FUNDAMENTAL OF RESEARCH​ ○​ Search: A verb meaning to

CHAP 1-3 REVIEWER examine closely, test, try, or

probe.
●​ Together, the term implies a careful,
systematic, and patient investigation
Unit 1 – INTRODUCTION TO
to establish facts or principles
RESEARCH (Grinnell & Unrau, 2008).

Definition of Research: Purpose of Research:

●​ Research is about generating ●​ To understand the content of

knowledge based on what we directed reading in courses.

believe the world is. ●​ To support the writing of essays and

●​ It involves a structured inquiry that literature reviews.

uses scientific methods to solve ●​ To plan and execute projects

problems and create new, generally involving investigation or evaluation.

applicable knowledge. ●​ To seek solutions to problems or

●​ Research is a systematic way of find answers to meaningful

examining one’s practice, essential questions.

in many professions. ●​ Meaningful questions are framed

●​ It is more than a skill; it is a way of to indicate acceptable answers.

thinking and involves critical ●​ Non-meaningful questions (e.g.,

examination of work. judgmental or metaphysical) cannot

●​ It fosters a habit of questioning and be resolved through inquiry alone.

systematically analyzing information ●​ To confirm assumptions or beliefs

to find answers. through scientific validation.

●​ To generate new knowledge,
Etymology of Research: contributing to and expanding
existing knowledge.
●​ The term "research" comes from two
syllables:
○​ Re: A prefix meaning again,
anew, or over again.
Characteristics of Research:
 ●​ Utilizes scientific methodology, ●​ Acts as a journey of self-discovery,
including: contributing to personal and
○​ Systematic observation. professional growth.
○​ Classification of data. ●​ Produces good research results,
○​ Interpretation of results. which expand the existing body of
●​ Emphasizes formality, knowledge and provide valuable
rigorousness, verifiability, and insights.
general validity over day-to-day
generalizations. • Nature and Meaning of
●​ Reports findings in a way that makes
Research
methods and outcomes accessible
to others (Allison et al., 2016).
Research is a scientific method of
inquiry involving:
●​ Systematic processes.
Skills Needed for Research:
●​ The use of right methods and
●​ Good library working skills to locate
techniques.
and select relevant materials.
●​ Application of appropriate tools for
●​ An eye for detail to identify specific
investigation and analysis.
and crucial information.
●​ An inquisitive mind to explore and
Definition of the Scientific Method:
investigate deeply.
●​ Critical thinking and the ability to
A systematic body of techniques for
think outside conventions for
investigating phenomena, acquiring new
innovative insights.
knowledge, or correcting and integrating
previous knowledge (Goldhaber & Nieto,
Value of Research:
2010).
●​ Although toilsome, research is an
exciting adventure of discovery.
Steps of the Scientific Method:
●​ It helps individuals learn about
global, regional, and local issues.
1.​ Start by asking a question about an
●​ Deepens one’s knowledge and
observation (How, What, When,
experience in topics of interest.
Who, Which, Why, or Where?).
 2.​ Formulate a hypothesis: an
educated guess or explanation that • Importance of Research
can be tested.
3.​ Use the hypothesis to make a
Source of New Discoveries:
prediction.
4.​ Design an experiment to test the ●​ Research generates new
prediction, changing only one factor knowledge to support the truth and
at a time while keeping other uncover new phenomena.
conditions constant. ●​ It provides tools to deduce meaning
5.​ Collect data/measurements and from complex situations.
analyze them to determine if they
Informed Decision-Making:
support the hypothesis.

●​ Research aids in making informed

Outcome of the Scientific Method: decisions by providing reliable data
and insights.
●​ If the hypothesis is not supported,
communicate the results and use the Improving Education:
findings to construct a new
●​ Research enhances the quality of
hypothesis and prediction.
teaching in universities through
●​ If the hypothesis is supported,
evidence-based approaches.
further testing may be conducted to
validate it in different ways. Enhancing Business Success:
●​ This iterative process often restarts
as researchers refine their ●​ It helps organizations and

understanding and approach. businesses:

○​ Re-think or redesign
aspects of their operations.
○​ Improve processes to
achieve success.

Policy Creation and Problem-Solving:

●​ Research supports the creation and

implementation of policies,
procedures, and tools.
 ●​ It helps address societal and numerical measures and are treated
organizational problems across statistically.
local, national, regional, and
international levels. • The Research Process
Alignment with National Development
1. Begin with a Question
Goals:
●​ Identify a topic or theory that
●​ Research funded by government
interests you.
agencies should align with the
●​ Choose a problem or question that
national development plan.
addresses gaps or unresolved
●​ It must be relevant and responsive
issues in your field.
to societal needs, with practical
●​ Ensure the research question stems
applications for improving
from:
organizational processes.
○​ Conflicting theoretical claims.
○​ Conflicting results from
previous studies.
• Characteristics of Research
○​ Recommendations from past
• Empirical - based on observations and
researchers.
experimentation on theories.
●​ Avoid obvious or irrelevant
• Systematic - follows orderly and
comparisons, ensuring your question
sequential procedure.
is meaningful and researchable.
• Controlled - all variables except those
that are tested/experimented upon are kept 2. Search for Information
constant.
●​ Look for related literature and
• Employs hypothesis – an assumption
studies to build a theoretical or
that guides the investigation process
schematic framework (if applicable).
• Analytical - There is critical analysis of all
●​ Understand the variables and
data used so that there is no error in their
relationships within the framework.
interpretation
●​ Read extensively across academic,
• Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all
trade, and popular sources.
findings are logically based on empirical
●​ Take notes and start writing early,
data
incorporating personal insights and
• Employs quantitative or statistical
critical analysis.
methods - data are transformed into
3. Propose Your Research independently, hiring assistance for
technical tasks if necessary.
●​ Write a thesis proposal, including:
○​ Purpose and significance of 5. Write the Thesis
the study.
●​ Structure the thesis with common
○​ Literature review and
elements:
theoretical framework.
○​ Chapter 1: Purpose and
○​ Research questions,
significance of the study.
hypotheses, and
○​ Chapter 2: Review of the
methodologies.
literature.
○​ Proposed instrumentation
○​ Chapter 3: Methodology.
and data collection methods.
○​ Chapter 4: Findings.
●​ Develop a working title with clear,
○​ Chapter 5: Discussions and
concise claims supported by your
Conclusion (sometimes
research.
combined with Findings).
●​ Collaborate with team members to
●​ Ensure full understanding of the
refine the proposal.
research before starting to write.
●​ Present and clear the proposal with
a thesis review panel, ensuring 6. Revise and Finalize
informed consent protocols are in
place. ●​ Refine the thesis with input from the
research team and review panels.
4. Gather Research Data ●​ Prepare both the thesis manuscript
and a publishable version for
●​ Collect data using the
defense.
methodologies outlined in your
proposal.
●​ Analyze the data to answer the
research questions.
●​ Develop Chapters 4-5 of the thesis
(Findings, and
Discussion/Conclusion).
●​ Seek guidance from committee
members while working
• Difficulties Encountered in methods best suit the
research questions.
Research
○​ Designing a clear, executable
methodology that aligns with
1. Choosing the Right Topic
the study's objectives.

●​ Challenges: ●​ Strategies:

○​ Identifying a compelling, ○​ Base the methodology on

manageable, and research questions, not

resource-feasible topic. personal preferences.

○​ Ensuring it holds long-term ○​ Clarify the problem and

interest and adds value to purpose of the study to guide

the field. methodological decisions.

●​ Strategies: ○​ Pilot test the design and

○​ Develop a topic that aligns consult experts to refine data

with available resources. collection and analysis plans.

○​ Immerse yourself in existing

literature to find theoretical
frameworks. 3. Assembling a Research Team
○​ Look for a unique angle or
gap in the field but manage ●​ Challenges:
expectations about its ○​ Finding and collaborating
impact. with mentors, committee
○​ Be open to refining or even members, and peers.
shifting your topic based on ○​ Building a team with
feedback and new insights. complementary skills and
aligning expectations.
●​ Strategies:
○​ Seek constructive feedback
2. Selecting the Right
from colleagues and experts.
○​ Carefully select and vet
Methodology
committee members,

●​ Challenges: ensuring compatibility and

○​ Determining whether shared goals.

qualitative or quantitative
 ○​ Clearly communicate your ○​ Work on a topic you are
needs to collaborators and passionate about and believe
team members. in its potential impact.
○​ Break tasks into smaller
goals and reward yourself for
milestones.
4. Recruiting Study Participants
○​ Seek support from family,

●​ Challenges: friends, and mentors who

○​ Locating participants, can encourage and assist.

especially within hidden or

hard-to-reach populations.
○​ Overcoming resistance or 6. Analyzing and Interpreting Data
institutional barriers.
●​ Strategies: ●​ Challenges:
○​ Leverage networks and use ○​ Handling large volumes of
snowball sampling to expand data.
reach. ○​ Avoiding bias and ensuring
○​ Be persistent and creative in findings align with the
approaching institutions and research questions.
individuals. ●​ Strategies:
○​ Build relationships with ○​ Use software tools to identify
gatekeepers and clearly patterns and organize data
communicate the study's systematically.
value. ○​ Stay grounded in the
methodology and research
questions.
○​ Address potential biases and
5. Managing Motivation and Time
allow the data to shape your

●​ Challenges: conclusions.

