MODULE 9—STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientation— universal in application.

This type of reasoning involves taking

Behaviour is determined by consequences. Person obeys to the perspective of every person or group that could potentially
I. Six Stages of Moral Development
avoid punishment. be affected by the decision
Lawrence Kohlberg—born October 25, 1927, Bronxville, New
Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation— Behaviour most psychologists were behaviorists, Kohlberg’s work
York, U.S., died January 17, 1987, Boston, Massachusetts
is determined again by consequences. Person focuses on concentrates on cognitive phenomena. His theory also received
—American psychologist and educator known for his theory of receiving rewards or satisfying personal needs. much criticism most notably from the American psychologist
moral development. Carol Gilligan, argued it ignored the distinct patterns of moral
Level 2: Conventional level— conformity to social rules remains
development exhibited by girls.
—youngest of four children of Alfred Kohlberg, (silk merchant, important to the individual, shifts from self-interest to
Jewish) and Charlotte Albrecht Kohlberg, (Protestant, skilled relationships with other people and social systems, strives to MODULE 10—REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS REQUIREMENTS
chemist). couple divorced in 1932 after 11 years of marriage, support rules that are set forth by others to win their approval or FOR ETHICS
children was required by a court order to choose which parent to maintain social order
I. Reason and Impartiality
he or she would live with. 2 young children chose their father,
Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation— Behaviour is
older ones chose their mother moral truths are truths of reason; that is, a moral judgement is
determined by social approval. Person wants to maintain or win
true if it is espoused by better reasons than the alternatives
Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development (1958)— the affection and approval of others by being a “good person.”
comprehensive stage theory of moral development based on Reason— ability of the mid to think, understand, and form
Stage 4: Law and order orientation—Social rules and
Jean Piaget’s theory of moral judgment for children judgments by a process of logic. innate and exclusive human
laws determine behaviour. The individual now considers societal
ability that use new or existing info as bases to consciously make
—cognitive in nature, focus on the thinking process that occurs laws. decision making becomes more than consideration of close
sense out of thing while applying logic.
when one decides whether a behaviour is right or wrong ties to others. Person believes that rules and laws maintain social
order “Kant and Hume on Morality,”—Reason and experience—
—how one decides to respond to a moral dilemma, not what
required for determining the effects of given motive or character
one decides or what one actually does Level 3: Postconventional or principled level— person moves
trait.
beyond the perspective of his or her own society. Morality is
—Piaget described a two-stage process of moral development. defined in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to moral truths— objectives in the sense that they true no matter
Kohlberg extended the theory into six stages of moral all situations and societies. Person attempts to take the what we might want or think being defined by good reasons,
development within three different levels, as moral development perspective of all individuals
is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan this also explains why morality is not arbitrary. Reason
Stage 5: Social contract orientation— Individual rights commends what it commends, regardless of our feelings,
Heinz Dilemma/ Heinz Steals the Drug—one of the moral determine behaviour. Person views laws and rules as flexible attitudes, opinions, and desires
dilemmas used by Kohlberg. Kohlberg was not interested so tools for improving human purposes. given the right situation,
much in the answer to whether Heinz was wrong or right but in there are exceptions to rules. When laws are not consistent with “Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirement for
the reasoning for each participant's decision. He then classified individual rights and the interests of the majority, they do not Morality,”— impartiality—manifesting objectivity, quality of
their reasoning into the stages of his theory of moral bring about good for people and alternatives should be being unbiased and objective in creating moral decision –
development considered. underscoring that a (morally) impartial person makes moral
decisions relative to the welfare of the majority and not for
Level 1: Preconventional level— morality is externally controlled. Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation— specific people alone
Rules imposed by authority figures are conformed to in order to According to Kohlberg, this is the highest stage of functioning.
avoid punishment or receive rewards. what is right is what one However, he claimed that some people will never reach this — involves the idea that each individual’s interest and point of
can get away with or what is personally satisfying level. the right action is based on one’s self-chosen ethical view are equally important.
