbreaking book.

Mantle: A thick, mostly solid layer beneath the crust, In this book he discussed the movements of the
composed of dense rocks that can flow like a very Earth's Continents or his Theory.
slow-moving liquid due to high temperatures. It's Pangaea
further divided into the upper and lower mantle.
All Earth
Outer Core: A liquid layer composed mainly of iron
and nickel, responsible for generating Earth's Super Continents
magnetic field.
Just before the days of the dinosaurs the Earth's
Inner Core: A solid, dense sphere of iron, kept solid continents were all connected into one huge
by immense pressure, despite extremely high landmass.
temperatures.
Panthalassa
Continental Drift Theory This huge supercontinent was surrounded by one
gigantic ocean.
Alfred Lothar Wegener - proposed the theory of
continental drift the idea that Earth's continents Super Ocean
move

1910 - In this year Wegener stated his theory.

1960 - When continental drift finally became part of

mainstream science.

Brazil and Western Africa - First Expedition.

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The familiar rock strata of the Karroo system of
South Africa matched correctly with the Santa
The Evolution of Pangaea Catarina system in Brazil.

Permian - Earth's crustal plates formed a single, Brazil and Ghana Mountain ranges agreeing over the
massive continent called Pangaea. Atlantic Ocean.

Period 250-300 million years ago Glaciers carve - rocks and leave marks as they move.

Triassic - This era is popularly known as the "Age of Coal deposits - are found in sedimentary rock basins,
Reptiles" where they appear as successive layers.

This is the time when the supercontinent was Fossils

divided into two big continents.
Mesosaurus - is known to have been a type of
Period 100 million years ago reptile, similar to the modern crocodile, which
propelled itself through the water with its long hind
Laurasia - Northern Continents
legs and limber tail. (Found solely in South Africa
Gondwana - Southern Continents and Eastern South America.)

Jurassic - was a golden time for dinosaurs. Cynognathus - was a mammal-like reptile. Roaming
the terrains during the Triassic period (250 to 240
Period 145 million years ago
million years ago), it was as large as a modern wolf.
Cretaceous - last period and ending with the
Lystrosaurus - which translates to "shovel reptile," is
extinction of the dinosaurs.
thought to have been an herbivore with a stout built
Period 65 million years ago like a pig. (Found in Antarctica, India, and South
Africa)
PRESENT DAY
Glossopteris - the most important fossil evidence
In 1920, 1922 and 1929, Wegener published updated found in the plant (found in Australia, Antarctica,
editions of The Origin of Continents and Oceans India, South Africa, and South America all the
He also added further evidence he had gathered in southern continents.1
Greenland, which showed that Greenland and North Glossopteris seed - is known to be large and bulky
America were once linked. and possibly could not have drifted or flown across
Frank Bursley Taylor - An American geologist who the oceans to a separate continent.
had published evidences to support the idea of Added Questions:
Continental Drift or Wegener's theory.
Alfred Lothar Wegener - He was credited for the
Geological "Fit" Evidence - It is the matching of idea of Continental Drift Theory.
large-scale geological features on different
illustration showing similar rock assemblages across Pangaea - All continents were once joined together
different continents. forming a supercontinent

Example: Glossopteris - It is possibly the most important fossil

plant evidence that continents are drifting.
The Appalachian Mountains of eastern North
America linked with the Scottish Highlands.
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Wegener's Evidences: Supporting ideas about the seafloor spreading
theory:
continental fit
Rocks are younger at the mid ocean ridge.
rocks
Rocks far from the mid ocean ridges are older.
fossils
Sediments are thinner at the ridges
Coal deposits
Rocks at the ocean floor are younger than those at
Ancient climate
the continents
Glaciers scars.
Magnetic Reversal
South America and Africa - two specific continents
fit together most noticeably. Magnetic Reversal - the process by which the North
pole is transformed into a South pole and the South
Seafloor Spreading pole becomes a North pole.