○​ Maintaining enthusiasm and

productivity amidst setbacks
and competing 7. Navigating Institutional
responsibilities.
Challenges
●​ Strategies:
 ●​ Challenges: ○​ Regularly consult with
○​ Gaining approval and advisors to ensure alignment
support from institutions, with expectations.
especially for sensitive or
controversial topics. Difficulties Encountered in
●​ Strategies: Research by Student Researchers
○​ Pursue alternative institutions
or collaborators if faced with
initial rejections.
1. Choosing the Right Topic
○​ Network and build
relationships with ●​ Challenges:
stakeholders. ○​ Selecting a topic that is
○​ Present yourself and your narrow, specific, and
research professionally, contributes a fresh
emphasizing potential perspective.
benefits. ○​ Facing rejections due to
proposing broad or
unfocused topics.

8. Presentation and Publication ●​ Strategies:

○​ Review PhD-level research
●​ Challenges: papers to understand how
○​ Effectively organizing specific topics are chosen.
findings for publication or ○​ Identify gaps or niches in the
defense. field that offer potential for
○​ Ensuring clarity, coherence, original insights.
and adherence to academic ○​ Explore recent publications
standards. and academic journals for
●​ Strategies: inspiration.
○​ Let data drive the structure ○​ Focus on a single, clearly
and presentation of your defined research area rather
findings. than an umbrella topic.
○​ Use detailed quotes and data
points to illustrate key
conclusions.
2. Selecting the Correct ●​ Challenges:

Methodology ○​ Building on existing research

requires access to quality
●​ Challenges: materials, which can be
○​ Aligning methodology with difficult to find.
research questions and ○​ Limited availability of relevant
objectives. or up-to-date resources.
○​ Risk of rejection if the ●​ Strategies:
proposed methods are ○​ Utilize academic journals as
unclear or unsuitable. primary sources for recent
○​ Overcoming obstacles such and credible research.
as finding participants or ○​ Leverage university library
accessing resources. services for access to
●​ Strategies: textbooks, journals, and
○​ Formulate precise research archives.
questions before deciding on ○​ Consider using online
a methodology. academic databases and
○​ Ensure the chosen methods repositories to expand your
directly address these material pool.
questions.
○​ Provide detailed, • Sources of Research Topics
unambiguous explanations of • published materials (magazines, articles,
the methods in your videos, etc.)
proposal. • grey literature (reports, working papers,
○​ Allocate time for thorough government documents, white papers and
planning and anticipate evaluations)
challenges in execution. • current affairs
○​ Use platforms like social • research supervisors and mentors
media or academic networks • scholarly events
to recruit participants. • national and international development
blueprints
• calls for research papers • past research
projects where areas for future research are
3. Accessing Research Material
proposed
• Characteristics of a Good a structured research
approach.
Research Topic
○​ It should avoid ambiguity or
the perception of a
1.​ Clear
"double-barreled" question,
○​ A clear research topic is
where the topic could be
essential to ensure that both
interpreted in more than one
you and others can easily
way.
understand the focus of your
○​ The topic should be easy to
study.
understand and focused,
○​ The topic should have a
helping in the formulation of
single, unambiguous
research goals.
interpretation, preventing
3.​ Tips:
confusion or misdirection.
○​ Choose simple, precise
○​ Clarity helps define the
language, and avoid overly
research direction, shaping
complex terminology unless
the entire methodology and
necessary.
ensuring that the research
○​ If you're unsure about the
remains focused.
phrasing, seek advice from
2.​ Tips:
your research advisor or
○​ Ensure the topic is
others with research
straightforward and leaves
expertise.
little room for
○​ Follow standard titling
misinterpretation.
conventions, such as using
○​ Clarify your topic to make
title case, and avoid
sure it has a specific
introducing bias into the
direction before proceeding
topic.
with the research.

3.​ Current Importance

2.​ Well-Defined
○​ The relevance of your topic
○​ A well-defined research topic
to current trends and issues
is key to creating clear
is crucial for its impact and
objectives, hypotheses, and
usefulness.
 ○​ Obsolete topics may not ●​ Claim and Hypothesis Testing: It
provide meaningful must test a specific hypothesis or
contributions to the field. claim.
○​ Assess how the topic will ●​ Empirical Data: Results are based
benefit the field or industry on data collected through
you're studying and ensure it experiments or surveys.
aligns with contemporary ●​ Theoretical Framework: A
concerns. literature review guides the
4.​ Tips: hypothesis and research
○​ Ensure your research methodology.
addresses an issue that is
Thesis Structure:
timely and significant.
○​ Consider how your research 1.​ Introduction: Defines the research
can contribute to solving problem.
current challenges or 2.​ Literature Review: Reviews
advancing knowledge in the existing theories and research.
field. 3.​ Methodology: Describes the
research methods.
4.​ Results and Discussion: Presents
• Thesis vs Feasibility Study
findings and their implications.
5.​ Conclusion: Summarizes the study
Thesis: Definition and Key
and suggests further research.
Elements

A thesis is a research paper required for a

degree that tests a claim or hypothesis Feasibility Study: Definition and
through empirical data. It aims to validate or Role
challenge existing theories, typically
requiring hypothesis testing and the A feasibility study assesses the practicality
establishment of causality. of a proposed project, focusing on financial
viability, market demand, and competition.
Key Features:
Key Elements:
 ●​ Financial and Market Analysis: Key points to consider:
Estimates financial returns and
●​ Summarize key results, not all
evaluates market conditions.
details (e.g., state a theorem, but
●​ Implementation Plan: Reviews
don’t prove it).
resources and logistics for project
●​ Each statement must be supported
success.
by a published reference.
Relationship with Thesis: ●​ Use the review to understand
existing knowledge and avoid
●​ The thesis presents theoretical
duplicating others' work.
knowledge, while the feasibility
study evaluates the practical A typical literature review is about 20 pages
application of those ideas in and should demonstrate thorough
real-world scenarios. exploration of the topic.

Unit 2 – CONDUCTING
• Importance of the Review of
A RESEARCH Related Literature
• Literature Defined
Why a Literature Review is Necessary
Literature refers to written works, especially
those of artistic or intellectual value. It A literature review is essential for several
includes poetry, prose, and other reasons:
imaginative writing, and can be classified by
●​ Demonstrates extensive reading:
language, origin, genre, and subject matter.
It shows that the student has read
and understood a broad range of
A literature review is a critical summary of research related to the proposed
existing research relevant to your thesis topic.
topic. It helps establish the background for ●​ Proves deep understanding: It
your study, identifying gaps, errors, or areas highlights the student’s knowledge of
for new ideas. A well-done review the existing theories and
strengthens your thesis by providing context methodologies.
and justifying the relevance of your ●​ Supports originality and
research. relevance: It identifies gaps in the
 literature, justifying the originality of ○​ Read each reference
the research by pinpointing critically, not just for summary
unanswered questions or unsolved but to assess its relevance to
problems. your research. Take notes on
●​ Convincing the committee: A good assumptions, methodology,
review proves to the thesis and important results.
committee that the research is ○​ Ask questions like: Is it
original and contributes to the field. relevant? What is original
about the methodology?
The review should be more than a
3.​ Update Your List of References​
summary—it demonstrates that the student
can communicate how their research fits
○​ As you read, you may
into and extends existing knowledge. Proper
discover new references to
organization, efficient note-taking, and focus
include. Follow citations from
on relevant content are crucial for a
one article to another to gain
successful literature review.
comprehensive knowledge
on the topic.
Outline for Preparing a Literature
○​ Regularly update your list to
Review
ensure you're working with
the most current literature.
1.​ Generate a List of References​
4.​ Presentation​