principles of conscience. These principles are abstract and
— Also called evenhandedness or fair-mindedness, impartiality is subjective judgments— choosing among items involves weighing things are right for people in different societies and
a principle of justice holding decisions ought to be based on likes, dislikes, objectives, and values. different periods in history.
objective criteria, than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or  Ideal Observer Theory: the view that what is right is
Feelings are also visceral or instinctual by providing motivations
preferring the benefits to one person over another for improper determined by the attitudes that a hypothetical ideal
to act morally
reasons. observer (a being who is perfectly rational, imaginative
Reason when removed from emotion, allows a person to make and informed) would have
reason is a necessary requirement for morality
conscious decisions based on fact, with no references to
Downside: the theory could also have dangerous implications in
In the article “Impartiality,” it was stated that the only respect in personal involvement. The use of reason as a way of knowing,
moral education. has implications that are contrary to what we
which morality requires impartiality is with respect to violating allows for the knower to see the consequences of their actions
believe about the nature of moral [Link] also implies that
moral rules—for example, those rules prohibiting killing, causing through-out the decision-making process. Also, there are
each of us is infallible so as long as we are honestly expressing
pain, deceiving, and breaking promises. It is only with regard to limitations to decisions made based on reason alone, perception
our respective feelings about moral issues
these kinds of moral rules—those that can be formulated as of situations is not questioned as it may be with an emotional
prohibitions—that it is humanly possible to act impartially with decision 2. Emotivism— theory about moral judgments, sentences,
regard to a group large enough to be an appropriate group. words, and speech acts; it is sometimes also extended to cover
Feeling-based Theories in Ethics
aesthetic and other nonmoral forms of evaluation. Although
As stated in the article “Reason and Impartiality as Minimum
1. Ethical Subjectivism— runs contrary to the principle that there sometimes used to refer to the entire genus, strictly speaking
Requirement for Morality,” Reason and impartiality become the
is objectivity in morality. it is a theory about the nature or moral emotivism is the name of only the earliest version of ethical
basic prerequisite for morality as one is expected to be able to
judgments. noncognitivism (also known as expressivism and
deliver clear, rightful, and appropriate judgments made out of
nondescriptivism)
logic and understanding in an unbiased and unprejudiced —moral statements are made true or false by the attitudes
manner while considering the general welfare to accurately and/or conventions of the observers, and any ethical sentence — most popular form of non-cognitivism, the meta-ethical
concoct moral decisions. just implies an attitude, opinion, personal preference or feeling theory that claims that ethical sentences do not convey
held by someone. a statement to be considered morally right authentic propositions. Moral judgments, according to
MODULE 11—FEELINGS AND REASON
means that it is met with approval by the person of interest. Emotivism, are not statements of fact but are mere expressions
I. Feeling and Moral Decision-Making of the emotions of the speaker especially since they are usually
—judgments about human conduct are shaped by, and in many feelings—based
emotion—response to stimuli based on past experiences which ways limited to, perception.
is made instinctively Language—used to state facts or what we believe to be facts. But
Variants under ethical subjectivism: there are other purpose for which language may be used like
reason—form of personal justification which changes from utterance or command. The purposes of utterances are (1) they
 Simple Subjectivism: that ethical statements reflect
person to person based on their own ethical and moral code, as are used as means of influencing other’s behavior and (2) moral
sentiments, personal preferences and feelings rather
well as prior experience sentences are used to expresses the speaker’s attitude
than objective facts.