Harry Hammond Hess - envisaged that oceans grew 780,000 years ago was the last flipped of earth's
from their centers, with molten material (basalt) magnetic poles.
oozing up from the Earth's mantle along the mid
If our outer core cooled down then there would be
ocean ridges.
no earthquakes or volcanoes.
Harry Hess and Robert Dietz 1960 - They were
Outer core have a huge role on producing its
oceanographers who further developed the idea that
magnetic field.
the seafloors were spreading.
The Magnetic Field protects the earth atmosphere
Mid-Ocean Ridge - the undersea mountain chain
from the direct contract from the sun or solar winds.
where new ocean floor is produced; a divergent
plate boundary. 3 Evidences that Support the plates Movement

Sonar - a device that determines the distance of an Continental Drift

object under water by recording echoes of sound
Seafloors Spreading
waves.
Magnetic Reversal
Once na may nag didivergent or naghihiwalay na
plates sa gitna may possibility na may mag Mantle Convection
coconvergent or nagmemeet na plate sa side, in that
case merong isang plate ang magsusubduct and Density - Convection current is caused by differences
isang plate ang magooverlap, with is yung bababa or in temperature resulting to variation.
magsusubduct is yung denser while yung
It is a measure of how much mass there is in a
magooverlap is yung less dense.
volume of a substance.
Once na magmelt yung plate magiging maama siya
Shows the amount of matter in a given space for a
yun yung process ng mantle convection after maging
substance.
magma dahil sa high temperature magraraise yun or
aangat na magiging bagong seafloor.

Seafloor Spreading - mechanism by which new

oceanic lithosphere is created at and moves away
from divergent plate boundaries.
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CONVECTION CURRENT Subduction zone - The region in which one plate
moves under another.

Subduction zone is formed if one plate moves

WARM FLUIDS Rises Less Dense
underneath the other.
COLD FLUIDS Sinks More dense
Convection currents - The motion of gas or liquid
caused by differences in temperature.

Scientists believe thar the motion of tectonic plates A convection current - is a heat transfer process that
is caused by Convection Currents. involves the movement of energy from one place to
another.
Plates move slowly and continuously when the hot
less dense material rises. The rising hot material Ridge push - A driving force for plate motion at mid-
cools down in a certain area. ocean ridges as a result of the rigid lithosphere
sliding down
Hence, it becomes denser than the cool, dense
material sinks that creates convection cell, with hot Ridge push happens when the lithosphere is pushed
rising currents and cool sinking currents are regularly up by the asthenosphere because of convection
repeated and become a cycle. currents from the mantle.

The movement of the lithospheric plate is attributed Slab pull (gravity) - takes place when subducting slab
to mantle convection and considered as one of the sinks into the hot mantle because of a difference in
driving mechanisms for plate motion. temperature. The rest of the plate to which the slab
is attached to is being pulled in as well.
Volume - measures how much space a substance
occupies. Subduction - is the process of one plate moving
under another plate.
Mass - measures the amount of matter in. the
substance. Tectonic plates ride on Asthenosphere

Hot molten materials in a convection cell rises near The asthenosphere is a soft, less rigid upper part of
the mantle the mantle where the lithospheric plates float and
move around.
The Mantle - is the second inner layer of Earth, made
up of mostly hot rocks and magma. It is a very hot At the mid ocean ridge - The region where old crust
layer because of the heat generated by the core. melted back into magma.

The Core -The source of heat in mantle convection Two Types of Forces:
current.
DRIVING FORCES
Mantle convection - is a process by which thermal
Either push tectonic plates toward each other or pull
convection occurs in the inner layer of the earth.
them apart.
Plate Tectonic - The idea that Earth's lithosphere is
RESISTING FORCES
broken up into separate plates that float on the
mantle. Act against the driving forces of plate tectonics.

Plate Tectonic Theory was developed in 1960s,

stating that the Earth's lithosphere-the crust and the
DRIVING FORCES
upper mantle- is broken up into several pieces called
plates that move slowly. Mantle convection
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Slab pull Slab suction

Ridge push

RESISTING FORCES

Slab resistance Collisional resistance Transform fault

resistance Drag force

3 Method of Heat Transfer

Conduction - direct

Radiation-indirect

Convection - Cycle

CRUST

200-400 degrees celsius

LITHOSPHERE

300-500 degrees celsius

ASTHENOSPHERE

4500 degrees celsius

OUTER CORE

4400 degrees celsius

INNER CORE

5505 degrees Celsius

Following process of Mantle Convection

1. The decomposition of radioactive elements causes

heat in the interior part of the Earth.

2. Heat moves to the core.

3. Heat slowly rises to the mantle and creates

convection current.

4. Lithospheric plates move in the asthenosphere

due to the rising and sinking of materials.

5. The process repeats as a cycle.