○​ Begin by compiling a list of

○​ Start writing the literature
relevant literature. Your
review early. Organize
advisor can assist in this.
references into general and
Gather copies of these
specialized categories.
references, which may take
○​ Use general references (e.g.,
time.
textbooks) for background,
○​ Keep detailed notes for the
but rely more on specialized
bibliography and use tools
sources directly related to
like Mendeley or BiBTeX for
your research topic.
proper citation formatting.
○​ Show that there is a gap in
2.​ Reading the Literature​
the literature which your
research will address,
 demonstrating the originality Types of Sources
and relevance of your work.
1.​ Primary Sources: These are
Finding Research Materials original materials that provide
firsthand accounts or direct evidence
●​ Library Resources: University of research. They are considered the
libraries offer access to vast most reliable sources for specific
databases and internet searching information.
tools. Spend time browsing library ○​ Examples: Journal articles,
shelves, especially around books in autobiographies, personal
your preliminary reference list. For narratives, diaries,
instance, if you find Cochran's correspondence.
Sampling Techniques, explore 2.​ Secondary Sources: These
neighboring books for related sources analyze, interpret, or
resources. summarize primary research,
●​ Accessing References: While providing a broader view of a topic.
many references can be ○​ Examples: Review papers,
downloaded via the library, some textbooks, anthologies,
might not be immediately accessible encyclopedias, biographies.
online (e.g., conference 3.​ Tertiary Sources: These provide
proceedings, journal articles from general overviews or introductions to
defunct publications, or a topic and often guide you to
foreign-language materials). In such primary and secondary sources.
cases, request interlibrary loans or ○​ Examples: Newspaper
contact authors directly for access. articles, magazine articles,
●​ Research Skills: The process of abstracts, bibliographies,
finding and accessing research guidebooks, manuals.
materials not only contributes to your
current project but also enhances
your ability to gather valuable
information for future research
endeavors.
When conducting a literature review, both multiple studies, detecting patterns
primary and secondary sources are and drawing conclusions (deductive
crucial. Primary sources provide firsthand approach).
research data, while secondary sources ●​ Meta-synthesis: Analyzes and
offer analyses, interpretations, and interprets findings from qualitative
summaries of that research. Together, they studies using non-statistical methods
allow researchers to understand how ideas (inductive approach).
and knowledge in a particular field have
Argumentative Literature Review:
evolved over time.
Selectively examines literature to support or
refute a specific argument or philosophical
issue. It is prone to bias due to its selective
nature.

Integrative Literature Review: Combines,

critiques, and synthesizes secondary data,
generating new frameworks and
perspectives. This type is used when
• Review of Literature primary data collection is not involved in the
research.
Formats
• Types of Literature Reviews Theoretical Literature Review: Focuses
Narrative Literature Review: Summarizes on theories related to a concept or issue,
and critiques the existing literature on a establishing what theories already exist,
topic, drawing conclusions and identifying their interrelationships, and proposing new
gaps or inconsistencies. A focused research hypotheses for testing.
question is essential for this type of review.

Systematic Literature Review: A rigorous, Starting a Literature Review: Key Steps:

comprehensive review that details the

1.​ Explore, Select, and Focus on a
timeframe and methods for selecting
Topic: Begin by reviewing the
literature. It can be divided into:
'recommendations for further

●​ Meta-analysis: Uses statistical research' in the conclusions of

methods to analyze data from existing studies. This can help

 formulate your research question These steps are foundational in ensuring
and guide the goal of your literature your literature review is thorough,
review. For systematic reviews, well-organized, and aligned with the specific
establish clear pre-defined criteria goals of your research.
early on.
2.​ Gather Relevant Documents and
Information: Identify sources such
as academic journals, online
databases, libraries, archives, and
organizations. Utilize chain
searching (backward and forward) to
explore references in key studies. Summarize, Compare, and Critically
Chain searching, or citation mining, Evaluate the Literature
involves reviewing the references of
a key study (backward) and articles ●​ Identify major themes and important

that cite it (forward) to find additional papers, paying attention to the

relevant materials. methodology, findings, and

3.​ Organize Documents and limitations.

Information: Organize your ●​ Evaluate the research premise and

materials using tools like citation design used in the studies.

management software (EndNote, ●​ Look for gaps, contradictions, or

Mendeley, RefWorks) or qualitative areas for further research.

data analysis software (Atlas.TI, ●​ Discover relationships between

MAXQDA, Nvivo). Consider using sources using backward and forward

cloud storage options like Google searching.

Docs or OneDrive for easier access

Provide a Synthesis and Overview
and collaboration. A Literature
Review Matrix can help structure ●​ Organize the literature
and record gathered materials, chronologically or by themes to
allowing for easier categorization provide a clear overview of the field.
and focus based on the needs of ●​ Synthesize the key findings, and
your research or discipline. identify trends, gaps, and emerging
themes to set the stage for your own
research.
 opinions that have evolved
over time. You can arrange
the literature according to
different periods or eras,
showing how thinking or
research on a topic has
changed.
2.​ By Publication:
Writing the Introduction of a ○​ This method works well when
Literature Review: each publication in your
review takes a distinct stance
The Introduction of your literature review
on the topic. If there is a
should:
natural progression in how

●​ Clearly state the topic and define research has developed

its boundaries, outlining what the (e.g., from radical to

review will cover. conservative views), this

●​ Explain the relevance or structure can help highlight

importance of the research area. those shifts.

This could involve highlighting why 3.​ By Trend:

the topic is significant, interesting, or ○​ If your sources suggest

problematic, and its potential impact particular patterns or trends

on the field. (e.g., in methodology,

findings, or geographic
Organizing the Body of the focus), organizing them by

Literature Review: these patterns can be

insightful. You may find that
Depending on your research and the sources fall into different
specific requirements of your institution, you categories based on similar
can organize the body of your literature trends or findings over time
review in several ways: or across different variables.
4.​ Thematically:
1.​ Chronologically (Historical):
○​ This approach is useful when
○​ This approach is effective if
the literature touches on
you're analyzing trends or
several different aspects of a
 broad topic. If your research ○​ In this section, you present
focus is abstract, you can the studies that are directly
categorize the literature related to your research
according to themes or question. The presentation
subtopics. Each section can follow two approaches:
might deal with a different ■​ Present each study
aspect of the theme or individually using
different methodologies used the title as a
to approach it. subheading, and
answer the following
questions:
■​ Who
Organizing the Body of a
conducted the
Literature Review (Thematic
study? When?
Format) Where? Why?
■​ What
The thematic format is ideal for structuring
solutions or
your literature review. In this format, the
findings were
body is divided into two primary sections:
proposed?

1.​ General Discussion of the Topic How does the

Leading to the Research Problem proposed

○​ This section introduces the solution work?

broader topic, setting the ■​ What are the

context and narrowing down strengths of

to the specific research the study? Are

problem you are addressing. there

○​ You should start by limitations to

discussing foundational consider?

concepts and gradually ■​ Group the studies

introduce more specific areas according to similar

related to your research techniques or

problem, showing how they solutions, and

connect. present them by

2.​ Related Studies solution or theme.

 This approach allows Conclusion:
you to compare and
contrast different In your conclusion, you should:

studies with similar

●​ Summarize the contributions of
objectives or
the sources to the field, showing
methodologies,
how they advance knowledge or
making it easier to
understanding of the topic.
identify patterns in the
●​ Provide insight into the relationship
research.
between your research topic and the
broader field of study, positioning
Example of Structuring the
your research in the context of these
Related Studies:
studies.

●​ Study 1:
Common Mistakes to Avoid:
○​ Title, author(s), year,
location, purpose ●​ Not using the best keywords or
○​ Architecture of the solution or identifying the most relevant
methodology sources, which can limit the scope of
○​ Strengths and limitations of your review.
the study ●​ Failing to relate your findings to
●​ Study 2 (if it shares the same the findings of the literature, which
methodology or focus): undermines the relevance of your
○​ Similar structure to Study 1, study.
but highlighting differences in ●​ Relying on secondary sources
approach, findings, or scope rather than primary sources, which
●​ Group Studies by can dilute the reliability and depth of
Solution/Methodology: your review.
○​ Example: Group studies that ●​ Blindly accepting other
use the same methodological researchers' findings without
approach (e.g., qualitative critically evaluating them, which may
research, survey methods, lead to oversight of flaws or gaps in
case studies) and compare their studies.
their findings in one section.
 ●​ Author information: Who wrote the
source.
●​ Title of the work: The title of the
book, article, or paper.
●​ Publisher information: Name and
location of the publisher.
●​ Publication date: When the source
was published.
●​ Page numbers: Specific pages
where the information is located.

Proper citations not only help prevent

plagiarism but also strengthen your work by
providing evidence that supports your
arguments. They also help readers explore
the source material further.