ethics is also a matter of emotion. They hold the moral judgment  Individualist Subjectivism: the view (by Protagoras) that — moral language expresses emotions and tries to influence
as they are even deemed by some as instinctive and trained there are many distinct scales of good and evil as there others; it has no cognitive content. If I say homosexuality is evil,
response to moral dilemmas are individuals in the world. a form of Egoism, which I’m just expressing my feeling that homosexuality is disgusting! I
says that every human being ought to pursue what is in am expressing my emotions and, at the same time, trying to
emotion and reason as tightly intertwined. Emotion and reason
his or her self-interest exclusively. influence you to dislike homosexuality
are jointly at work when we judge the conduct of others or make
 Moral Relativism (or Ethical Relativism): the view that
choices ourselves. A cognitive deficit of either type can impair
for a thing to be morally right is for it to be approved of
our decision-making capacity about all manner of things,
by society, leading to the conclusion that different
including moral judgments
Downside: emotivism presupposes that moral disagreements are 1. Stop and think. Before making any decisions, it is nice to take who will be affected by your decision and how the decision is a
incapable of being resolved by rational discourse. There is no a moment to think about the following: likely to affect them.
way to resolve our attitudinal disagreements unless we are
a) Situation itself 6. Choose. After consideration of all the consequences from the
persuasive enough (or violent enough)
b) Your role in the situation options, make a decision now. If you are doubtful of your choice,
Feelings Can Help in Making the Right Decision c) Other internal/ external factors such as try the following:
• People who might get involved in the result of the
1. Don’t accept the problem as given. Generate multiple options a. Talk to people whom you trust.
decision
and assess them against one another instead of considering b. Think of someone who you think has the character of
• Potential effects of the decision
them in isolation. good decision maker.
2. Clarify Goals. it is essential to determine your goals both c. If people around you found out your decision, would
2. Listen to both your heart and head. Issues of right and wrong
short-term and long-term goals. you be comfortable and proud?
matter deeply to us, as they should. reflect on the sources of our
d. Follow the Golder Rule: treat others the way you want
feelings as they may be triggered by associations that have Short-term goals— those that need to be accomplished right
to be treated, and keep your promises.
nothing to do with the matter at hand. after or immediately after a decision is made.
7. Monitor and modify. Ethical decision makers monitor the
3. Watch your language. How we name things exposes (or long-term goal—which the result may come out after some
effect of their decisions and are willing to modify their decision.
masks) the nature of our actions and their consequences. Firings times. It is important because that is going to be the basis of
it is necessary if the decision had been made has a lot of ethical
become layoffs, layoffs become downsizing, and downsizing what one wishes to accomplish. it requires a sacrifice for
considerations. Do not hesitate to revise your decisions in light of
becomes right-sizing. someone just to achieve his or her goal whether short or long
new developments in the situation.
term one.
4. Take special care in dimly lit places. Your actions—and
MODULE 13—REASON AND WILL
ultimately even your values—are influenced by the company you 3. Determine facts. Make sure that that all essential information
keep. is considered before you make a decision. To determine the Reason— faculty or process of drawing logical syllogism,
facts, solve first what you know, then what do you still need to associated with knowledge, also used in other context as a
5. Be modest about your virtue. It should remind us that people
know. Have a heart to accept other information about the disagreement to sensation, perception, feeling, and desire.
who are most self-righteous may be most likely to slip.
subject of your decision-making process
Reasoning— process of drawing out conclusion from the
6. Understand why others transgress. Some lapses may be due to
a) Consider the reliability and credibility of the people previous knowledge
moral failure, but others can be caused by external factors that
providing the facts.
have little to do with their fundamental nature. Refrain from Knowledge— one acquires as he studies, gets matured and
b) Consider the basis of the supposed facts. Evaluate on
judging a person’s core character, positively or negatively, on the professional
the basis of honesty, accuracy, and memory
basis of a single event.
Immanuel Kant— reason is the power of producing into oneness,
4. Develop options. you can make a list of actions that are
7. Don’t give up on yourself (or on others). An ancient proverb by means of understandable theories, the concepts that are
possibly be your options. you can talk to someone you trust most
says, “Every saint has a past. Every sinner has a future.” Honest provided by the intellect or the mind. For Kant, the foundation of
to broaden your perspective and think of new choices. If you can
reflection about the past, coupled with a measure of humility, ethics is authority of human reason
think of only one or two choices, you are probably not thinking
can serve as foundation for leading a responsible life going
hard enough The voice of God—conscience for St. Thomas Aquinas- is not
forward.
