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Introductory Statistics
Introductory Statistics
Fourth Edition

Sheldon M. Ross
University of Southern California

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About the Author

Sheldon M. Ross
Sheldon M. Ross received his Ph.D. in Statistics at Stanford University in 1968
and then joined the Department of Industrial Engineering and Operations Re-
search at the University of California at Berkeley. He remained at Berkeley until
Fall 2004, when he became the Daniel J. Epstein Professor of Industrial and
Systems Engineering in the Daniel J. Epstein Department of Industrial and Sys-
tems Engineering at the University of Southern California. He has published
many technical articles and textbooks in the areas of statistics and applied
probability. Among his texts are A First Course in Probability (ninth edition),
Introduction to Probability Models (eleventh edition), Simulation (fifth edition),
and Introduction to Probability and Statistics for Engineers and Scientists (fifth edi-
tion).
Professor Ross is the founding and continuing editor of the journal Probability
in the Engineering and Informational Sciences. He is a fellow of the Institute of
Mathematical Statistics, the Institute for Operations Research and Management
Sciences, and a recipient of the Humboldt U.S. Senior Scientist Award.

v
For Rebecca and Elise
Contents

ABOUT THE AUTHOR .............v

PREFACE ..... • ..•••.••••• XXI

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .. . ............ ....... XXVII

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Statistics . . . . .... . .... ... ... . ..... . . . . . . . .... . ...... . ..... .. ..... 1

1 .1 Introduction ..... ...... ... ..... 1

1 .2 The Nature of Statistics. ....2

1.2.1 Data Collection ................................................................. 3

1.2.2 Inferential Statistics and Probability ModeLs . . .. . . . . . ... . . .. 4

1.3 Populations and Samples .. . .... . . . . . .. . . .... . ... . . . .... . . . ... . . ... .. . . .. .... . . 5
. . . .

1.3.1 Stratified Random Sampling ........ . ........ ..................... 6

1.4 A Brief History of Statistics ........................................................7

Key Terms .................................................................................. 10

The Changing Definition of Statistics .. . .. .... . .. ..11

. . . .

Review Problems.. ..... ... .... 1 1

CHAPTER 2 Describing Data Sets . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. .. ... . . . .... . ...... . ..... ... . ....... . ... 17

2 .1 Introduction. .. . . . .17

2.2 Frequency Tables and Graphs .......... . ..... . ........................ . ........ 18

2.2.1 Line Graphs, Bar Graphs, and Frequency Polygons . . .19

2.2.2 Relative Frequency Graphs. . ............ . .. 20

2.2.3 Pie Charts. ............... ............... ...24

ix
Contents

Problems ......... .. ......... . .... . ............... . ..... . .. ...... .. . . ............... . ....... 25

2.3 Grouped Data and Histograms.. ...........................3 1

Problems .................... ...... . ................... ........ ............. ..37

2.4 Slem-and-Leaf Plots .................. . .................. . . ............ 41

Problems. . . . ........... . .. ............... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... 44

2.5 Sets of Paired Data ..... ... . ....... ................................ 47

Problems ................... ......................... 50

2.6 Some Historical Comments .... . ................ ..53

Key Terms . . .......54

Summary . . . . .. . . .. .. . .. .. . . . . . .. .. . .
. .. . . .. . .. .. ... . .. ... . .... . . . . .. .
.. . . ... ...... . .. . . 55 .

Review Problems. ..58

CHAPTER 3 Using Statistics to Summarize Data Sets..... .... 65

3.1 Introduction .. . . 65
...

3.2 Sample Mean ............................ .. 67

3.2.1 Deviations ..... . ................... ................. ......... .. . .... . ... . ...... 71

Problems........... . ................ .......72

3.3 Sample Median ............... . .... 75

Prob�ms.. ... ....... . ..... .... .. . . ..... ....... .. . . .. .... . .. 78

3.3.1 Sample Percentiles ... . ..81

Problems .................................................................................... 84

3.4 Sample Mode . .. . . .. .. .... . . . . . . . . . . .... . ...... ... . .. . . ... ....... .........87

Problems .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . ............ . ............ .... . ....................... .

.. ...... 88

3.5 Sample Variance and Sample Slandard Deviation . ...... ... . .. ..90

Problems .................... . . .... ... .......................................... . .......... . 95.

3.6 Normal Data Sets and the Empirical Rule ....................... .99

Problems...... . .............. ... 104

3.7 Sample Correlation Coefficient.. ..... 107

Problems .. ...............115

3.8 The Lorenz Curve and Gini Index .. 120

3.8.1 The 80-20 and the Pareto Rules .... 125

 Contents

Problems ............................... . ............ . ........ . ................. . ......... . 128

3.9 Using R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Key Terms . 1 30
.

Summary .. ........ .. ....1 32

Review ProbLems ..................... ........................... ........1 34

CHAPTER 4 Probability. . ......................................... 139

4.1 Introduction.. .... . .... ......... . .......... .. . ... ................ . ........ . ..... .......... 1 39

4.2 Sample Space and Events of an Experiment . . . . .. ... . ...... .. . ...... 140

Problems.... .. . . . .. .... . ...... ....... .. ......14 3

4. 3 Properties of Probability .... .146

Problems . ....149

4.4 Experiments Having Equally likely Outcomes .................... .154

Problems ........................... . . .................

. . ................157

4.5 Conditional Probability and Independence ........ ... . . .......... ... 159 ..

Problems . .............. .. . ...... . .... . .............. ... . ...... . .......... . ........ . . .. 169
. . .

4.6 Bayes' Theorem ............... ...176

ProbLems ....................... . . .... .. ....... .... ..... .. .. .... .. . .. ..... .. .... ..180

4.7 Counting Principles. ................ ..... .............181

ProbLems ... . ......188

Key Terms .. .. ......... .... 191

Summary ................. 192

Review ProbLems .194

CHAPTER 5 Discrete Random Variables ..... . . . ......... 203

5.1 Introduction . ..20 3

5.2 Random Variables ....... .. . ......................................... ................ 205

Problems . ........ . ............ .. . .... . ..................... ... . . .................... . ... 208

. .

5. 3 Expected Vatue ............ . ...... . ................ . . .

... .. ........................ . . 211 ..

5. 3.1 Properties of Expected Values .214

Problems. . ...... .. ..... .. .. .. . ............ .218

5.4 Variance of Random Variables 22 3

Contents

5.4.1 Properties of Variances .. . .. ......... .. .

...... ........................ 225

5.4.2 Expectation of a Function of a Random Variable ... .. .228

Problems .................. ..................... .. ... . ....................... nl

5.5 Jointly Distributed Random Variables ............. . ................. .... 233

5 . 5.1 Covariance and CorreLation ... .. ....... ........ ..........2 35

Problems.............. . ........ . .. . ...2 39

5.6 Binomial Random Variables .... . ..

... . .
..... ............ . ..... . .... ..... . .....240

5.6. 1 Expected Value and Variance o f a BinomiaL Random

Variable .. . .
... .... . .... . .
.. .......... .. . .
..... ......... . .... ..... ..
... .... . ..... 245

Problems.. .. ...................... ..... ..... .. ..... ................... ... ........ U6

5.7 Hypergeometric Random Variables.. .....249

Problems . . .... ............ . ................... . ................. . .... . ...... . . . . . . . . ....250

5.8 Poisson Random Variables.. . .. .. .. . .... .. ...... .. .. ......251

Problems........ . ...254

5.9 Using R to calculate Binomial and Poisson Probabilities .... 255

Key Terms ... . .....256

Summary . ....................... . .............. . ..256

Review Problems .......................................................... . .......... 258

CHAPTER 6 Normal Random Variables ....... 263

61
. Introduction .................... . . ..26 3

6 .2 Continuous Random Variables ... .......264

Problems ................... .. .. . .. ...265

6. 3 Normal Random Variables .............................. ................ 267

ProbLems.. . . . . .......... .... .. . ..... .....270

6.4 Probabilities Associated with a Standard Normal Random

Variable . . ... .
... . ... .. .. .... . . .. .
. .. . ....... .
.. ..... . .. .
.... .... ..272

Problems . . .. .. .. .. ..... .. . .....276

6.5 Finding Normal Probabilities: Conversion to the Standard

Normal ..................................................................................... 277

6.6 Additive Property of Normal Random Variables. .....279

Problems ............. .... ... ................... ....281

 Contents

6.7 Percentiles of Normal Random Variables ............................. 284

ProbLems .................................................................................. 288

6.8 Calculating Normal Probabilities with R.. . ..289

Key Terms .. .. ...... . ......290

Summary . .................. ........................ ..... ........291

Review ProbLems ... ....29 3

CHAPTER 7 Distributions of SampLing Statistics .............. 297

7.1 A Preview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .297

7.2 Introduction .. ....... ....298

7. 3 SampLe Mean . . . . .299

Problems ........ 302

7.4 Central limit Theorem ............... ......................... 30 3

7.4.1 Distribution of the SampLe Mean. ............................... 306

7.4.2 How Large a SampLe Is Needed? ............................... 308

ProbLems ................. . .......................... . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 310

7.5 Sampling Proportions from a Finite Population . . .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. 312

7.5.1 Probabilities Ass ociated with Sample Proportions:

The Normal Approximation to the Binomial
Distribution. .............. . . ............. .... . ................ 315
.

ProbLems ................................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

7.6 Distribution of the Sample Variance of a Normal

PopuLation ... . .... . ...... .. .. . .. .. ....... ...... .. . .. .. .. ....... ....... .. ...... 321

Problems ............................... .............. . . ........................ 32 3

Key Terms .... . 32 3

Summary .. .. .. ....... .. .. 324

Review Problems ........................... .......................................... 325

CHAPTER 8 Estimation ..... ............... .............. ................. .......... 329

8.1 Introduction. ............ 329

8.2 Point Es timator of a Population Mean.. .......... 3 30

ProbLems . .. .............. . ............ . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .

... ................ . .. ....... 3 32

8. 3 Poinl Es timator of a PopUlation Proporlion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 333

Contents

Pmb�ms .................................................................................. n5

8. 3.1 Eslimaling Ihe Probabilily of a Sensilive Evenl. . . .. . . .. 3 37

Problems .................... .. . ... .... ................... ... .............. 3 39

8.4 Estimating a Population Variance ............. .. ..

... .... . .... 3 39

Problems.. ........................... ........ ...... .................... ... 341

8.5 Interval Estimators of the Mean of a Normal Population. .. . . 34 3

8.5 1
. Lower and Upper Confidence Bounds .. .. .. ... . 351

Problems .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ... . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . .
..... ...... . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . 352

8.6 Interval Estimators of the Mean of a Normal Population. . . .. 355

8.6.1 Lower and Upper Confidence Bounds . . . .. .. . . . .. . . . . 360

Problems.. .................. ......................... ........................ 361

8.7 Interval Estimators of a Population Proportion . . . 365

.. . ... ..

8.7.1 Length of the Confidence Interval .. . . .. . . . . 367

8.7.2 Lower and Upper Confidence Bounds ......... ............. 369

Problems.. .................. .... 371

8.8 Use of R .... ........................ . .. ................ ................. .. .. .. .. 3�

Key Terms ...................................... . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. ... .... .. .. .. .. 374

Summary . ......... . .......... . ..... . ......... ..

... . ........ . .............. ... .. . ...... 375

Review Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

CHAPTER 9 Testing Statistical Hypotheses .... 381

9 .1 Introduction ... ............................ ............ 381

9.2 Hypothesis Tests and Significance Levels . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382

Problems.. ................ . ..... ....... 385

9. 3 Tests Concerning the Mean of a Normal Population ............ 387

Pmb�ms.......... .. ... ... .. ... . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. ... .... .. .. . .... � 3

9. 3.1 One-Sided Tests ........................................................... 395

Problems ........................................ .
. ... .. ....... ...... .. ... ........ 398

9.4 The t Test for the Mean of a Normal Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .401

Problems..... ..... ..... .... .... ...... ..409

9.5 Hypothesis Tests Concerning Population Proportions ..... 41 3

 Contents

9.5.1 Two-Sided Tests of p ............... . ...... ............................. 416

Problems. ... ........... . . . .........................419

9.6 Use of R in Running a One Sample t-tesl ....................... .423

Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................. . .... . .424

...

Summary. ........................ ..425

Review ProbLems and Proposed Case Studies .428

CHAPTER 1 0 Hypothesis Tests Concerning Two Populations ............ 433

10.1 Introduction ................ ........................ . .................. ....433

10.2 Testing Equality of Means of Two Normal Populations ........ 435

Problems ................ . ...........................439

1 0.3 Testing Equality of Means .............. .................442

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

1 0.4 Testing Equality of Means, Small-Sample Tests. ... ......450

Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
... .................. . .455
...

10.5 Paired-Sample, Test ......................... . . ........................458

Problems ............................... ................................................... 463

10.6 Testing Equality of Population Proportions. ....467

Problems.. . ...... ...... ..... . .........475

1 0.7 Use of R in Running a Two Sample 1- Test ...............478

Key Terms .. .480

Summary . .....480

Review Problems.. . ..................... ... . .... ... ..484

CHAPTER 1 1 Analysis of Variance ................. ....................... 489

11.1 Introduction ............................................ . ........................ ......... 489

11 .2 One-Factor AnaLysis of Variance... ........49 1

A Remark on the Degrees of Freedom .. ..........493

Prob�ms . .. .. . .. .... .. ..... . .. ... .. .... .. .. . .. . . .... .... . . . .... .. .. .. .. . . .. . ..... . .. . �6

1 1 .3 Two-Factor AnaLysis of Variance: Introduction and

Parameter Estimation .... ..... . ......... ........499

Problems....... .... . .502

Contents

11.4 Two-Factor Analysis of Variance: Testing Hypotheses ......... 504

Problems....... . .. .. ......................511

11.5 Final Comments.. ... 512

Key Terms .. .. ... .... .. ... ..... ... .. . .. .. ... . .. ..513

Summary . . .... . .....

... . . ... ..
.... . .... . ...... .. . ..... .. .
. ..... .. ... . .. . . .... .513
. . . ... . . . .

Review Problems . .......... ... . . .... . ...... ... . . ................... .. . .... . . . . . 516
. . . . ..

CHAPTER 12 Linear Regression .. .. . . ... ..... . .. . . . .. . .

. . ... .. . ... . ...... . ..... . . .. . . .. .. .. . 519

12.1 Introduction .............. ............... ........... . . ... .................... . .......... 520

12 .2 SimpLe Linear Regression Model.. . .. .. ... .. .. .. .. .... .. .... . ...521

Problems.. ............................ .. ..... ...523

12.3 Estimating the Regression Parameters . . ....... . .................. . 525 ...

Problems .................. . ....................................... ....................... 529

12 4
. Error Random Variable .. .. . .....533

Problems.. ................. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. ..536

12.5 Testing the Hypothesis that fJ = 0 .. . . .. .. .. .. ..... . .. . . ... . .. . 537

.. .. . ... . ...

Problems .. .. .............. . ..................................... ......... . ............... 539

12.6 Regression to the Mean .... ..... ........543

12.6.1 Why Biological Data Sets Are Often Normally

Distributed .. ..................... .... ............
. . ............548

Problems .................................................................................. 549

12.7 Prediction IntervaLs for Future Responses ... ..... .. .. .. . . .. . .551 .. . . . ..

Problems .......................................... . . .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ...............553

12.8 Coefficient of Determination. ...........556

Problems ............. . ................... . ....................................... . ........ 558

12.9 Sample Correlation Coefficient . .. ....... ..... .. .. ....560

Problems.. ....... ......560

12.10 Analysis of Residuals: Assessing

the Model ............. . ..... . ..
.. . ........ . ................. . ............ . .............. 561

ProbLems...... . . .. ..562

12.11 Multiple Linear Regression Model .... .....562

12.11.1 Dummy Variables for Categorical Data ... . ...

. 567
 Contents

Problems . .
................... ..................... .......................... .......... . 569

12.12 Logistic Regression .. .........................571

12.1 3 Use of R in Regression ............... .572

12.1 3.1 Simple Linear Regression ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . ... ..

. . ... ... 572
....

12.1 3.2 Mulliple Linear Regression. ..574

12.1 3. 3 Logistic Regression.. .574

Key Terms .. .. ..... .. .. ..575

Summary ............................................. .. .... . ........................... 576

Review Problems . ................. ..... 579

CHAPTER 13 Chi-Squared Goodness-aI-Fit Tests . . .......... 585

1 3.1 Inlroduclion . ..
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ..........585

1 3.2 Chi-Squared Goodness-of-Fit Tests .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .... .. .... 588

.....

ProbLems . .. ..... ... ......... ....... ..........595

1 3. 3 Testing for Independence in Populations ................599

ProbLems . .... .. .. .. .. . .... .. .. ... ... .. .. . .... .. ... .. .. ..... .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .... W4

1 3.4 Testing for Independence in Contingency Tables ................ .608

ProbLems . . ......611

1 3.5 Use of R...... ............ 614

Key Terms .. ................ ......................... . ....614

Summary ... ..........614

Review ProbLems . .... 617

CHAPTER 14 Nonparametric Hypothes es Tes ts. .. .. ... 621

14.1 Introduclion . . . ........ . ............621

14.2 Sign Test ................................................................................... 622

14.2 .1 Testing the Equality of Population Distributions when

Samples Are Paired. .....625
..

14.2.2 One-Sided Tests.. .. .... .... . .. .. .. . .. .. .. ......... .. . .. .. .. .. .. ..... .. ..626 .

ProbLems .. ........ .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. ..... .. ...... 628

14. 3 Signed-Rank Test. ...... .. .. .............. .....6 30

14. 3.1 Zero Differences and Ties .....6 34

Contents

Problems .................................................................................. 6 36

14.4 Rank-Sum Test for Comparing Two Populations ................. 6 38

14.4.1 Comparing Nonparametric Tests with Tests that

Assume Normal Distributions .. . . .. ... . ... .. . . . . .. ... . . 64 3
. . . . . . .

Problems ... .......... . . . .. . .

... . . . ... .... . ............. .. ..... . ...... . . . . . . .. . . .. .. . . 644
... .

14.5 Runs Tesl for Randomness. . .................... ...................... �6

Problems ... ... . ................ . . ..

. . ................ . .. ... . .... .. ...... .. ........... . .651
.

14.6 Tesling the Equalily of Multiple Probability Distributions . . 652 . .

14.6.1 When the Data Are a Set of Comparison Rankings . 655 . .

Problems .. ............................. ..657

14.7 Permutation Tests ..658

Problems .. ............... .............. ..661

Key Terms .. ......... .. .. ....... .. .. .. ..... .. ...... 662

Summary . .. .. . ..... 662

Review Problems ... .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. 664

CHAPTER 15 Quality Control.... . . ............... .. 667

15.1 Introduction ... . ..... .. ........... .. . . . 667

15.2 The X Control Chart for Detecting a Shift in the Mean . . ...... 668

Problems . .. ........ . .......... ... . . ............................ .. . ...... . . ... ...... . ...... 672

15.2.1 When the Mean and Variance Are Unknown .............. 674

15.2.2 S Control Charts ..................... . ............................ . ........ 676

Prob�m5 .................................... ...... .. .. .. .. ... .. .. . . . . . . 678

15. 3 ControL Charts for Fraction Defective . .... 681

Problems ................... . ..683

15.4 Exponentially Weighted Moving-Average Control Charts .. 684 ..

Prob�ms .... . . . . .... . . ... . . .. . . . . .

. . . . ... . .... . . .. . . . . .. . .
. .. . . . .... ... . . .. .. . .. .. . . ... .. �7

15.5 Cumulative-Sum Control Charts . . . . .. .. .. . .. . . . ... .. .. .. . . .. . . .688 . .. . . . . . . ..

Problems .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .... 690

Key Terms...... ................. ............ .... . .. . .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .... 690

Summary ...................................... . . ...........691

Review Problems . .................. ............ 691

 Contents

CHAPTER 16 Machine Learning and Big Data. .... . . .. 693

16.1 Introduction ......... ....... ............ ............. .. .................... 693

16.2 Late Flight Probabilities ... .. 694

16.3 The Naive Bayes Approach .... .. ....... .. ..695

16.3.1 A Variation of Naive Bayes.. .....................698

ProbLems .. 701

16.4 Distance Based Estimators the k-Nearest Neighbors

Rule . ............................................. ..................... ..................... 702

16.4.1 A Distance Weighted Melhod . .....................703

ProbLems . , ........ ... 705

16.5 Assessing the Approaches .....705

Problems .....706

16.6 Choosing the Best Probability, A Bandit Problem .. .. ... . .. .... 707
..

ProbLems . ............... ..709

APPENDIX A A Data 5e!............... ..... 711

APPENDIX B Mathematical Preliminaries ................... . . .................... 715

B. l Summation.. . . . . . .. ... .... .. . .. . . ........ .. . ... .. .. .. . .. .. . ... .. . ... .. .. . . . . ... . . . .715

...

B.2 Absolute Value . .. .................. . ............... .. .. ... ............... .............. 715

B. 3 Set Notation .
................. ....................... . .................... . .............. 716

APPENDIX C How to Choose a Random Sample . . . 717

APPENDIX 0 Tables........... . ...... 721

APPENDIX E Programs ..... . ..... 737

ANSWER S TO ODD-NUMBERED PR OBLEMS . .................... 739

INDEX .... . .. . ..... . . . .....................

. .. . ... .......... . ... . ...... 787
Preface

Statistical thinking will one day be as necessary for efficient citizenship as the
ability to read and write.
H. G. Wells (1866–1946)

In today’s complicated world, very few issues are clear-cut and without contro-
versy. In order to understand and form an opinion about an issue, one must
usually gather information, or data. To learn from data, one must know some-
thing about statistics, which is the art of learning from data.
This introductory statistics text is written for college-level students in any field
of study. It can be used in a quarter, semester, or full-year course. Its only pre-
requisite is high school algebra. Our goal in writing it is to present statistical
concepts and techniques in a manner that will teach students not only how and
when to utilize the statistical procedures developed, but also to understand
why these procedures should be used. As a result we have made a great effort
to explain the ideas behind the statistical concepts and techniques presented.
Concepts are motivated, illustrated, and explained in a way that attempts to
increase one’s intuition. It is only when a student develops a feel or intuition
for statistics that she or he is really on the path toward making sense of data.
To illustrate the diverse applications of statistics and to offer students differ-
ent perspectives about the use of statistics, we have provided a wide variety
of text examples and problems to be worked by students. Most refer to real-
world issues, such as gun control, stock price models, health issues, driving
age limits, school admission ages, public policy issues, gender issues, use of
helmets, sports, disputed authorship, scientific fraud, and Vitamin C, among
many others. Many of them use data that not only are real but are them-
selves of interest. The examples have been posed in a clear and concise manner
and include many thought-provoking problems that emphasize thinking and
problem-solving skills. In addition, some of the problems are designed to be
open-ended and can be used as starting points for term projects.
xxi
xxii Preface

SOME SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE TEXT

Introduction The first numbered section of each chapter is an introduction
that poses a realistic statistical situation to help students gain perspective on
what they will encounter in the chapter.
Statistics in Perspective Statistics in Perspective highlights are placed
throughout the book to illustrate real-world application of statistical tech-
niques and concepts. These perspectives are designed to help students analyze
and interpret data while utilizing proper statistical techniques and methodol-
ogy.
Real Data Throughout the text discussions, examples, perspective highlights,
and problems, real data sets are used to enhance the students’ understanding
of the material. These data sets provide information for the study of current
issues in a variety of disciplines, such as health, medicine, sports, business,
and education.
Historical Perspectives These enrichment sections profile prominent statis-
ticians and historical events, giving students an understanding of how the
discipline of statistics has evolved.
Problems/Review Problems This text includes hundreds of exercises placed
at the end of each section within a chapter, as well as more comprehensive re-
view problems at the end of each chapter. Many of these problems utilize real
data and are designed to assess the students’ conceptual as well as computa-
tional understanding of the material. Selected problems are open-ended and
offer excellent opportunity for extended discussion, group activities, or student
projects.
Summary/Key Terms An end-of-chapter summary provides a detailed review
of important concepts and formulas covered in the chapter. Key terms and their
definitions are listed that serve as a working glossary within each chapter.
Formula Summary Important tables and formulas that students often refer
to and utilize are included on the inside front and back covers of the book.
These can serve as a quick reference when doing homework or studying for an
exam.
Program CD-ROM A CD-ROM is provided with each volume that includes
programs that can be used to solve basic statistical computation problems.
Please refer to Appendix E for a listing of these programs.

THE TEXT
In Chap. 1 we introduce the subject matter of statistics and present its two
branches. The first of these, called descriptive statistics, is concerned with the
Another Random Scribd Document
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 Engineering - Quick Reference
Third 2024 - Program

Prepared by: Prof. Smith

Date: August 12, 2025

Part 1: Statistical analysis and interpretation

Learning Objective 1: Best practices and recommendations
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Historical development and evolution
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 10: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Methodology 2: Research findings and conclusions
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 12: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 14: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 16: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 17: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 18: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 19: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Exercise 3: Practical applications and examples
Example 20: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 22: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 23: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 25: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 27: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Review 4: Historical development and evolution
Example 30: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 34: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 34: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 39: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Chapter 5: Interdisciplinary approaches
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 47: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 48: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 50: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Test 6: Current trends and future directions
Practice Problem 50: Historical development and evolution
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 52: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 57: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 58: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 59: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 7: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Practice Problem 60: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 68: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Results 8: Current trends and future directions
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 71: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 72: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 73: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 75: Practical applications and examples
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 76: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 9: Historical development and evolution
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 81: Key terms and definitions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 82: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 86: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 86: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 88: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Section 10: Current trends and future directions
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
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