When to Cite Sources

You need to cite sources in the following

• Referencing and Citation situations:

Citations are essential for acknowledging ●​ Using direct quotes: If you are
the sources of information or ideas that you quoting someone’s exact words, you
use in your work. By citing sources, you must give credit to the source.
provide your readers with the necessary ●​ Paraphrasing: If you rewrite an idea
details to locate the original material, which or passage in your own words, you
demonstrates the depth of your research still need to credit the original author.
and allows others to verify your information. ●​ Using someone else's idea: Even if
you are not quoting directly, if you
Key Elements of a Citation refer to someone else's theory,
concept, or data, it requires citation.
A citation typically includes the following
●​ Acknowledging contributions: If
details:
another author’s work was critical in
shaping your own ideas or research.
Why Citations Matter: they appear. Example citation: [1] or
[8, 10].
●​ Clarify ideas: Citations show where
your information comes from, Other styles, such as MHRA (Modern

making it clear which ideas are Humanities Research Association) and

yours and which belong to others. OSCOLA (Oxford University Standard for

●​ Avoid plagiarism: Properly citing the Citation of Legal Authorities), may use

sources ensures you are not footnotes for referencing.

misappropriating someone else’s

In-Text Citations
intellectual property.
●​ Support your work: Citations
In-text citations refer to the references used
demonstrate the amount of research
within the body of the text. They link the
you've done and lend credibility to
information in your paper to the source it
your ideas.
came from, ensuring that the reader can
●​ Facilitate further reading: Citations
trace the original material. Citations can
allow others to find and explore the
take two main forms: quotations and
sources you used.
paraphrasing.

Referencing Styles 1.​ Short Quotation (less than 40

words):
Different academic disciplines use different
○​ If the quotation is less than
referencing systems. Some common ones
40 words, you include it
include:
within the text and place it in

●​ ACM (Association for Computing quotation marks.

Machinery): Uses author surname ○​ Example: "Informatics, in

and publication year. Example general, studies the

citation: [Phillips 2001]. intersection of people,

●​ APA (American Psychological information, and technology

Association): Uses author surname systems" (Groth &

and year of publication. Example MacKie-Mason, 2010, p. 27).

citation: (Raskin, 2002). 2.​ Paraphrasing Short Passages:

●​ IEEE (Institute of Electrical and ○​ When you paraphrase a

Electronics Engineers): Uses short passage (reword it in

numbered references in the order your own terms), you still

 need to cite the author, but ○​ For paraphrasing longer
page numbers are not passages, the same
required. principles apply as for short
○​ Example: Groth and paraphrasing: credit the
MacKie-Mason (2010) original author but don't
discuss how informatics include specific page
focuses on the intersection of numbers unless required by
people, technology, and the citation style.
systems.
3.​ Long Quotation (40 or more Conclusion
words):
Proper referencing and citation practices
○​ If you are quoting 40 or more
are critical in academic writing. They ensure
words, the quote should be
you give credit to the original authors and
set off from the rest of the
provide clear, traceable evidence to support
text in a block format (without
your arguments. Whether you are quoting
quotation marks).
directly, paraphrasing, or referencing
○​ Example:​
someone else's ideas, citing your sources
Groth and MacKie-Mason
correctly strengthens your work and
(2010) state:​
maintains academic integrity. Always check
Informatics, in general,
with your institution for the required
studies the intersection of
referencing style to ensure consistency and
people, information, and
accuracy in your citations.
technology systems. It draws
on a wide range of
Basic Rules for Citing in Text
disciplines, including
(Harvard Style):
computer science,
psychology, and information 1.​ Author’s Name Falls Naturally in
theory, to understand how the Text:
people interact with ○​ When the author’s name is
technology and how part of your sentence, the
information flows in systems publication date follows in
(p. 27). parentheses.
4.​ Paraphrasing Long Passages: ○​ Example:
 ■​ Bloggs (1990) chronologically, depending
demonstrated the on the context.
importance of ○​ Example:
suspended sediment ■​ These ideas have
in determining the been pursued by
pollution profile of other American
rivers. However, scientists (Graf, 2004;
Smith and Jones Outcalt, 2007;
(1992) claim that Wolman and Brown,
additional factors, 2010).
such as channel 4.​ Citing One Author:
hydraulics, have been ○​ Cite the author's surname
shown to be equally and the publication year.
influential. ○​ Example:
2.​ Author’s Name Does Not Appear ■​ In a recent study,
Naturally in the Text: Hobbs (2015) has
○​ If the author's name doesn't shown the need for
appear as part of the nursing staff to
sentence, place it and the develop ...
date in parentheses after the 5.​ Citing Two Authors:
relevant information. ○​ List both authors' surnames,
○​ Example: separated by "and".
■​ 'In 2007, China and ○​ Example:
India together ■​ Agrawal and Khan
contributed nearly as (2011) show how
much to global growth 'Gross Domestic
as the United States' Product' (GDP) has
(Eichengreen et al., increased for both
2010). economies between
3.​ Citing Multiple Sources: 1975 and 2009.
○​ When citing multiple sources, 6.​ Citing Three Authors:
separate them with a ○​ List all three authors' names
semi-colon. You can order or use "et al." (if required by
them alphabetically or your guide).
 ○​ Example: 2003, p. 160)
■​ Hinchliff, Norman and simulates the
Schober (2008) have suppressing effects of
shown ... sulphate aerosols on
■​ Or: Recent research the magnitude of
(Hinchliff, Norman global warming.
and Schober, 2008) ■​ If the source
has shown ... summarizes: The
7.​ Citing Four or More Authors model of Mitchell
(Using "et al."): (1996, cited in Parry
○​ If there are four or more and Carter, 2003)
authors, use the first author’s simulates the
surname followed by "et al.". suppressing effects of
○​ Example: sulphate aerosols.
■​ Heyman et al. (2013) 9.​ Citing an Author with Multiple
give good examples Works in the Same Year:
of ... ○​ If citing multiple works by the
■​ Or: Recent research same author in the same
(Heyman et al., 2013) year, use a letter (a, b, etc.)
has shown ... after the year to differentiate
8.​ Citing a Source Quoted in them.
Another Work (Secondary ○​ Example:
Referencing): ■​ Peate (2014a)
○​ If you have not read the discusses changes to
original source, but only the the Nursing and
citation or discussion of it in Midwifery Council's
another work, use "quoted in" (NMC) Code of
or "cited in". Conduct, while Peate
○​ Example: (2014b) criticizes the
■​ If the source directly NMC's decision to
quotes the original: increase the
The model of Mitchell registration fee.
(1996, quoted in 10.​Citing Works of Corporate
Parry and Carter, (Organizational) Authorship:
 ○​ When citing a work by a Reference Writing:
corporate author (e.g., a
government department or A bibliography is a comprehensive list of all

professional body), treat the the sources cited in the work. It typically

organization as the author. includes details like:

○​ Example:
●​ Author(s): Name(s) of the author(s)
■​ According to the
●​ Date of Publication: Year the
Department of Health
source was published
(2015), extra NHS
●​ Title of the Work: The title of the
funding of £550
book, article, or paper
million will increase
●​ Publisher Information: Publisher’s
evening and weekend
name and location
GP appointments,
●​ Additional Information: For journal
improving patient
articles, include volume, issue
access to doctors.
number, and page numbers; for
online sources, include the URL and
the date accessed.
Additional Notes on IEEE Style
Example of a Citation:
(Vancouver):
●​ Groth, D. P., and MacKie-Mason, J.
●​ The IEEE referencing system uses
K. (2010). "Why an Informatics
numbers in square brackets for
Degree?". Communications of the
in-text citations (e.g., [1], [2], [3]),
ACM, 53(2), 26-28. doi:
and these numbers correlate with
10.1145/1646353.1646364.
the order of references listed in the
bibliography. Always follow your institution's specific
●​ Example: Parkinson's disease is a guidelines for consistency and formatting.
degenerative disease of the brain
(1). Studies have shown that
patients with Parkinson's disease
have a higher risk of developing
dementia (2, 3).
 development of new products,
Unit 3 –RESEARCH
materials, processes, or services, or