heard directly today while man is living in this finite world
5. Consider consequences. After developing options which are
MODULE 12—THE 7-STEP MORAL REASONING
possibly your basis of action, filter your choices, then omit “pure reason,”— reason which gives a priori principles “practical
To ensure the reasonableness and neutrality of moral decisions, unethical options. Think of its long long-term consequences and reason,”— concerned with the performance of actions.
it is good to follow the seven-step moral reasoning model. act in accordance to the spirit of fairness and justice. Identify
Kant told that reason in itself can only be sensible foundation of Moral theory—explains why a certain action is wrong -- or why  Based upon Psychological Egoism, that we, by nature,
what is ethical for man. There are three points in Kant’ reason: we ought to act in certain ways, a theory of how we determine act selfishly. we will act so as to maximize our self-
right and wrong conduct, provides framework upon which we interest. However, egoists will help others only if this
1. the relation of reason to empirical truth;
think and discuss in a reasoned way, and so evaluate, specific will further their own interests. An ethical egoist will
2. reason’s role in scientific inquiry; and
moral issues. claim that the altruist helps others only because they
3. the positive gains that come from appreciating reason’s
want to (perhaps because they derive pleasure out of
limits. in order to critically evaluate the moral issue of affirmative
helping others) or because they think there will be
action, we must not attempt to evaluate what actions or policies
reason, as distinguished from faith, is the human intelligence some personal advantage in doing so. They deny the
are right (or wrong) independent of what we take to determine
exercised upon religious truth whether by way of discovery or by possibility of genuine altruism (because they think we
right and wrong conduct
way of explanation. The limits within which the reason may be are all by nature selfish). morality is the system of
used have been laid down differently in different churches and Descriptive or Prescriptive? Most take moral theories to be practical reasoning through which we are guided to
periods of thought prescriptive. The descriptive accounts of what people do are left constrain our self-interest
to sociologists and anthropologists. Philosophers, then, when
If the reason is the foundation of what is ethical for Kant, in turn, 4. Divine Command Theory— Right and wrong come from the
they study morality, want to know what is the proper way of
its source must be a goodwill. commands of God, religion is necessary to motivate and guide
determining right and wrong
people to behave in a morally good way, the necessary
Good Will— implies the achievability of what is known though connection between morality and religion to mean that right and
Theories of Morality
reason, force to pursue what one possesses in mind, one good wrong come from commands of God
which can be called good without any qualification 1. Moral Subjectivism— where right or wrong are determined by
what you (the subject) just happens to think is right or wrong,  there is a necessary connection between morality and
The true object of reason is to produce a will which is good in religion, such that, without religion there is no morality,
based on your personal assessment and judgment, amounts to
itself, since nothing else is always and necessarily good. This will no right and wrong behaviour. an action is right/or
the denial of moral principles of any significant kind, and the
must be autonomous in nature because the will’s autonomy will obligatory if God commands us to do it, wrong if God
possibility of moral criticism and argumentation
make a man a dignified one. To lose one’s freewill is to lose commands we refrain from doing it.
one’s dignity.  'right' and 'wrong' lose their meaning because so long
as someone thinks or feels that some action is 'right', 5. Virtue Ethics—Right and wrong are characterized in terms of
In a nutshell, Reason is the foundation of morality and the acting in accordance with the traditional virtues, making a good
there are no grounds for criticism. If you are a moral
source of is the goodwill. the basis of our actions is our prior person
subjectivist, you cannot object to anyone's behavior
knowledge of somethings. The purpose of why we wish to buy
rubber shoes is that because we have prior knowledge that 2. Cultural Relativism— Right and wrong is determined by the 6. Feminist Ethics—Right and wrong are found in women's
rubber shoes is good for sports. To insist and the actual purchase particular set of principles or rules of what relevant culture holds responses to the relationship of caring, comes out of the
of the rubber shoes, our will pushed us to do so. at the time, different people have different cultures that are why criticism that all other moral theories are 'masculine' -- display a
right or wrong is based on how one’s culture dictates morality male bias.
MODULE 14—MORAL THEORIES
 It implies that we cannot criticize the actions of those in  feminist ethics suggests that we need to consider the
Morality—system through which we determine right and wrong self as partly constructed by social relations. So
cultures other than our own. And again, it amounts to
conduct -- i.e., the guide to good or right conduct. morality, according to feminist moral philosophers,
the denial of universal moral principles
must be ground in 'moral emotions' like love and
Ethics—philosophical study of Morality
3. Ethical Egoism— Right and wrong is determined by what is in sympathy, leading to relationships of caring. This allows
Theory— structured set of statements used to explain (or your self-interest. Or, it is immoral to act contrary to your self- legitimate biases towards those with whom we have
predict) a set of facts or concepts interest. close social relationships.
7. Utilitarianism—Right and wrong is determined by the overall  Greek, wrote Nicomachean Ethics doctrine of the golden mean is central in the self- realization
goodness (utility) of the consequences of the action.  the ultimate purpose cannot be understood without ethics of Aristotle, especially in the full exercise of functions
Utilitarianism is a Consequentialist moral theory. understanding the place of reason in ordering one’s life regarding the development of man’s vegetative and sentient
 morality is not merely a matter of knowing the good but nature. Reason seeks the balanced course between too much
 All action leads to some end. But there is a summum
actually doing the good habitually. We become what we and too little. Extremes and excesses are always evil, hence, to
bonum -- the highest good/end. This is pleasure or
are not what we know but what we do. be avoided.
happiness
 self-realization is the highest good attainable by man.
 there is a First Principle of Morals -- 'Principle of Utility', II. St. Thomas
Self-realization is termed as Eudaemonia or well-being
alternatively called 'The Greatest Happiness Principle'
or happiness. Eudaemonia is sought for its own sake.  Christianized the philosophy based on his theories and
(GHP), usually characterized as the ideal of working
wealth, health, power, are sought because they are ways. His perspective presupposes the existence of God
towards the greatest happiness of the greatest number.
perceived to be instrumental in one’s flourishing. who is the author (source) and the goal (end) of all
The GHP implies that we ought to act so as to maximize
Eudaemonia is an activity of the soul in accordance with realities.
human welfare. We do this in a particular instance by
virtue  there exists a natural law which is the interpretation of
choosing the action that maximizes pleasure/happiness
 happiness is not the same as possession of wealth or man from the Eternal Law
and minimizing suffering.
pleasure; while pleasure is good, it is not the ultimate  the source of the moral law is reason itself. in its
8. Kantian Theory— Right and wrong are determined by good. Happiness is the natural outcome of the active operation, reason recognizes the basic principle “Do
rationality, giving universal duties. exercise of functions good and avoid evil”. moral law is the dictates of the
 The full realization of functions—fulfilling, realizing, voice of reason, and this dictate is expressed in the
 That there is "the supreme principle of morality". Good actualizing, and developing one’s nature with all its principle that good must be done and evil must be
and Evil are defined in terms of Law / Duty / Obligation. potentials avoided
Rationality and Freedom are also central. Kant thought  our chief good is not something we merely possess in  synderesis—inherent capacity of an individual to
that acting morally was quite simple. mind but something that we continually actualize in perceive what is good or bad.
1. you ought to do your duty (simply because it is your practice.  voice of reason is also called the conscience—the
duty).
immediate judgment of practical reason applying the
2. Reason guides you to this conclusion. Threefold Nature of Man
general principle of morality
3. Good Will (having the right intentions) is the only
Each of these must be fulfilled as the realization of each is  what is human good is which is suitable for and proper
thing that is good without qualification. So, actions
accompanied by a state of pleasure and happiness. to human nature. whenever an act is suitable to human
are truly moral only if they have the right intention,
nature as such, then it is good and it must be done;
based on Good Will 1. Vegetative- it refers to the physical body which is cultivated by
whenever it is not proper to human nature, however,
wholesome food and proper exercise.