METHODOLOGY the improvement of existing ones. It

may involve pilot testing, technology
• Research Classifications promotion, or commercialization
activities.
1. Application of the Research
Study 2. Objectives in Undertaking the
Research
●​ Basic Research/Pure Research:
This type of research is conducted ●​ Descriptive Research: The goal of
primarily to develop and test theories descriptive research is to
and hypotheses. The focus is systematically describe a
intellectual, arising out of curiosity, phenomenon, service, program, or
and may not have immediate issue, and to provide a detailed
practical applications. It is aimed at account of the characteristics of the
expanding existing knowledge for its subject being studied. Examples
own sake. While it does not always include case studies, surveys, and
address immediate practical needs, content analysis.
basic research often serves as a ●​ Non-Causal (Correlational)
foundation for applied research and Research: This type of research
development in the long term. seeks to identify relationships or
●​ Applied Research: Applied associations between two or more
research aims to solve specific, aspects of a situation. However, it
practical problems. It is often does not establish cause-and-effect
focused on policy formulation, links.
practical solutions to phenomena, ●​ Causal (Explanatory) Research:
and enhancing understanding of a Causal research aims to explore the
specific situation. This type of reasons why and how certain
research is typically descriptive and relationships or phenomena occur,
exploratory in nature. seeking to clarify cause-and-effect
●​ Developmental Research: A subset relationships.
of applied research, developmental ●​ Exploratory Research: Exploratory
research involves the systematic research is used to investigate areas
 where there is limited knowledge or research questions from multiple
to determine the feasibility of perspectives. It is especially useful
conducting a more in-depth study. It when trying to understand both the
is typically used in pilot studies or characteristics (qualitative) and the
initial investigations into new topics. extent (quantitative) of a
phenomenon. For example, a study
3. Inquiry Mode Employed of restaurant cuisine types and their
popularity would involve describing
●​ Structured Approach
the different cuisines (qualitative)
(Quantitative Research): In
and measuring the extent of their
quantitative research, the process is
popularity (quantitative).
highly structured, with
predetermined objectives, design, Research Design and Research
sample, and questions. It is focused
Methods
on quantifying the variation in a
phenomenon or measuring the ●​ Research Design: Refers to the
extent of a problem. This approach logical structure of the research
is useful for determining how inquiry, specifying what data is
widespread or significant a problem required, from whom, and how it will
or issue is. answer the research question. The
●​ Unstructured Approach design serves as the framework for
(Qualitative Research): Qualitative conducting the research.
research is more flexible, allowing ○​ Examples of research
for the exploration of the nature of a designs include
phenomenon or problem without experimental,
necessarily quantifying it. The goal is quasi-experimental, and
to understand the variation in a non-experimental designs,
situation, often by describing each serving different types
opinions, behaviors, or events in rich of research questions (e.g.,
detail. exploratory, descriptive,
●​ Mixed Approach (Mixed Methods causal).
Research): This approach combines ●​ Research Methods: Concerned
both quantitative and qualitative data with the practical aspects of how
collection methods to address data is collected, research methods
 include tools like surveys, interviews, RESEARCH DESIGN
and experiments. Research methods
may involve qualitative, quantitative, Experimental Design
or mixed approaches depending on
the research question and the type In experimental design, participants are
of data required. randomly assigned to two groups: the
treatment group (receives the intervention)
Types of Research Designs: and the control group (does not). This
randomization ensures groups are similar,
●​ Experimental Designs: These are
so any differences can be attributed to the
used to determine causal
intervention. This design is known as
relationships by manipulating one
Randomized Control Trials (RCTs) and is
variable and measuring its effect on
considered the gold standard for
another.
determining causal effects.
●​ Quasi-Experimental Designs:
These designs are similar to Quasi-Experimental Design
experimental designs but lack full
randomization or control over In quasi-experimental design, there is no
variables. random assignment. Instead, a
●​ Non-Experimental Designs: These comparison group is used, which may not
are used when experimental or be equivalent to the treatment group. This
quasi-experimental designs are not approach is useful when randomization is
feasible. They include descriptive, not possible. Examples include the
correlational, and exploratory Difference in Difference (DID) method,
research. which compares changes over time
between groups.

Non-Experimental Design

Non-experimental designs observe and

describe relationships without comparing
groups. These include:

●​ Case Studies: In-depth examination

of a single case.
 ●​ Longitudinal Studies: Tracking ●​ Personal experiences or the
groups over time. researcher’s specialization.
●​ Ethnographic Studies: Immersing ●​ Academic research (e.g., theses,
in a community to understand dissertations).
behaviors and cultures. ●​ Discussions with peers or
mentors.
●​ Research and development in
institutions.

Considerations When Selecting a

Research Problem

●​ Interest: Choose a topic that

genuinely interests you to maintain
motivation.
●​ Magnitude: Ensure the topic is

• Problem Conceptualization narrow enough to be manageable

within the time and resources
available.
Problem Conceptualization in
●​ Measurement: Clarify how concepts
Research
will be measured, especially in

Research begins with identifying a research quantitative research.

problem, which is crucial for guiding the ●​ Expertise: Ensure you have the

study. A well-chosen research problem necessary skills or the ability to gain

should be engaging, feasible, and them.

significant to the field. Sticking to the first ●​ Relevance: Ensure the topic

idea can limit creativity, so it's essential to contributes to knowledge or policy.

select a topic that is both relevant and ●​ Availability of data: Ensure access

manageable. to necessary data.

●​ Ethical issues: Consider how the
Sources of Research Problems research might affect participants.

Research problems can stem from: Research Problem Definition

A research problem is a specific communication tool, helping to garner
educational concern or question to be support for the research by clearly stating
explored in the study. A common mistake is the issue and justifying its significance.
defining the title before identifying the
problem; the problem should drive the Purpose of a Problem Statement
research design. A title should be concise,
1.​ Introduce the topic’s importance:
clear, and reflect the focus of the study.
The statement helps the reader

SMART Criteria for Stating understand the significance of the

study and what the research
Research Problems
questions or hypotheses will

1.​ Specific: The problem should address.

clearly define the variables. 2.​ Define the scope: It places the

2.​ Measurable: The variables can be problem within a specific context,

quantified or measured. detailing the boundaries of the

3.​ Attainable: The problem can be research.

answered with the data and methods 3.​ Guide the study: It provides the

available. framework for reporting the findings

4.​ Relevant: The research is and suggests what is necessary to

scientifically sound and applicable. conduct the study, including potential

5.​ Time-bound: A clear time frame is methods or solutions.

set for the research.

Common Pitfall

A common mistake is defining the research

reating the Research Problem problem based on a proposed solution

Statement (e.g., a software tool) rather than clearly

identifying the problem and variables at
A problem statement is a concise hand. This can lead to bias, as researchers
explanation, usually 1-2 sentences, that may overlook relevant literature or focus on
defines the issue your research addresses. supporting a solution without fully
It typically outlines the negative aspects of understanding the problem. It's important to
the current situation and explains why first conduct a thorough literature review to
addressing this problem matters. The identify the research problem, then explore
problem statement serves as an essential existing solutions before developing a new
one. This ensures the research addresses a already been proposed and
genuine gap rather than repeating prior implemented. It’s crucial to know
work. what has been done to avoid
repeating existing work and to
understand the effectiveness of prior
solutions.

Once these two steps are completed, the

researcher can formulate their own
solution. This can either be:

●​ A modification of an existing
solution, enhancing it to provide a
The Process of Formulating a significant improvement, or
Research Problem ●​ A novel alternative to current
solutions.
Before formulating a research problem, it’s
essential to conduct a literature review in In fields like computing, the solution might

two steps: involve the development of a software tool.

However, the tool itself is not the final
1.​ First Literature Review: The initial solution but rather an implementation of the
review should focus on gathering researcher’s proposed solution. Thus, the
relevant papers and information to focus remains on addressing the research
identify the research problem. This problem through innovation or
step allows the researcher to enhancement, not just creating a tool for its
understand the existing issues and own sake.
gaps in the field, ensuring that the
problem is grounded in the current
literature.
2.​ Second Literature Review: After
identifying the research problem,
conduct a second literature review to
explore existing solutions to the
problem. This step helps identify
whether similar solutions have
istinguishing Between Research solving the broader research

Terms problem.