9. Contractarianism— The principles of right and wrong (or then it is evil and it must be avoided
Justice) are those which everyone in society would agree upon in 2. Sentient- Man as full of senses has sentient nature. One needs  human nature is the proximate norm of morality
forming a social contract. to make his feelings and emotions fine to satisfy his senses.  the good is built into human nature, to which we are
directed by our natural inclinations
 Various forms of Contractarianism have been suggested. 3. Rational- Human bearings are rational animals. full realization
In general, the idea is that the principles or rules that of vegetative and sentient nature keeps them longing for more Three Natural Inclinations of Man
determine right and wrong in society are determined by lasting satisfaction. Basic needs cannot satisfy their thirst for
1. Self-preservation. We are inclined to preserve our life. Self-
a hypothetical contract forming procedure. self-realization. one develops his rational nature in the pursuit of
destruction—is unnatural to St. Thomas. This urges us to care
scientific knowledge. philosophical truth, political activity,
MODULE 15—ARISTOTLE AND ST. THOMAS for our health, not to kill ourselves or put ourselves in danger.
religious commitment, and creative, artistic endeavor
I. Aristotle 2. Just dealings with others. Reason by nature leads us to treat
Determinant of Morality
others with the same dignity and respect that we accord
ourselves. This is the basis of justice which arises out of human universal law". we should adopt as action-guiding rules (maxims) 3. Equates good with pleasure and evil with pain, and
relations. Thus, any act of injustice is against human nature. only those that can be universally accepted 4. Asserts that pleasure and pain are capable of
quantification (and hence 'measure')
3. Propagation of the species. We are naturally inclined to — think that we must always ask the following questions: What if
perpetuate our species which is viewed as a natural good. We everyone did the action you are proposing? Or, what if I were in In measuring pleasure and pain, Bentham introduces the
are obligated not to pervert this natural inclination. the the other person's position? This leads to the basic idea behind following criteria:
reproductive organs are by nature designed to reproduce and to the Golden Rule
 INTENSITY,
perpetuate the human species. And any intervention against
— Never treat anyone merely as a means to an end. Rather, treat  DURATION,
such nature must be evil.
everyone as an end in themselves. Many think that this way of  CERTAINTY (or UNCERTAINTY), and its
Determinant of Morality formulating the Categorical Imperative shows that Kantianism is  NEARNESS (or FARNESS).
clearly anti-Utilitarian  He also includes its "fecundity" (will more of the same
1. Object—the Act itself
follow?) and
2. Circumstances—conditions which, when superadded to Rights-based Theories of Kant— We are to act in accordance
 its "purity" (its pleasure won't be followed by pain &
the nature of the moral act, will affect its morality. It with a set of moral rights, which we possess simply by being
vice versa).
answers the question of who, what, where, by what human.
 In considering actions that affect numbers of people, we
means, why, how and when?
—Rights-based views is that if someone has a right, then others must also account for its EXTENT.
3. End of the agent—The end here is taken in the sense of
have a corresponding duty to provide what the right requires
end or purpose of the agent or the doer John Stuart Mill— He adjusted the more hedonistic tendencies in
positive right— one in which the corresponding duty requires Bentham's philosophy
MODULE 16—KANTIAN THEORY
positive action, e.g., giving a charitable donation in order to
1. It is not the quantity of pleasure, but the quality of
I. Kantian Theory sustain someone's right to life, shelter, education, etc
happiness that is central to utilitarianism,
—Right and wrong is determined by rationality, giving universal negative right— one in which the corresponding duty merely 2. the calculus is unreasonable -- qualities cannot be
duties. Kantianism is a non-consequentialist moral theory requires refraining from doing something that will harm quantified (there is a distinction between 'higher' and
someone 'lower' pleasures), and
—there is "the supreme principle of morality". Good and Evil are 3. utilitarianism refers to "the Greatest Happiness
defined in terms of Law / Duty / Obligation. Rationality and MODULE 17—UTILITARIANISM Principle" -- it seeks to promote the capability of
Freedom are also central. Kant thought that acting morally was achieving happiness (higher pleasures) for the most
I. Utilitarianism
quite simple. That is: amount of people (this is its "extent").
— normative ethical theory that places the locus of right and
a. you ought to do your duty (simply because it is We can apply the principle of utility to either PARTICULAR
wrong solely on the outcomes (consequences) of choosing one
your duty). ACTIONS (called "act-utilitarianism") or GENERAL RULES ("rule-
action/policy over other actions/policies, it moves beyond the
b. Reason guides you to this conclusion. utilitarianism’).
scope of one's own interests and takes into account the interests
c. Good Will (i.e., having the right intentions) is the only
of others. Act-utilitarianism
thing that is good without qualification. So, actions are
truly moral only if they have the right intention, i.e., Jeremy Bentham’ Principle of Utility  The principle of utility is applied directly to each
based on Good Will
alternative act in a situation of choice.
1. Recognizes the fundamental role of pain and pleasure in
Categorical Imperative/ Principle of Universalizability—only can  The right act is then defined as the one which brings
human life,
be a law of "universal conformity", "I should never act except in about the best results or least amount of bad results.
2. Approves or disapproves of action on the basis of the
such a way that I can also will that my maxim should become a  It is possible to justify immoral acts using AU: Suppose
amount of pain or pleasure brought about i.e,
you could end a regional war by torturing children
consequences,
 whose fathers are enemy soldiers, thus revealing the 5. It transfers jobs from developed countries to less  the conducts and relationships of individuals in the
hideouts of the fathers. developed countries. organization.
6. It transfers investment spending from developed 1. duplication/ imitation of products;
Rule-utilitarianism
countries to less developed countries. 2. child labor;
 The principle of utility is used to determine the validity 7. With the dollar as the world’s reserve currency, 3. money laundering;
of rules of conduct (moral principles). globalization leads to a huge US balance of trade deficits 4. environmental issues;
 A rule like promise-keeping is established by looking at and other imbalances. 5. and other business malpractices and crimes
the consequences of a world in which people broke 8. It tends to move taxation away from corporations, and  cyber crimes
promises at will and a world in which promises were onto individual citizens.  sexual harassments
binding. 9. It sets up a currency “race to the bottom” with each  intellectual property
 Right and wrong are then defined as following or country trying to get an export advantage by dropping  patent thefts
breaking those rules. if the Rules take into account the value of its currency.
MODULE 19—MILLENIALS AND FILINIALS: ETHICAL CHALLENGES
more and more exceptions, RU collapses into AU. 10. It encourages dependence on other countries for
AND RESPONSES
essential goods and services.
More general criticisms of this view argue that it is possible to 11. It ties countries together, so that if one country I. Millennials and Filinials
generate "unjust rules" according to the principle of utility. For collapses, the collapse is likely to ripple through the
example, slavery in Greece might be right if it led to an overall system, pulling many other countries with it. Millennials—demographic cohort directly following the
achievement of cultivated happiness at the expense of some Generation X, also known as known as ‘Generation Y’ or the ‘Net
mistreated individuals Some Ethical Challenges of Globalization Generation’.

MODULE 18—GLOBALIZATION AND ITS ETHICAL CHALLENGES emerging challenge in globalization to address. Center for Generational Kinetics mentions five generations that
make up our society
Globalization—the trend of unity among countries as this 1. Wealth concentration for the few and leaving behind
concept made scattered states one interact with each other. the majority. Birth Year Cluster Generation Name
Globalization is defined through the following: 2. Laissez-faire capitalism deepens the inequalities within 1996 and later Gen Z, iGen, or Centennials
and between nations for consequentialist and 1977 to 1995 Millennials or Gen Y
 the world-wide integration through trade and the deontological standpoints. 1965 to 1976 Generation X
exchange of ideas; 3. States are losing their own sovereignty. 1946 to 1964 Baby Boomers
 intensification of worldwide relationships which link 4. Problem of handling the global environment in order to 1954 and earlier Traditionalists or Silent
distant localities in a way that local happenings are prevent a global ecological collapse. Generation
shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice 5. Explosive population growth which threatens to surpass Millenials are generally the children of baby boomers and older
versa. the earth’s carrying capacity and bust the biosphere. Gen Xers.