In research, it’s important to clearly Locating the Research Problem

differentiate between terms like research
To identify the research problem in existing
problem, research topic, research
literature, look for:
questions, and purpose because they
each play a distinct role in guiding the study. ●​ What the issue or problem is: This
is usually outlined early in the paper,
1.​ Research Problem: This is the core
particularly in the introduction.
issue or challenge that the study
●​ What controversy leads to the
aims to address. It is the central
need for a study: What debates or
focus of the research, typically
unresolved questions exist that
framed as a problem that needs a
necessitate the research?
solution or further exploration. The
●​ What concern is being addressed:
research problem defines the scope
The problem is often framed in the
and significance of the study.
context of real-world concerns.
2.​ Research Topic: The research topic
●​ Statements like “The problem
is the broad subject area that the
being addressed in this study
study will explore. It’s more general
is…”: A well-written paper often
and helps to frame the context in
directly states the research problem.
which the research problem exists.
3.​ Purpose: The purpose of the
Determining Whether a Problem
research is the reason why the study
Should Be Researched
is being conducted. It articulates the
goal of the research, answering the
Before proceeding with the study, you
question: What do we hope to should consider whether the problem is
achieve through this study?
worth researching. Use the SMART criteria
4.​ Research Questions: These are
(Specific, Measurable, Achievable,
the specific questions the researcher
Relevant, Time-bound) and ask yourself the
intends to answer through the study.
following questions:
They help direct the investigation
and provide a focused approach to
1.​ Can you study the problem?: Do 9.​ Will your study inform practice?:
you have the tools and knowledge to Does the research provide practical
research it? solutions or insights for real-world
2.​ Do you have access to the applications?
research site?: Can you gather 10.​What do we still need to know?:
data or information from the Are there gaps in the current
necessary sources? knowledge that need to be filled?
3.​ Do you have the time, resources, 11.​What else do we need to know to
and skills to carry out the improve practice?: Could this
research?: Assess whether the research make a meaningful
project is feasible with your current contribution to applied work?
resources. 12.​Who will benefit from reading
4.​ Should you study the problem?: your study?: Think about the target
Does your study contribute to audience for your findings.
advancing knowledge or improving
practice? Formulating a Research Problem
5.​ Will your study fill a gap in the
1.​ Specify Your Research
existing literature?: Does it
Objectives: Clearly define the
address an area that has not been
objectives of your study. These
adequately explored?
should be manageable goals that
6.​ Will your study replicate past
guide your research methods and
studies with different participants
help evaluate your success.
or sites?: You may choose to
2.​ Review the Context: Understand
replicate research in a new context
the environmental variables that
to validate findings.
might influence your research.
7.​ Will your study extend past
Control or account for these factors
research or explore the topic in
to ensure meaningful results.
more depth?: Could you provide a
3.​ Explore the Nature of the
deeper understanding or new
Problem: Assess the complexity of
perspectives?
the research problem by considering
8.​ Will your study give voice to
the relationships between variables,
marginalized groups?: Is the
determining what’s relevant to your
research addressing a significant
study.
issue for a neglected population?
 4.​ Determine Variable Relationships: ○​ Describe results of variables.
Identify key variables and their ○​ Compare groups on
relationships. Decide how to control variables.
and measure these variables to ○​ Relate two or more variables.
address the research problem 3.​ Guidelines for Quantitative
effectively. Questions:
5.​ Anticipate Consequences: ○​ Begin with “how,” “what,” or
Consider the potential outcomes of “why.”
different research approaches. This ○​ Specify the variables and the
helps refine your strategy and relationships.
communicate expected results ○​ Indicate participants and
clearly. research site.
4.​ Qualitative Purpose Statement:
Structuring Your Research ○​ Focuses on understanding
Problem the central phenomenon in a
more flexible, emerging
1.​ Quantitative Purpose Statement: process.
○​ Purpose: States the study's ○​ Qualitative questions explore
goal in a single sentence in-depth meaning and
(e.g., "The purpose of this relationships, often without
study is to..."). predefined variables,
○​ Variables: Identify emphasizing participant
independent, dependent, and experience and context.
control variables.
○​ Research Site and
Participants: Include the
study's location and
participants.
○​ Action Words: Use terms
like “relate,” “compare,” and
“describe” to explain variable
relationships.
2.​ Types of Quantitative Research
Questions:
 ○​ Qualitative Data:
Categorical, descriptive data
(e.g., gender, civil status).
○​ Quantitative Data:
Numerical data (e.g., weight,
temperature).
●​ Types of Variables:
○​ Discrete: Finite, countable
Tips for Defining Your Research values (e.g., number of
students).
Problem
○​ Continuous: Infinite possible
1.​ Identify Interesting Gaps: Use values (e.g., height, time).
literature reviews to pinpoint ○​ Dependent: Outcomes
unexplored areas or contradictions measured to see the effects
in past research. of changes (e.g., children’s
2.​ Seek Feedback: Revise your grades).
problem based on feedback from ○​ Independent: Manipulated to
peers or mentors. Clarify your test effects on the dependent
question if it’s too broad or narrow. variable (e.g., age groups).
3.​ Self-test: Ensure your research ○​ Confounding: Extra
problem is: variables that can distort the
○​ Open-ended and testable. relationship between
○​ Broken into manageable independent and dependent
parts. variables.
○​ Precise, clear, and free from ○​ Control: Held constant to
vague terms. eliminate alternative
○​ Feasible within your project’s explanations (e.g., fertilizer
scope. level in plant growth studies).
○​ Extraneous: Uncontrolled
Research Concepts and Variables variables that might affect the
experiment (e.g., TV
●​ Variables: Characteristics that can
programs in a study on
vary between subjects (e.g., height,
television watching and
age, gender).
achievement).
 ○​ Moderator/Intervening: ●​ Non-directional: No specified
Variables that influence the direction of difference or
relationship between the relationship.
independent and dependent ○​ Example: "The average
variables (e.g., temperature score of 9th graders is
affecting crime rate and ice different from the average
cream consumption). score of 12th graders."
●​ Directional: Specifies the direction
Hypothesis Overview of the difference or relationship.
○​ Example: "The average
A hypothesis is an educated guess or
score of 9th graders is higher
explanation for a phenomenon, guiding
than that of 12th graders."
further investigation. It’s crucial in research
as it reflects the general problem statement. Purpose of Hypothesis

Types of Hypotheses Hypotheses guide research by proposing a

relationship between variables that can be
1.​ Null Hypothesis (H₀): A statement
tested. They are not meant to prove
of equality, suggesting no difference
anything but to be tested, refined, or
or relationship.
refuted.
○​ Example: "No difference in
scores between 9th and 12th Formulating a Research
graders on the ABC memory
Hypothesis
test."
2.​ Research (Alternative) Hypothesis To formulate a hypothesis:
(H₁): A statement of inequality,
suggesting a difference or 1.​ Start with an inferential question.

relationship. 2.​ Turn this question into a null

○​ Example: "There is a hypothesis (H₀) or research

difference in scores between hypothesis (H₁).

9th and 12th graders on the

Example:
ABC memory test."
●​ Inferential Question: Is there a
Types of Research Hypotheses relationship between computer
 literacy and characteristics such as ○​ Type II Error (False
age, gender, and length of service? Negative): Failing to reject a
●​ Null Hypothesis (H₀): There is no false null hypothesis.
relationship between computer
literacy and age, gender, or length of oncept of Significance
service.
Significance in research refers to the
●​ Research Hypothesis (H₁): There is
likelihood that the results observed are due
a relationship between computer
to something other than random variation or
literacy and age, gender, or length of
errors in sampling. It measures the
service.
confidence a researcher has in drawing

Testing the Hypothesis conclusions about the relationship between

variables based on the observed data.
●​ Types of Tests:
○​ Comparison tests: Assess Significance Level (α)
group differences.
The significance level, denoted as α, is the
○​ Regression tests: Assess
probability of rejecting the null hypothesis
cause-and-effect
when it is actually true. A typical
relationships.
significance level is set at 0.05, which
○​ Correlation tests: Examine
means there is a 5% risk of concluding that
relationships without
a difference exists when no actual
assuming causation.
difference exists.
●​ Outputs of Hypothesis Testing:
○​ Test Statistic: Measures ●​ Critical Region: This refers to the
how much data differs from area in the distribution graph where
the null hypothesis. results are considered statistically
○​ P-value: Indicates the significant. If a sample statistic falls
likelihood of obtaining results into this region, the null hypothesis is
if the null hypothesis is true. rejected. For a significance level of
●​ Errors in Hypothesis Testing: 0.05, this critical region is usually the
○​ Type I Error (False outer 5% of the distribution (2.5% on
Positive): Rejecting a true each side for a two-tailed test).
null hypothesis.
Statistical Significance
Statistical significance refers to the random chance is low (less than
likelihood that an observed effect or 5%), thus suggesting statistical
difference is real and not due to chance. It is significance at the 0.05 level but not
typically quantified using a p-value. at the 0.01 level.

●​ P-value: The p-value represents the Error Types in Hypothesis Testing

probability that an effect observed in
the data occurred by random ●​ Type I Error (False Positive):
chance, assuming the null Occurs when the null hypothesis is
hypothesis is true. A small p-value rejected, even though it is true.
(typically less than 0.05) suggests ●​ Type II Error (False Negative):
that the observed result is unlikely to Occurs when the null hypothesis is
have occurred due to random not rejected, even though it is false.
chance, and thus, the null
hypothesis is rejected. Setting the Alpha Level

The alpha level is crucial in hypothesis

Interpreting P-values
testing, as it determines the threshold for
●​ P-value ≤ 0.05: Indicates statistical statistical significance. Reducing the alpha
significance, and you would reject level (e.g., from 0.05 to 0.01) reduces the
the null hypothesis. risk of a Type I error, but makes it harder to
●​ P-value > 0.05: Suggests that the detect real differences.
observed effect is not significant,
and you fail to reject the null Probability Ranges for Evidence
hypothesis. Strength:

Example: ●​ P > 0.1: No evidence

●​ P between 0.05 and 0.1: Weak
●​ For a sample mean of 330.6 and a evidence
population mean of 260, the p-value ●​ P between 0.01 and 0.05: Evidence
calculation involves determining how ●​ P between 0.001 and 0.01: Strong
extreme the sample mean is from evidence
the population mean. If the p-value ●​ P < 0.001: Very strong evidence
is 0.03112, it indicates the probability
of obtaining such a sample mean by Adjusting for Multiple Tests
When performing multiple tests, a common ○​ If P < .01, report it with three
approach is to divide the alpha level by the decimal places (e.g., P =
number of tests conducted (e.g., if five tests .001).
are performed, divide 0.05 by 5 to obtain a ○​ If the P-value is less than
significance level of 0.01) to reduce the .001, it should be written as
likelihood of a Type I error. P < .001.
5.​ Avoid "NS": Do not label results as
Reporting P-values NS (not significant). Instead, report
the exact P-value, as it provides
When reporting P-values, it is important to
more valuable information for
follow specific guidelines to maintain clarity,
meta-analysis and avoids
precision, and consistency:
incomplete reporting.

1.​ Italicize and Capitalize "P": Always 6.​ Incorrect P-value: If a statistical

write P in italics and capitalized software outputs P = .000, it should

(e.g., P = .04). be corrected to P < .001, as

2.​ Avoid "0" before the decimal: Do P-values cannot equal zero.

not use a leading zero before the

Why Report Actual P-values?
decimal point for P-values,
significance levels, or beta values.
Reporting actual P-values (rather than just
For example, write P = .04, not P =
stating whether P is less than a threshold)
0.04.
helps avoid misunderstandings. For
3.​ Report the exact P-value: Express
example, P = .049 and P = .051 should be
the actual P-value rather than just
interpreted similarly, though they differ in
stating it is "less than" a threshold.
their "statistical significance" status at a
For instance, P = .04 is more
0.05 level. Reporting exact values helps
informative than P < .05. However, if
provide a clearer, more nuanced
P is less than .001, it should be
understanding of the data, avoiding the
reported as P < .001 rather than
binary "significant or not" judgment.
providing a more specific value.
4.​ Rounding:
○​ If P > .01, report it with two
decimal places (e.g., P = Research Methodology vs.
.04). Research Methods
It is crucial to differentiate between techniques to analyze
research methodology and research the collected data.
methods:
Research methodology is essential because
1.​ Research Methods refer to the it ensures that the methods used are
specific techniques used to scientifically valid and logically sound,
conduct research, such as surveys, making sure the conclusions drawn are
experiments, or tests. These are the meaningful.
practical tools that help collect and
analyze data. Types of Research Methodology
2.​ Research Methodology is the
There are two main types of research
philosophical framework or
methodology:
systematic approach guiding how
research is conducted. It 1.​ Quantitative Research
encompasses the logic behind Methodology:
choosing specific methods, ensuring ○​ Focuses on testing
they are valid, reliable, and suitable hypotheses and answering
for addressing the research questions such as "How
question. much?" or "Is there a
○​ Key Aspects of Research relationship?"
Methodology: ○​ Utilizes numerical data and
■​ Data Collection: statistical methods to draw
Deciding what data to conclusions.
collect, who to collect ○​ Typically involves large
it from, and how to sample sizes and aims for
gather it. objectivity and
■​ Sampling Design: generalization.
Choosing the 2.​ Qualitative Research
population and Methodology:
sample from which to ○​ Focuses on understanding
collect data. phenomena through detailed
■​ Data Analysis: descriptions, exploring
Selecting appropriate questions like "Why?" or
"How?"
 ○​ Involves collecting ●​ Involves methods like interviews or
non-numerical data, such as focus groups, capturing detailed,
interviews, observations, and descriptive information.
case studies.
Mixed-Method Methodology:
○​ More flexible and
context-driven, often used for ●​ Combines qualitative and
deeper insights into complex, quantitative approaches to provide
subjective experiences. a more comprehensive
understanding of the research
Combining Both Methodologies
problem.

In some cases, researchers combine

Quantitative Research:
qualitative and quantitative methods to
provide a more comprehensive ●​ Systematic investigation using
understanding of a research question. This structured tools (e.g., surveys,
is called mixed-methods research, though questionnaires) to gather numerical
it may not always be feasible due to data.
practical constraints like time or budget. ●​ Conducted on larger sample sizes,
allowing for results to be generalized
By understanding the distinctions and
to the broader population.
appropriate uses of research methods and
●​ Characteristics include:
research methodology, researchers can
○​ Structured tools (surveys,
design studies that are not only rigorous but
polls).
also well-suited to their specific research
○​ Close-ended questions that
goals.
provide quantifiable data.

Qualitative Methodology: ○​ Use of graphs, charts, and

tables for clear data
●​ Relies on observations and presentation.
descriptions, focusing on ○​ Prior studies inform the
subjective data rather than facts. research design.
●​ Used to assess attitudes, ○​ Focus on generalizing
behaviors, and opinions of people results to a larger
based on the research topic. population.

Descriptive Research Design:

●​ Focuses on describing a determining which one is
population, situation, or superior.
phenomenon. ○​ Example: Comparing
●​ Answers what, how, when, and paper-based vs.
where questions rather than why. computer-based tests by
●​ Types of descriptive research evaluating factors like failure
include: rates and time efficiency.
○​ Descriptive-survey: Collects ●​ Correlative Survey:
data through surveys to ○​ Aims to assess the
describe conditions or relationship between two
characteristics. variables (e.g., whether they
○​ Descriptive-normative are positively, negatively, or
survey: Compares research not related).
results to a set standard or ●​ Cross-Sectional Survey:
norm. ○​ Observational surveys
○​ Descriptive-status: conducted at one point in
Describes real-life situations, time, collecting data from a
such as comparing income sample of the target
with performance. population. The focus is on
○​ Descriptive-analysis: comparing variables at a
Breaks down a subject for specific time, keeping most
detailed analysis, like factors constant.
comparing different office ●​ Longitudinal Survey:
locations. ○​ Observational surveys
○​ Descriptive classification: conducted over an extended
Classifies subjects, often period to observe changes in
used in biological sciences variables or behaviors over
(e.g., categorizing species). time (e.g., tracking buying
●​ Descriptive-Comparative habits of teenagers over
Research: several years).
○​ Involves comparing two
Characteristics of Descriptive Research:
variables without
manipulation, with the goal of
 ●​ Quantitative: Uses quantifiable data 2.​ Measure Data Trends:​
for statistical analysis (common in This method tracks changes in data
physical sciences). over time using statistical
●​ Qualitative: Can also be conducted techniques. It is beneficial for
using qualitative methods to explain financial analysis, like tracking stock
the research problem in detail. prices, helping investors and
●​ Uncontrolled Variables: Unlike businesses understand trends.​
experimental research, researchers
cannot control variables. 3.​ Comparison:​
●​ Basis for Further Research: Descriptive research compares
Descriptive research provides responses across demographics.
foundational information that may For example, a company might
lead to new questions and research study how different income groups
methods. react to a new product launch. The
data helps shape marketing
Why Use Descriptive Research?
strategies and product positioning.​

Descriptive research is employed to

investigate the background of a research 4.​ Validate Existing Conditions:​

problem and gather necessary data for Descriptive research helps confirm

further studies. It is particularly useful for the validity of current conditions by

organizations that need insights into their analyzing underlying patterns. This

target audience. can lead to better understanding and

improved decision-making.​
1.​ Define Subject Characteristics:​
Descriptive research identifies 5.​ Conducted Over Time:​
characteristics such as traits, Descriptive research conducted
behaviors, and opinions. For repeatedly over time provides more
instance, a survey measuring how reliable insights, especially when
many hours millennials spend on the tracking changing patterns or
internet helps businesses make behaviors.​
informed decisions about market
potential.​

Experimental Research Design

Experimental research is focused on used in situations where
establishing causal relationships between randomization is difficult, such as in
variables. It helps to determine whether one educational settings. Examples
variable causes a change in another, include time series and
examining causal links like "does variable 1 nonequivalent control group designs.​
affect variable 2?" This is commonly used in
explanatory and evaluation research. 3.​ True Experimental Research
Design:​
Types of Experimental Research Design:
The most rigorous experimental

1.​ Pre-experimental Research design, where subjects are randomly

Design:​ assigned to groups (control and

The simplest form of experimental experimental), and the hypothesis is

design, with no control group, tested through statistical analysis.

involves observing the effect of an This type includes:​

independent variable on a group.

This includes:​ ○​ Posttest-only Control
Group Design: Groups are

○​ One-shot Case Study: A randomly assigned, and the

single group is observed experimental group receives

after treatment. treatment.

○​ One-group ○​ Pretest-posttest Control

Pretest-posttest: A test is Group Design: Both groups

conducted before and after are pretested and posttested

treatment on one group. to measure the effects of the

○​ Static-group Comparison: treatment.

Multiple groups are ○​ Solomon Four-group

observed, with one group Design: A combination of

receiving treatment and the pretest-posttest and

others remaining static. posttest-only control groups,

2.​ Quasi-experimental Research involving four groups of

Design:​ subjects.

Resembling true experimental

research but without random
assignment of participants. It is often
Characteristics of Experimental is too complex or impractical to
Research: observe directly.​

●​ Variables: Experimental research

3.​ Surveys:​
involves dependent (manipulated)
A common method to gather data
and independent variables (the
through structured questions.
treatment), along with extraneous
Surveys provide insights into a
variables that may affect the
population's characteristics but offer
outcome.
limited control over respondent
●​ Setting: Experiments may take
answers.​
place in controlled environments like
laboratories or less controlled
settings depending on the nature of Qualitative Research
the study.
●​ Multivariable: Experiments may Definition and Purpose: Qualitative
involve multiple independent research is a scientific method focused on
variables, such as time, skills, or test understanding social phenomena by
scores. exploring the "why" and "how" of human
behavior. Rather than quantifying data, it
emphasizes capturing the nuances of
human experiences from the perspective of
Data Collection Methods in Experimental
participants. It primarily gathers
Research:
non-numerical data, providing rich insights
1.​ Observational Study:​ into individual behaviors, societal trends,
Observes variables without cultural practices, and language.
changing existing conditions, useful
Characteristics of Qualitative Research:
for studying behaviors in natural
settings.​ 1.​ Real-life Context:​
Data is collected where the
2.​ Simulations:​ phenomenon occurs, often involving
Uses models (physical, direct engagement with participants
mathematical, or computer-based) to in their natural environment (e.g.,
replicate real-world scenarios, observing behaviors in real time).​
especially when the actual situation
 2.​ Multiple Data Sources:​ individuals to create a
Researchers gather diverse forms detailed, cohesive story of
of data—such as interviews, events.
observations, and documents—to ○​ Used in businesses to
create a comprehensive understand consumer
understanding of the subject.​ behaviors (e.g., buyer
personas) and guide product
3.​ Subjectivity:​ innovations.
Knowledge is seen as subjective, 2.​ Phenomenology:​
and researchers gain insight into the
meaning of participants' lives by ○​ Focuses on understanding
actively engaging with them.​ the essence of lived
experiences and how
4.​ Interpretative and In-depth individuals perceive and
Analysis:​ make sense of a particular
The method aims to decode phenomenon.
complex social issues by interpreting ○​ It relies heavily on in-depth
the meanings that participants interviews and attempts to
ascribe to their actions and uncover the core meaning
experiences. The research process behind people's experiences.
is communicative, fostering trust 3.​ Ethnographic Research:​
between the researcher and
participants.​ ○​ Researchers immerse
themselves in the culture
they study, observing and
participating in daily activities
to understand social
Types of Qualitative Research
behaviors in a specific
Design:
cultural context.
○​ Developed by
1.​ Narrative Research:​
anthropologists, it is popular
for studying cultural and
○​ Involves collecting
social practices through
information over time, often
focusing on one or two
 immersion and long-term which could be an individual,
engagement. group, organization, or
4.​ Historical Research:​ community.
○​ Case studies can be
○​ Investigates past events to explanatory, exploratory, or
identify patterns and descriptive, and involve
anticipate future multiple data collection
developments. methods (e.g., interviews,
○​ This method explores the observations).
origins, meanings, and ○​ Case studies are ideal when
effects of past occurrences to the boundaries between the
build a deeper understanding phenomenon and context are
of current phenomena. unclear.
5.​ Grounded Theory:​

○​ A systematic method that

When to Use Qualitative Research:
generates theories by
collecting and analyzing data 1.​ Exploratory Research:​
related to a phenomenon. Qualitative research is often used
○​ Originated in sociology, it when researchers are unclear about
involves coding data to a subject and want to explore it in
develop a grounded theory depth. It helps identify the scope and
that explains the observed define the problem.​
behaviors or events.
○​ Grounded theory is 2.​ In-depth Understanding:​
particularly useful for When the goal is to obtain detailed
understanding complex insights into human experiences,
social phenomena and behaviors, or societal trends,
guiding product or service qualitative methods provide depth
design decisions. and context that quantitative
6.​ Case Study:​ research cannot.​

○​ Focuses on a deep, detailed 3.​ Human Voice and Context:​

exploration of a single case, If a researcher wants to give a
 human voice to their 1.​ Data Familiarity:​
results—especially when addressing
complex social issues or ○​ Start by reviewing and
behaviors—qualitative research understanding the collected
adds meaning and nuance to the data. Immerse yourself in the
data.​ material—read through the
responses, interviews, or
4.​ Uninterrupted Observation and field notes multiple times.
Ethnographic Participation:​ ○​ Take notes on initial
In cases where the researcher impressions, key ideas, and
needs to observe or immerse potential patterns or themes.
themselves in a setting over an Eliminate irrelevant data or
extended period (e.g., for sections that don't contribute
ethnography or fieldwork), qualitative to answering your research
methods are essential.​ questions.
2.​ Identify Key Questions:​

○​ Pinpoint the main questions

or objectives you're hoping to
How to Interpret Qualitative
answer through your
Research Data
analysis. Focusing on
specific cases, individuals, or
Qualitative research focuses on exploring
groups will help guide the
social phenomena, understanding the "why"
interpretation and keep it
and "how" behind human behaviors,
aligned with the research
attitudes, and experiences. Interpreting
goals.
qualitative data involves analyzing
3.​ Code and Index the Data:​
non-numerical information, such as words,
images, or observations. Here are the key
○​ The next step involves
steps to interpret qualitative research data:
identifying key themes,
concepts, and patterns within
the data. Code these
Steps to Interpret Qualitative Data: segments by labeling them
with specific tags, which can
 be words, phrases, or question. Ensure that your
concepts that represent the conclusions reflect the
data's content. underlying themes identified
○​ This step helps organize the during the coding and
data and makes it more analysis process.
manageable by allowing for
easy retrieval of similar
responses or ideas.
Qualitative Research vs
4.​ Identify Patterns and
Quantitative Research:
Connections:​

Qualitative Research:
○​ After coding, examine how
these codes and themes are ●​ Objective: Explores individual
connected. Look for recurring experiences, behaviors, and
patterns, similarities, or opinions, focusing on understanding
differences within the data. the meaning and context behind a
○​ Try to interpret the phenomenon.
significance of these patterns ●​ Data Type: Non-numerical data
and explain the underlying (e.g., words, images, descriptions).
meaning. For example, do ●​ Questions: Open-ended questions
certain themes appear in (e.g., "How do you feel about...?").
relation to specific participant ●​ Data Collection: Uses methods like
characteristics? in-depth interviews, focus groups,
5.​ Interpret and Explain Findings:​ and participant observation.
●​ Flexibility: The research design is
○​ Once the analysis is flexible; participant responses may
complete, synthesize the influence the direction of further
data into meaningful insights. questions or inquiries.
Use models or conceptual
Quantitative Research:
frameworks to explain your
findings. ●​ Objective: Quantifies the problem
○​ Develop a list of key findings, by generating numerical data and
and contextualize them statistically analyzing it to identify
within your research patterns and trends.
 ●​ Data Type: Numerical data (e.g., ●​ Data Collection Instruments​
statistics, percentages).
●​ Questions: Closed-ended questions ○​ Qualitative Research:
(e.g., "Do you agree with...?"). Semi-structured methods
●​ Data Collection: Uses structured (e.g., interviews, focus
methods like surveys and groups)
experiments, often with predefined ○​ Quantitative Research:
questions. Structured methods (e.g.,
●​ Flexibility: The research design is surveys, questionnaires)
rigid; participant responses do not ●​ Form of Data Produced​
influence the structure of questions
asked. ○​ Qualitative Research:
Descriptive (text,
observations, narratives)
○​ Quantitative Research:
Comparison Table:
Numerical (statistics,
percentages, counts)
●​ Degree of Flexibility​
●​ Analytical Objectives​

○​ Qualitative Research: High

○​ Qualitative Research:
flexibility; responses can
Describes individual
shape future questions
experiences and beliefs
○​ Quantitative Research: Low
○​ Quantitative Research:
flexibility; questions are fixed
Describes characteristics of a
before research begins
population
●​ Types of Questions Asked​

○​ Qualitative Research:
Open-ended questions (e.g.,
"Why," "How")
○​ Quantitative Research:
Closed-ended questions
(e.g., "Yes/No," "Rating")