 It is the stress on trans-nationalization of the
connections taking place in the world today. Some Emerging Issues of Globalization and Business Ethics Filinials— In Filipino terms, Millennials are called as adapted
from Filipino, increased use and familiarity with communications,
Some Problems with Globalization Business ethics—form of an applied ethics that examines moral media, and digital technologies, an advanced generation in terms
principles concerning business environment involving issues of technology utilization
1. It uses up finite resources more quickly. about:
2. Increases world carbon dioxide. —known to be non-linear individuals which the traditionalists
3. It makes it virtually impossible for regulators in one  corporate policies; sometimes misunderstand in terms of work ethics
country to foresee the worldwide implications of their  corporate practices;
actions.  business behaviors; and — marked by an increase in a liberal approach to politics,
4. It acts to increase world oil prices. economics, and morality, although this claim is disputed.
Seven Basic Traits of Millennials —Most millennials of every religion, race, and ethnicity support 1. using social networking to find out about the company’s
access to affordable contraception. some connotes that choosing competitors
1. special- They are the most educated generation on
an abortion is the most responsible decision that a woman can 2. “Friending” a client or customer on social media
record.
make. 3. uploading personal photos on a company network
2. sheltered- Since birth, they are known to be from many
4. keeping copies of confidential documents
forms of protection. They are the most protected Some other findings are:
5. working less to compensate for cuts in benefits or pay
generation since their birth.
a. Some Millennials say that marriage is old fashioned and 6. buying personal items using a company credit card
3. confident- They are known to be less religious, less
out of date while most of them disagree. 7. blogging or tweeting negatively about a company
serve the military yet as the most educated generation.
b. Millennials belong to four-way split: 8. taking a copy of work software home for personal use
4. team-oriented (disputed trait)- They like to band
 pro-life
together to socialize in groups. In schools, they prefer Millennials post questionable information on their personal
 pro-choice
working with groups rather than individuals. social media accounts including the following:
 no both pro-life and choice
5. conventional- They take pride in their improving
 equal by pro-choice and life. 1. feeling about their jobs
behavior. Their taste to arts and music is less extreme
c. few of them are either lesbian, gay, bisexual, or 2. bad joke told by the boss
than the previous generations.
transgender. 3. work on a project
6. pressured- They wish to be ahead of many things,
4. picture of a coworker drinking
successful and take advantage of opportunities but III. Work Ethics
5. annoying habit of a coworker
avoiding taking risks.
POSITIVE NOTES 6. information about the company’s competitors
7. achieving- They are known to be of many achievements
BOOMERS Millennials 7. opinion about coworker’s politics
as youngsters. These can be associated with their being
proactive in life  hardworking  tech-savvy
 idealistic  appreciative of
II. Ethical Outlook and Cultural Identity  committed to diversity skilled in
harmony multitasking
In 2013, 2014 researches resulted the following: NEGATIVE NOTES
1. millennials were more open minded than their parents  self-centered with  lack basic literacy
sense of entitlement fundamentals
on some controversial matters. 84% of millennials
 workaholics  very short attention
favored legalizing this marijuana.
 self-motivated span
2. in adulthood, they are detached from institutions and
 don't appreciate  not loyal to
networked with friends. feedbacks organizations
3. found to be a pragmatic idealist in approach to social  demand immediate
change. feedbacks and
recognition
—also called Boomerang Generation or Peter Pan because of
 integrate technology
their perceived tendencies for delaying some rites of passage in in the workplace
adulthood for longer periods than most generations before them  expect of many
and for living with their parents for longer periods than previous employers and
generations careers
 work dress is
—Generation Y are very cheerful and enthusiast and more open
whatever feel
to change than older generations. comfortable
What do Millennials believed in to be ethical in the Workplace: