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priyaberry29CONCEPTS IN COMPARATIVE POLITICS NOTES
UNIT- 7
PARTY SYSTEM
. INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL PARTY:
A
● Political parties form an important component of a political system. A political party is
an institution which consists of leaders, followers, policies and programmes.
● Its followers may have formal membership of the party or may support it without being
formal members. Parties can be differentiated on the bases of leaders, policies and
programmes, ideologies and internal functioning.
● The principal feature of a political party which distinguishes it from other organizations
is that its main purpose is to capture power. Unlike a political party, a pressure group,
interest group or non-party civil society organization, generally do not seek power.
● Political parties are the important links between individuals, state and society. Political
parties provide the crucial connection between social processes and policy-makers,
and influence debates and policies on issues affecting the interests of various social
groups in a political system.
● Functions of a political party are as follows:
❖ Representation; formation of government; interest articulation; role of
opposition; promote public participation.
❖ Influence public opinion; political recruitment; public interest aggregation;
political socialisation.
. INTRODUCTION TO PARTY SYSTEM
B
● The meaning of the party system is related to the number of political parties in a
country. Based on the numbers of parties present in the political system, party
systems generally can be categorized as single party system, two-party system or
multi party system.
● Presence of more than one party is a feature of a democratic and plural society.
● Two-party system denotes the presence of predominantly two parties. What it means
that among several parties, two parties are most influential. In such a system, two
parties form governments at different times: one being a ruling party in one
government, and opposition in another, and vice versa.
● Meaning of party system should not be confused with categorization of parties such as
national, state/regional or registered. The two are different.
● Party system can be briefly divided into three categories: ONE-PARTY SYSTEM,
BI-PARTY SYSTEM, MULTI PARTY SYSTEM.
. ONE-PARTY SYSTEM
C
● In this system power is wielded by one political party which is continuously in power.
● T he party fields several candidates in each constituency and the people select one out
of them as their representative.
● Other political parties can exist only with the consent of the dominant party.
● Opposition is considered useless and harmful as the policies and programmes of the
party are considered the best national policies and programmes.
● The power wielding party can, at will, tolerate some criticism or opposition, otherwise
dissent and criticism are considered subversive activities.
● Further in this system, two different types exist. The first type has been found in state
socialist regimes where ’ruling’ communist parties have directed and controlled
virtually all the institutions and aspects of the society.
● Such parties are subject to strict ideological discipline, traditionally linked tenets of
Marxism-Leninism and have highly structured internal organisations in line with the
principles of democratic centralism.
● Eg: Chinese Communist Party in which almost 6 percent of total China’s population
are members of this party. It is the only ruling party in China. Several small parties can
not exist in China without the consent of the CCP. Another example is Communist
Party of the Soviet Union.
● The second-type of one-party system is associated with anti-colonialism and state
consolidation in the developing world. Eg: Ghana, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, the ruling
party developed out of an independence movement that proclaimed the overriding
need for nation building and economic development.
● In other cases, single-party rule developed as little more than vehicles through which a
national leader has tried to consolidate power like General Ershad’s People’s Party in
Bangladesh in the 1980s.
. TWO-PARTY SYSTEM:
D
● Two-party system exists in a state where there are either only two nearly equally
popular political parties with several minor or less influential parties.
● Each of the two parties get to hold power from time to time.
● In some political systems, the alternation of power takes place like the swing of the
pendulum from one to the other end at regular intervals.
● In some other political systems with bi-party systems, the two major parties share
power from time to time but occasionally the minor parties may also get the chance to
rule.
● In states with bi-party systems, the minor parties may also get the chance to share
power with either of the two major political parties.
● The UK and USA are the most frequently cited examples of states with two-party
systems. Other countries with the same party system include Canada, Australia and
New Zealand(until 1993).
● Two major parties in the UK are the Labour Party and the Conservative Party.
● In the USa the two major parties include the Republicans and the Democrats. The
Presidential system allows one party to capture the White House while the other party
controls one or both houses of Congress.
● Third-party candidates are sometimes of significance. Ross Perot’s 16% votes in 1992
elections not only highlighted the decline of the two mainstream parties but also
arguably proved decisive in securing victory for Bill Clinton.
. MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM:
E
● This system has several equally influential political parties. In such a system
very-often, no single party is in a position to get a clear majority in the elections.
● Several parties form a coalition to run the government and usually there is a lack of
political stability in the system.
● India has a large number of political parties, but in existence two parties have mostly
formed the government. However, the period of the 1990s and 2000s stands as a
great example of a multi-party system.
● This was the era of coalition government which also saw the increasing influence of
regional parties who started to get more representation.
● Italy, Switzerland and France provide three classical examples of multi-party systems.
Political instability has been a chronic feature of Italian and French political systems in
the past.
● Italy has faced problems in government making processes as the coalition partners-
Communists, Socialists, Democratic Socialists and Christian Democrats and others,
have constantly been involved in conflicts and keeping up an environment of political
instability.
● In France, the Socialists, Communists, Gaulists, Liberals and Republicans are the
major parties of the multi-party system.
. R
F ELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THREE TYPES OF PARTY-SYSTEM:
● Bi-party system is supported as the best system by many political scientists.
● Single party system is considered as undemocratic, as it limits people’s participation
and their freedom.
● Multi-party system is considered less useful as it often leads to political instability
which in turn leads to weakness and inefficiency in the working of the government.
● Bi-party system ensures exercise of political freedom by the people, provides the
possibility of alternative government, makes political struggles orderly and systematic,
prevents political instability and keeps people fully aware and involved.
● However, a bi-party system can not be imported from outside or can not be created by
law. The only best way open is to let the party system evolve itself and a
self-conscious attempt may be made by all the parties and the people for the creation
of conditions for the emergence of bi-party system.
● It must be accepted that the party system is a reflection and manifestation of the
diversities in the social fabric of the state. States like India, France, Switzerland are
bound to have multi-party systems because of the existence of sharp and big
diversities in various spheres of social relations.
● The best party system is that which emerges naturally and which keeps the struggle
for power orderly and systematic.
. EVOLUTION OF PARTY SYSTEMS IN INDIA:
G
● Political parties in India were born during the Indian national movement. At that time,
they were involved in the Indian national movement. They had also contested
elections to legislative assemblies under restricted adult franchise.
● After Independence, the Congress emerged as a dominant party. Indeed, during the
Independence movement the Congress was a movement and it became a party after
Independence.
● The party systems in India evolved over several years after Independence. However,
there did not exist a single party system.
● Since Independence, India has seen the presence of three types of party systems:
One Party Dominance System, two-party and bi-polar party System, and multiparty
and multipolar party system.
. O
1 NE PARTY DOMINANCE SYSTEM:
● For around 2 decades after independence, the political arena was dominated by
Congress. Although there were several non-Congress parties that existed during this
time , it was the Congress which headed the government not only at the centre but in
most of the states.
● Since the Congress was a single party having support in most states of the country.
The party system during that time was characterised as one-party dominance also
called the ‘Congress System’.
● As the leading party, Congress had obtained an absolute majority of seats in
parliament in the first four general elections. Congress party enjoyed this position till
1967.
● In 1977, the Janata Party won the elections to form the government at the centre , and
in following years it replaced the Congress in several states as well. By this time, the
party system in India, ceased to be dominated by the single party system.
. B
2 I-POLAR OR TWO PARTY SYSTEM:
● India does not have a two-party system in the ideal sense of the term. Rather, it has a
bipolar political system.
● In this system, three or more parties come together to form a pre-election or
post-election alliance, form a coalition government and/or adopt a common minimum
programme.
● This system can exist both at state and national levels. While the principal parties in
such alliances generally remain the same, their allies can change. Emergence of
bi-polar system in India is linked with coalition politics in India.
● Eg: non-Congress SVD governments at the state level in 1967(coalition), at the
national level the first instance was the Janata Party’s govt in 1977 in the
post-emergency period(not a coalition govt)
● Since the 1990s, India has witnessed many coalition governments. Failure of major
national parties like the Congress and the BJP to win majority seats in elections
brought numerous small parties to the forefront.(bi-polar system not bi-party system)
● The Governments formed in 1989, 1990, 1991, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2004, 2009 and
2014 were coalitions of several parties.(eg: United Front, NDA, UPA)
● 2004 and 2009: one major party in the coalition i.e. Congress; 2014 and 2019: BJP.
. M
3 ULTI-PARTY OF MULTI-POLAR PARTY SYSTEM:
● Since 1967 elections, the Indian political system has undergone changes. The
Congress’s defeat in the elections and split in it weakened the party. This happened
with the simultaneous rise of regional parties.
● Although multiple parties had existed during the era of Congress’s dominance, in
comparison to the Congress, they played a marginal role in Indian politics.
● Emergence of multiple parties in several states was the result of changes which had
occurred in the society. The rise of new issues and regional leaders in different states
show such changes.
● Eg: Charan Singh in UP, Rao Virendra Singh in Haryana, Biju Patnaik in Odisha, Bal
Thakre in Maharashtra in 1960s and 70s.
● The rise of BSP and SP in north India, TMC in West Bengal and BJP in Odisha in the
1980s and 1990s, and several such examples show the presence of a multiparty
system in India both at the national and local level.
● An important aspect of the multiple party system in India is formation of multiple
alliances of political parties not only based on policies, programmes and ideologies but
also political expediency. Different parties enter alliances in which one party seems to
become a nodal party
CONCLUSION:
● In democracy, institutions are essential and political processes are important to run
institutions, especially representative governments. Political parties are main organs in
a party system and promote democracy.In India, the multiparty system represents
diversity and plurality.
NIT-6
U
ELECTORAL SYSTEMS
. INTRODUCTION TO ELECTION:
A
● Election is the action of choosing for an office or position usually by vote.
● Haroop and Miller define elections as a ‘formal expression of preferences by the
governed which are then aggregated and transformed into a collective decision about
who will govern, who should stay in office, who should replace those who have been
thrown out.
● There are different forms in which elections can take place. These forms depend on
the offices, which are subject to the elective principle, the width of the franchise, the
nature of voting, and whether the elections are competitive or not.
● Elections serve a number of essential purposes in democracy. The primary method
that new leaders are recruited is through elections.
● In states like the USA and France, where political executives are directly elected,
elections also form governments. In parliamentary systems of government, if one party
clearly wins a legislative majority, elections have an impact on the formation of the
government.
● Elections provide representation as the means through which public demands are
channeled to the government.
● Elections influence policy by deterring governments from pursuing radical and deeply
unpopular policies. Elections can be seen to directly influence policy when a single
issue dominates the election campaign.
● Elections help foster legitimacy for governing party or parties and winning an election
amounts to having mobilized active consent of the masses.
. ELECTORAL SYSTEMS:
B
● An electoral system is a set of rules that governs the conduct of elections.
● It also includes the methods of converting votes into seats in a political system.
● These rules vary in several ways: Voters may choose between candidates or between
parties.
● Voters may either select a single candidate, or rank candidates in order of their
preference.
● The electorate may or may not be grouped into electoral units or constituencies.
Constituencies may elect a single member or several members.
● The threshold needed to elect a candidate varies from a plurality (maximum votes) to
‘absolute’ majority, or a quota of some kind.
C. FIRST PAST THE POST SYSTEM(MAJORITARIAN):
C.1 SINGLE MEMBER PLURALITY(SMP) SYSTEM OR FPTP
● Used: The UK (House of Commons), the USA, Canada and India, for example. Type:
Majoritarian.
● Also known as: single-member plurality (SMP) system
● Features:
1. The country is divided into single-member constituencies, usually of equal size.
2. Voters select a single candidate, usually marking his or her name with a cross
on the ballot paper.
3. The winning candidate needs only to achieve a plurality of votes (the ‘first past
the post’ rule).
● Advantages:
1. The system establishes a clear link between representatives and constituents,
ensuring that constituency duties are carried out.
2. It offers the electorate a clear choice of potential parties of government.
3. It allows governments to be formed that have a clear mandate from the
electorate, albeit often on the basis of plurality support amongst the electorate.
4. It keeps extremism at bay by making it more difficult for small radical parties to
gain seats and credibility.
5. It makes for a strong and effective government in that a single party usually has
majority control of the assembly.
6. It produces stable government, in that single-party governments rarely collapse
as a result of disunity and internal friction.
● Disadvantages:
1. The system ‘wastes’ many (perhaps most) votes, those cast for losing
candidates and those cast for winning ones over the plurality mark.
2. It distorts electoral preferences by ‘under-representing’ small parties and ones
with geographically evenly distributed support (the ‘third-party effect’).
3. It offers only limited choice because of its duopolis tic (two-major-parties)
tendencies.
4. It undermines the legitimacy of government, in that governments often enjoy
only minority support, producing a system of plurality rule.
5. It creates instability because a change in government can lead to a radical shift
of policies and direction.
6. It leads to unaccountable government in that the legislature is usually
subordinate to the executive, because the majority of its members are
supporters of the governing party.
7. It discourages the selection of a socially broad spread of candidates in favour of
those who are attractive to a large body of voters.
C.2. SECOND BALLOT SYSTEM:
● Used: Traditionally in France, but it is used for presidential elections in countries such
as Austria, Chile and Russia. Type: Majoritarian.
● Features:
1. There are single-candidate constituencies and single-choice voting, as in the
single-member plurality (SMP) system.
2. To win on the first ballot, a candidate needs an overall majority of the votes
cast.
3. If no candidate gains a first-ballot majority, a second, run-off ballot is held
between the leading two candidates.
● Advantages:
1. The system broadens electoral choice: voters can vote with their hearts for their
preferred candidate in the first ballot, and with their heads for the least bad
candidate in the second.
2. As candidates can win only with majority support, they are encouraged to
make their appeal as broad as possible.
3. Strong and stable government is possible, as with SMP systems
● Disadvantages:
1. As the system is little more proportional than the SMP system, it distorts
preferences and is unfair to ‘third’ parties.
2. Run-off candidates are encouraged to abandon their principles in search of
short-term popularity, or as a result of deals with defeated candidates.
3. The holding of a second ballot may strain the electorate's patience and interest
in politics.
C.3
. ALTERNATIVE VOTE(AV) SYSTEM; SUPPLEMENTARY VOTE(SV)
● Used: Australia (House of Representatives (AV)), and the UK (London mayor (SV)).
Type: Majoritarian.
● Features:
. T
1 here are single-member constituencies.
2. There is preferential voting. In AV, voters rank the candidates in order of
preference: 1 for their first preference, 2 for their second preference and so on.
In SV, there is only a single ‘supplementary’ vote.
3. Winning candidates must gain 50 per cent of all the votes cast.
4. Votes are counted according to the first preferences. If no candidate reaches 50
per cent, the bottom candidate is eliminated and his or her votes are
redistributed according to the second (or subsequent) preferences. This
continues until one candidate has a majority. In SV, all candidates drop out
except the top two.
Advantages:
●
1. Fewer votes are ‘wasted’ than in the SMP system.
2. Unlike the second-ballot system, the outcome cannot be influenced by deals
made between candidates.
3. Although winning candidates must secure at least 50 per cent support,
single-party majority government is not ruled out.
● Disadvantages:
1. The system is not much more proportional than the SMP system, and so is still
biased in favour of large parties.
2. The outcome may be determined by the preferences of those who support
small, possibly extremist, parties.
3. Winning candidates may enjoy little first-preference support, and have only the
virtue of being the least unpopular candidate available.
D. PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION:
D.1. SINGLE TRANSFERABLE VOTE(STV) SYSTEM:
● Used: The Republic of Ireland and the UK (Northern Ireland Assembly). Type:
Proportional.
● Features:
1. There are multi member constituencies, each of which usually returns between
three and eight members.
2. Parties may put forward as many candidates as there are seats to fill. Electors
vote preferentially, as in the alternative vote system.
3. Candidates are elected, if they achieve a quota.
4. This is the minimum number of votes needed to elect the stipulated number of
candidates, calculated according to the Droop formula:
or example, if 100,000 votes are cast in a constituency that elects four
F
members, the quota is 100,000/(4 + 1) + 1 = 20,001.
5. The votes are counted according to first preferences. If not all the seats are
filled, the bottom candidate is eliminated. His or her votes are redistributed
according to second preferences and so on, until all the seats have been filled.
Advantages:
●
1. The system is capable of achieving highly proportional outcomes.
2. Competition amongst candidates from the same party means that they can be
judged on their records and on where they stand on issues that cut across party
lines.
3. The availability of several members means that constituents can choose to
whom to take their grievances.
● Disadvantages:
1. The degree of proportionality achieved varies, largely on the basis of the party
system.
2. Strong and stable single-party government is unlikely.
3. Intra-party competition may be divisive, and may allow members to evade their
constituency responsibilities.
D.2. PARTY-LIST SYSTEM:
● Used: Israel, and in countries throughout Europe, including Belgium, Luxembourg and
Switzerland, and the European Parliament. Type: Proportional.
● Features:
1. Either the entire country is treated as a single constituency, or, in the case of
regional party lists, there are a number of large multi member constituencies.
2. Parties compile lists of candidates to place before the electorate, in descending
order of preference.
3. Electors vote for parties, not for candidates.
4. Parties are allocated seats in direct proportion to the votes they gain in the
election.They fill these seats from their party list.
5. A ‘threshold’ may be imposed (5 per cent in Germany) to exclude small,
possibly extremist, parties from representation.
● Advantages:
1. This is the only potentially pure system of proportional representation, and is
therefore fair to all parties.
2. The system promotes unity by encouraging electors to identify with their nation
or region, rather than with a constituency.
3. T he system makes it easier for women and minority candidates to be elected,
provided, of course, they feature on the party list.
4. The representation of a large number of small parties ensures that there is an
emphasis upon negotiation, bargaining and consensus.
Disadvantages:
●
1. The existence of many small parties can lead to weak and unstable
governments.
2. The link between representatives and constituencies is entirely broken.
3. Unpopular candidates who are well-placed on a party list cannot be removed
from office.
4. Parties become heavily centralized, because leaders draw up party lists, and
junior members have an incentive to be loyal in the hope of moving up the list.
E. MIXED REPRESENTATION:
.1. MIXED MEMBER PROPORTIONAL SYSTEM(MMP) OR ADDITIONAL MEMBER
E
SYSTEM(AMB)
● Used: Germany, Italy, New Zealand and the UK (Scottish Parliament and Welsh
Assembly). Type: Proportional.
● Features:
1. A proportion of seats (50 per cent in Germany, but more in Italy, Scotland and
Wales, for instance) are filled by the SMP system using single-member
constituencies.
2. The remaining seats are filled using the party-list system.
3. Electors cast two votes: one for a candidate in the constituency election, and
the other for a party.
● Advantages:
1. The hybrid nature of this system balances the need for constituency
representation against the need for electoral fairness. The party-list process
ensures that the whole assembly is proportionally representative.
2. Although the system is broadly proportional in terms of its outcome, it keeps
alive the possibility of single-party government.
3. It allows electors to choose a constituency representative from one party and
yet support another party to form a government.
4. It takes account of the fact that representing constituents and holding
ministerial office are very different jobs that require very different talents and
experience.
● Disadvantages:
1. The retention of single-member constituencies prevents the achievement of
high levels of proportionality.
2. T he system creates two classes of representatives, one burdened by insecurity
and constituency duties, the other having higher status and the prospect of
holding ministerial office.
3. Constituency representation suffers because of the size of constituencies
(generally, twice as large as in SMP systems).
4. Parties become more centralized and powerful under this system, as they
decide not only who has the security of being on the list and who has to fight
constituencies, but also where on the list candidates are placed.
F. WOMEN AND ELECTORAL PARTICIPATION:
● Many feminists contend that women have been systematically excluded from the
electoral processes historically.
● Women’s suffrage which is universal today has been achieved as a result of vigorous
movements in the USA, United Kingdom, France and other western liberal countries.
● It was only in 1894 in New Zealand when women were enfranchised for the first time.
● This was followed closely by Australia. Norway and Finland granted the right to vote to
women in 1914 while the USA and United Kingdom granted franchise to women as
late as 1920 and 1928 respectively.
● Women’s participation in elections and representation in legislatures is yet to be
guaranteed in many political systems, especially in the developing world.
● . The mere presence of franchise for women has certainly not equalized participation
in elections and politics between men and women.
● The truth remains that women are underrepresented in elections and parliaments
across the globe and even the little who participate are unable to reach the top tiers of
government machinery.
● Women’s participation in leadership roles within political parties are also limited and
shadowed by their male counterparts. While gender parity in political participation
seems to have been achieved in Scandinavian countries, post-colonial societies are
yet to close the gap by a big measure.
● Financial independence and education are two factors that enhance political
participation of women. Research shows that these factors have helped increase voter
turnout among women on par with that of men in many democracies.
CONCLUSION:
● Elections are central to democracies; even the most illiberal among them hold on to
the practice. Elections are methods of ensuring representation of which there are
many models as seen above.
● Electoral systems are also varied in methods and nature.
● Electoral systems determine the nature and extent of representation of the people in
their governments.
NIT-5
U
TATE AND REGIME TYPES
S
. CAPITALIST STATE:
A
INTRODUCTION:
● Capitalism has become the dominant economic and political system across much of
the modern world. It is characterized by private ownership of the means of production,
market-based exchange, profit maximization, and minimal state interference in
economic activity.
● In the 21st century, capitalism is not only an economic framework but a social and
cultural force that influences governance structures, policy decisions, and international
relations.
● The expansion of global trade, multinational corporations, financial markets, and
digital technologies has further entrenched capitalist dynamics into everyday life. The
capitalist system rewards innovation and competitiveness but also generates
disparities in wealth and power.
● From North America to parts of Asia and Europe, capitalist principles shape how
societies function, how resources are allocated, and how state institutions evolve. In
comparative politics, the capitalist state is understood as one in which the government
supports and reinforces capitalist modes of production while managing the
contradictions that arise from it.
TATES THAT FOLLOW CAPITALISM:A wide range of countriesacross different
S
continents have adopted capitalist economies, though the extent and form of capitalism may
vary..
● U nited States: The most prominent example of liberalcapitalism, where private
enterprise dominates and state intervention is generally limited to enforcing property
rights and market rules. The U.S. values entrepreneurial freedom, competition, and
deregulation.
● United Kingdom: The UK follows a similar liberal model, though with stronger welfare
components like the National Health Service (NHS). It underwent economic
liberalization during the Thatcher era, reducing public ownership and empowering the
private sector.
● Germany: Operates under a social market economy model, blending free-market
capitalism with strong social protections and labor rights. The state acts as a mediator
between business and labor to ensure stability and equity.
● India: Since liberalization in 1991, India has transitioned from a mixed economy to a
more capitalist-oriented model, opening up to foreign investment and private
entrepreneurship while retaining public sector involvement in key areas.
● C hina: Though officially a socialist state, China practicesstate capitalism, where the
government plays a commanding role in economic activity while allowing private
capital to function within state-defined boundaries. It is a unique blend of authoritarian
politics and capitalist economics.
● South Korea and Japan: These East Asian economiesare examples of coordinated
capitalism, where industrial policy and strategic planning by the state complement
market dynamics to ensure national economic goals.
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF CAPITALISM
apitalism as an economic system rests on several foundational features that define its
C
operation:
1. P rivate Property:Ownership of land, factories, andresources is concentrated in the
hands of individuals or corporations rather than the state. Property rights are protected
by law, enabling accumulation and inheritance of wealth.
2. Profit Motive: All production activities are guidedby the objective of generating profit.
Entrepreneurs and businesses invest resources in anticipation of surplus returns,
which incentivizes innovation and efficiency.
3. Market Mechanism: Prices and production levels aredetermined by the forces of
supply and demand rather than central planning. Consumers influence production
through their purchasing choices, and producers respond to market signals.
4. Wage Labor:Workers sell their labor in exchange forwages. The capitalist class,
owning the means of production, profits from the surplus value created by laborers.
This employer-employee dynamic is central to capitalist relations.
5. Competition:A key driver of productivity and innovation.Firms compete for
customers, and this competition is believed to drive down prices, improve quality, and
allocate resources efficiently.
6. Minimal State Intervention:Although modern capitalist states often regulate certain
sectors, the general principle is that the state should not interfere excessively in the
functioning of markets. The belief in the "invisible hand" suggests that individual
self-interest can lead to societal benefit. State as regulator, protector, negotiator.
EVOLUTION OF CAPITALISM
he origins of capitalism can be traced back to the late medieval period in Europe, but it
T
gained momentum during the transition from feudalism to industrial society. The intellectual
foundation of capitalism was laid during the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly through the
works ofAdam SmithandDavid Ricardo.
● A
dam Smith, inThe Wealth of Nations(1776), articulated the principles of a
self-regulating market economy. He emphasized the importance of competition,
s pecialization, and the “invisible hand” that guides individual self-interest to promote
overall welfare. Smith argued that minimal government interference would lead to
optimal allocation of resources and economic prosperity.
● D
avid Ricardodeveloped the theory ofcomparativeadvantage, which justified free
trade between nations. He also analyzed income distribution among landlords,
workers, and capitalists, contributing to the classical theory of value and growth.
heIndustrial Revolutioncatalyzed the rise of capitalism,transforming agrarian societies
T
into industrial ones. Capital accumulation, factory-based production, and mechanization
created new classes—the bourgeoisie and the proletariat—and reshaped state structures.
Over time, capitalism evolved into different forms:
L
● aissez-faire capitalismin the 19th century.
● Welfare capitalismin the 20th century after the GreatDepression.
● Neoliberal capitalismin the late 20th century emphasizedderegulation and
globalization.
● After the end of the Cold War in 1991, the spread of Capitalist state ideas fastened as
more and more states started adopting capitalist ideas like India and China.
● The growing ideas of Globalisation and technological advancements also made
capitalism the most favoured ideology.
PROS OF THE CAPITALIST STATE:
1. E CONOMIC GROWTH AND INNOVATION: Capitalist economiestend to foster rapid
innovation and technological development. The U.S., for example, is a hub of
entrepreneurship and technological breakthroughs, largely due to its capitalist
framework. Better standard of living.
2. EFFICIENCY AND PRODUCTIVITY: Competition forces firms to use resources
efficiently, cut costs, and improve quality. This enhances productivity at national levels.
3. CONSUMER CHOICE AND FREEDOM: Capitalism offers a wide array of goods and
services, empowering consumers with choice and autonomy.
4. ADAPTABILITY: Capitalism has proven adaptable to crisesand transitions. The rise
of digital capitalism (e.g., e-commerce, fintech) shows its capacity to integrate new
technologies and markets.
CONS OF THE CAPITALIST STATE:
1. E
CONOMIC INEQUALITY: Capitalism often leads to concentration of wealth and
income. In countries like the U.S. and India, the gap between the rich and the poor
has widened, raising concerns about social cohesion.
2. E XPLOITATION OF LABOR: Workers may be subjected to poor working conditions,
low wages, and job insecurity, especially in informal or outsourced sectors of capitalist
economies.
3. ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION: The pursuit of profit oftenignores ecological
costs. Deforestation, pollution, and climate change are linked to unchecked capitalist
expansion.
4. MARKET FAILURES AND CRISES: Capitalism is prone tocycles of boom and bust.
The 2008 financial crisis exposed the vulnerabilities of unregulated financial markets
and led to mass unemployment and social unrest.
CONCLUSION
he capitalist state is a complex and evolving entity that reflects the dynamics of economic
T
power, political institutions, and social forces. While capitalism has driven global prosperity,
innovation, and individual freedoms, it has also generated inequality, instability, and
environmental degradation. Different states have adapted capitalist models in diverse ways,
blending market principles with varying degrees of regulation, welfare, and state control. In
comparative politics, studying the capitalist state offers crucial insights into how power,
resources, and class interests shape the organization of modern societies.
B. WELFARE SYSTEM:
INTRODUCTION:
● In the contemporary world,welfarismrefers to thepolitical and ideological
commitment of a state to ensure the well-being of its citizens through state-sponsored
provisions and support systems.
● As a model of governance, it contrasts sharply with laissez-faire capitalism by placing
emphasis on social justice, equitable distribution of resources, and collective
responsibility. The idea is that every citizen, regardless of socioeconomic background,
should have access to a minimum standard of living, healthcare, education, and
employment opportunities.
● Welfarism emerged in the 20th century as a response to the social dislocations
caused by industrial capitalism, the World Wars, and the Great Depression. Today,
welfare states are seen as a moral and economic imperative to create socially
cohesive societies where no individual is left behind due to circumstances beyond
their control.
● In the modern globalized context, where economic inequality is rising and markets are
increasingly volatile, the welfare state continues to serve as a critical instrument for
mitigating the negative effects of capitalism and preserving human dignity.
STATES THAT FOLLOW THE IDEOLOGY:
● S CANDINAVIAN COUNTRIESsuch asSWEDEN, NORWAY, DENMARK, and
FINLAND, which epitomize the “universalist” welfaremodel. These countries provide
comprehensive social benefits including free healthcare, subsidized education,
state-funded childcare, and generous unemployment and pension schemes.
● UNITED KINGDOMrepresents theliberal welfare model,especially since the rise of
Thatcherism in the 1980s. Though it began as a strong welfare state post-WWII with
the Beveridge Report, recent decades have seen increased targeting of benefits and
privatization of certain services.
● INDIA,while not a classical welfare state, has implementedseveralwelfare-oriented
schemessuch as the Mahatma Gandhi National RuralEmployment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA), National Food Security Act (NFSA), Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana
(PMAY), and Ayushman Bharat. These reflect a welfare commitment within the
constraints of a developing economy.
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF A WELFARE STATE
he welfare state is distinguished by several defining features that set it apart from minimalist
T
or purely capitalist states:
1. S OCIAL PROTECTION: The welfare state institutionalizedmechanisms for protecting
individuals from economic insecurity. This includes provisions for unemployment
insurance, pensions, maternity leave, child benefits, and disability support.
2. UNIVERSALISM AND INCLUSIVITY: In many welfare states,particularly in the
Nordic model, services are provided universally rather than being means-tested. This
reinforces social solidarity and reduces the stigma associated with receiving state aid.
3. REDISTRIBUTIVE TAXATION:A progressive taxation systemensures that wealthier
sections of society contribute more, thereby funding services for the less fortunate.
This reduces income inequality and promotes social cohesion.
4. PUBLIC PROVISION OF SERVICES: Essential services such as education,
healthcare, housing, and sanitation are directly provided or heavily subsidized by the
state to ensure affordability and accessibility.
5. EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY: Welfare policies are aimednot just at equality of
outcomes but also at enabling individuals to compete fairly, irrespective of their
starting point in life.
6. DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE AND RULE OF LAW:Welfare states are generally
rooted in democratic values, with accountable institutions that oversee the fair
distribution of resources and uphold civil liberties.
7. INTERVENTIONIST ECONOMIC ROLE: The state plays an active role in regulating
the market to prevent exploitation, provide jobs (often through public works), and
manage inflation or recession through fiscal policies.
EVOLUTION OF WELFARE STATE
● E ARLY ROOTS: The origins of welfarism can be traced back to charity-based support
systems in medieval Europe and poor relief laws in England. However, these were
largely paternalistic and conditional.
● 19TH CENTURY REFORMS: Industrialization created vastworking-class populations
exposed to exploitation and poverty. Thinkers likeKarl Marxcriticized capitalist
inequalities, while conservatives likeOtto von Bismarckin Germany introduced early
welfare policies (e.g., pensions, health insurance) to stabilize society and avert
revolution.
● 20TH CENTURY EXPANSION: The world wars and the GreatDepression highlighted
the failures of laissez-faire capitalism. Influenced byJohn Maynard Keynesand the
Beveridge Report(1942) in the UK, many Western statesinstitutionalized social
welfare programs. The post-WWII era saw the rise of full-fledged welfare states in
Europe.
● LATE 20TH CENTURY ADJUSTMENTS: In the 1980s and 1990s,neoliberal
ideologies led to welfare retrenchment in many countries. Yet, public support for basic
services remained strong, leading to reforms that emphasized efficiency, targeting,
and conditionality rather than abandonment.
PROS OF THE WELFARE STATE:
1. R EDUCTION OF POVERTY AND INEQUALITY: By providingsocial safety nets,
welfare states reduce extreme poverty and bridge income gaps. Scandinavian
countries consistently rank highest on equality indices.
2. IMPROVED QUALITY OF LIFE:Access to education, healthcare,and housing
enhances human development, increases productivity, and contributes to a stable
society.
3. SOCIAL COHESION AND POLITICAL STABILITY: Welfare policies help prevent
social unrest by addressing grievances, ensuring that the benefits of economic growth
are more evenly distributed.
4. HUMAN CAPITAL DEVELOPMENT:Investment in health and education boosts
long-term economic potential and innovation.
CONS OF THE WELFARE STATE:
1. H IGH TAX BURDEN: Welfare programs require significant public spending, often
funded through high taxation, which can be politically unpopular and affect business
competitiveness.
2. DEPENDENCY CULTURE: Critics argue that generous benefits may reduce work
incentives and encourage long-term dependence on the state.
3. BUREAUCRATIC INEFFICIENCIES: Large welfare programs may become bloated or
poorly managed, leading to wastage and corruption.
4. STRAIN DURING ECONOMIC CRISES:Welfare spending becomesharder to sustain
during economic downturns or in countries with large informal sectors and low
revenue.
CONCLUSION:
he welfare state remains a vital institution in modern comparative politics. It reflects a
T
commitment to balancing economic efficiency with social equity, ensuring that no citizen is
left behind in the pursuit of progress. While models and effectiveness vary, the core
idea—that the state has a responsibility to care for its people—continues to shape public
policy worldwide. In the face of new global challenges like climate change, inequality, and
demographic shifts, the welfare state will need to innovate and adapt, but its foundational
ideals remain more relevant than ever
C. POPULIST STATE:
INTRODUCTION:
● P opulism has been identified as a political movement or those leaders who highlight or
claim to represent the common people and the will of the common people. They claim
to represent real needs of the people.
● One of the most fundamental characteristics of populist regimes or movements is that
the claim of the leaders to represent the will of the people is majorly juxtaposed
against the elites or even the ruling establishment in case of those trying to capture
power.
● Populism is not a single movement or one set of beliefs. It has its own set of
implications in different political, social and economic contexts. Many movements in
Asia, Europe, and America have been termed populist, however, they may not have
similarities, for instance, many right-wing parties can be populist while even left-wing
parties could be populist too.
● Venezuela’s late President Chávez, Donald Trump in the United States, and Bolivia.
CHARACTERISTICS OF POPULIST STATES:
1. C HARISMATIC LEADERSHIP: Populist leaders often present themselves as saviors
of the nation, directly connecting with the masses and bypassing traditional
institutions.
2. ANTI-ELITISM: A strong divide is created between the “pure people” and the “corrupt
elite.” Elites can include politicians, media, bureaucrats, or intellectuals.
3. MAJORITARIANISM:Populists equate the majority's will with legitimacy, often
disregarding minority rights or institutional constraints.
4. CENTRALIZATION OF POWER:There is a tendency to weaken judicial
independence, control the press, and limit the role of opposition parties.
5. NATIONALISM AND PROTECTIONISM: Many populist regimesinvoke nationalism
and pursue protectionist policies to appeal to domestic interests.
6. DIRECT COMMUNICATION: Use of social media and massrallies allows populist
leaders to speak directly to their base, often attacking critics as enemies of the people.
7. POLICY VOLATILITY:Populist governments may reverseor bypass established
policies and norms to fulfill campaign promises or maintain public favor.
EVOLUTION OF THE POPULIST STATE
● 1
9TH CENTURY: The term originated from the U.S. PopulistParty of the 1890s,
representing agrarian interests against banking and industrial elites.
● M ID-20TH CENTURY: Leaders like Juan Perón in Argentinaand Getúlio Vargas in
Brazil used populist methods to expand welfare while concentrating power.
● POST-COLD WAR: The rise of neoliberalism and globalinequality set the stage for a
populist backlash, particularly among those who felt economically or culturally left
behind.
● 21ST CENTURY: Technological change, migration, and financial crises intensified
populist sentiment globally. The 2008 financial crisis and the refugee influx into Europe
further accelerated populist rhetoric, both left-wing and right-wing.
PROS OF THE POPULIST STATE
● R ESPONSIVE GOVERNANCE: Populist regimes often addressneglected issues
such as poverty, unemployment, or national identity, giving voice to marginalized
groups.
● POLITICAL MOBILIZATION: Populism can re-energize democratic participation,
bringing disillusioned voters back into the political process.
● CHALLENGING ELITES: It can expose corruption and inefficiencies in established
political institutions and promote reform.
CONS OF THE POPULIST STATE
● U NDERMINES DEMOCRATIC INSTITUTIONS: Populists may erode checks and
balances by weakening the judiciary, legislature, or media.
● POLARIZATION AND INTOLERANCE: Populist politics oftenthrive on divisiveness,
labeling dissenters as enemies, which can destabilize social cohesion.
● ECONOMIC MISMANAGEMENT: Policy decisions based onemotion or mass appeal
rather than evidence can lead to unsustainable spending or investor flight.
● AUTHORITARIAN DRIFT: Some populist leaders extendtheir rule by changing
constitutions, suppressing opposition, or curtailing civil liberties.
xamples includeHungary’s erosion of judicial independence,Venezuela’s economic
E
collapse under populist authoritarianism, andtheJanuary 6 Capitol riot in the USas an
outcome of populist mobilization.
CONCLUSION:
he populist state is a double-edged sword. While it can revitalize democratic engagement
T
and correct elite-driven imbalances, it also poses serious risks to liberal democratic
institutions and minority rights. Its appeal lies in its promise to speak for the forgotten
majority, but when unchecked, it can slide into authoritarianism and governance instability.
D. SECURITY STATE:
INTRODUCTION:
● T he 'State' in its modern sense of a territorial nation-state emerged as a result of
momentous developments in Europe between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries.
In today's world, there are around 185 states which constitute the international
system. International relations and politics are generally understood as a set of Some
Concepts: State System, Power, actions, reactions and interactions between
sovereign states, through the medium of National Interest, Security their foreign
policies.
● As the most authoritative political institution, the state can mobilize all domestic
resources needed to carry on international interactions in the form of war, or the
pursuit of diplomacy and peace.
● The national security state emerges from war, from fear of revolution and change,
from the economic instability of capitalism, and from nuclear weapons and military
technology.'
● In practical terms its emergence is linked to the rise of a bureaucracy that
administered things and people in interchangeable fashion without concern for ends or
assumptions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SECURITY STATE
security state(also called asurveillance stateornational security state) is one where
A
the government prioritizes internal and external security above all else, often justifying
exceptional measures in the name of national safety. These are the common features:
1. C ENTRALIZED CONTROL OF SECURITY APPARATUS:Intelligenceagencies,
police, and military forces are granted significant autonomy and power to monitor,
detain, and act against perceived threats.
2. SURVEILLANCE AND MONITORING: Extensive surveillanceof citizens through
digital tracking, CCTV networks, data collection, and monitoring of communications is
normalized.
3. RESTRICTION OF CIVIL LIBERTIES: Rights like freedomof speech, assembly, and
privacy may be curtailed through laws such as anti-terror legislation or emergency
powers.
4. JUSTIFICATION BY THREAT PERCEPTION: Governments oftencite terrorism,
insurgency, foreign interference, or internal dissent to justify securitization.
5. LIMITED TRANSPARENCY AND ACCOUNTABILITY: Decisionsrelated to national
security are often exempt from public or parliamentary scrutiny under the pretext of
confidentiality.
6. MILITARIZATION OF PUBLIC POLICY: Use of military orparamilitary force in
domestic settings (e.g., counter-terrorism, protests) becomes normalized.
7. STATE OF EMERGENCY GOVERNANCE: Security states oftenoperate under
emergency laws or ordinances that bypass normal democratic procedures.
EXAMPLES:
N
● orth Korea: Extreme surveillance and militarization.
● China: Widespread digital surveillance and censorshipin the name of social stability.
● USA (post-9/11): Increased surveillance powers under the Patriot Act, NSA programs,
and airport security enhancements.
● Israel: Security-heavy policies due to ongoing regionalthreats.
PROS OF A SECURITY STATE
1. E NHANCED NATIONAL PROTECTION: Security states are often better prepared to
prevent terrorist attacks, cyber threats, and espionage.
2. EFFECTIVE CRISIS MANAGEMENT: In emergencies like pandemics, wars, or
disasters, a strong security apparatus can mobilize quickly and decisively.
3. DETERRENCE OF CRIME AND VIOLENCE: High surveillanceand policing can act
as a deterrent against organized crime or extremist activities.
4. P OLITICAL STABILITY: By controlling threats and unrest, security states can
maintain continuity and order, especially in volatile regions.
5. TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT:Investment in security technologies (facial
recognition, AI, cybersecurity) can spur innovation.
CONS OF A SECURITY STATE
1. S UPPRESSION OF DISSENT: Activists, opposition leaders,and minorities can be
unfairly targeted under the pretext of security, damaging democracy.
2. VIOLATION OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS: Constant surveillanceinfringes on privacy,
and arbitrary detentions or censorship undermine civil liberties.
3. LACK OF TRANSPARENCY: Overreach by intelligence andpolice agencies can go
unchecked due to secrecy laws, leading to potential abuses of power.
4. CLIMATE OF FEAR:Citizens may live in fear of surveillance,arrest, or repression,
reducing political participation and free expression.
5. EROSION OF DEMOCRACY: Security justification can leadto permanent emergency
rule, militarized governance, and marginalization of elected institutions.
6. ECONOMIC BURDEN:Excessive military and security spendingcan divert resources
from education, healthcare, and welfare.
NIT-4
U
EDERALISM
F
INTRODUCTION:
1. TYPES OF GOVERNMENT: Based on concentration and distribution of powers,
governments are classified intounitaryandfederal.
2. ORIGIN OF FEDERALISM: Federal government is a modern innovation. First
established with the American Constitution.The term federation comes from the Latin
wordfoedus, meaning treaty or agreement.
3. FORMATION OF FEDERAL STATES:
● Centripetal forces: Independent states unite due to weaknesses (e.g., USA,
Switzerland, Australia).
● Centrifugal forces: A unitary state transforms intoa federal state (e.g., Canada, India
via Government of India Act, 1935).
4. FEATURES OF FEDERALISM:
● Power is divided between thecentral (union)andstate(units)governments.
● Balanceslocal autonomywithnational unity.
● Provides fordivision of responsibilities:
○ Centre: Defence, external affairs, communication,income tax, railways.
○ States: Land revenue, police, jails, local self-government.
5. ADVANTAGES OF FEDERAL GOVERNMENT:
● Helps smaller states unite and become stronger.
● Promotes uniformity in law, policy, and administration.
● Allows policy experimentation at the state level.
● Increases efficiency by preventing overburdening of the central government.
● Best suited for countries with religious, linguistic, or racial diversity.
6. Terminology: Units in federal systems may be called states, cantons, etc.
7. CLASSICAL THEORY OF FEDERALISM:
● Reconciles national unity with state rights.
● Unites separate political entities under a comprehensive system.
● Requires negotiation and shared decision-making among members.
● Ensures state rights are preserved while maintaining national unity.
HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF FEDERALISM:
1. EARLY ORIGINS: Federalism can be traced back to theGreek city-statesand the
Dutch confederacyof the 2nd century.
2. MODERN FEDERALISM:Took its vigorous form in 1787with the formation of the
American federation. Switzerland also adopted federalism in 1848 based on popular
sentiment.
3. A RTICLES OF CONFEDERATION (1777): Drafted by American colonies during
resistance to Britain. Created a unicameral Congress with one-year delegates from
each state. Congress managed foreign relations, coinage, etc., but relied on the
approval of all 13 states. Represented a system where the general government was
subordinate to regional governments.
4. US CONSTITUTION(1787): Marked a significant shift in federal structure.
Established coordinate and independent powers for both general (central) and
regional (state) governments. Each government operated independently within its
constitutionally allotted sphere. Known as a true federation, unlike the earlier
confederation.
5. THEORETICAL VIEW (Wheare): The 1787 Constitution replaced subordination with
coordination and independence of government powers.
6. PURPOSE OF A FEDERATION:
● Formed when multiple co-equal states unite for common goals.
● As per Dicey (1967), federalism distributes state authority among coordinate bodies
under a constitution.
7. GOAL OF FEDERALISM:
● Seeks to reconcile national unity with the autonomy of individual states or regions.
● Balances two opposing sentiments:
○ Desire for national unity
○ Determination to preserve local independence
8. MECHANISM:
● Operates through a written constitution.
● National matters go to the central government.
● Local matters remain with the state governments.
● Though the division of powers may differ by constitution, the core principle of dual
sovereignty remains consistent.
DEBATE ABOUT THE TERRITORIAL DIVISION OF POWERS
● T he debate is closely associated with William H. Riker, who emphasized a political
approach to understanding how federal constitutions are formed.
● While historians focused on the unique historical context of each federal agreement,
Riker aimed to identify common political conditions across federations.
● Riker believed identifying these patterns would provide:
❖ A verifiable empirical framework
❖ Insights withtheoretical significancefor politicalscience
● Riker’s Two-Fold Hypothesis(based on analysis of18 successful and 9 failed
federations):
❖ M otivation of Offering Politicians:They seek to expand territorial control
peacefully, often in response to: An external military or diplomatic threat.
A desire to prepare for aggression or expansion
❖ Motivation of Accepting Politicians: Willing to cede some independence in
exchange for: Protection from threats, Participation in collective
military/diplomatic advantage
Despite Riker’s insights, scholars caution against over-simplifying federation
●
formation: The origins of federations involve complex historical experiences.
It's difficult to reduce the causes to only political or economic necessity.
CASE STUDIES:
SWITZERLAND:
● S witzerland became a federation in 1848, though its federal roots trace back to 1291
when the rural Alpine communities of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden formed the
Eidgenossenschaft(Oath-Fellowship) for mutual defenseagainst the Habsburgs.
● Over time, the Confederation expanded, reaching thirteen cantons by 1513. The
French Revolution and subsequent Napoleonic changes disrupted this confederation
until the Mediation Constitution of 1815 redefined it as a multilingual entity, recognizing
French- and Italian-speaking regions.
● The final shift to a federation occurred after the liberal Protestant cantons defeated the
conservative Catholic Sonderbund in 1848, with the outcome ratified by popular vote.
The 1848 constitution, revised in 1874 and 1999, laid the institutional foundations of
modern Switzerland.
● Swiss federalism evolved organically, emphasizing local autonomy, citizen
participation, and a political culture rooted inBundestreue—reciprocity,mutual trust,
and consensus.
CANADA:
● C anada became a federation in 1867, uniquely combining the British parliamentary
tradition with federal principles. This fusion attempted to reconcile centralized
executive authority, derived from maintaining majority rule in Parliament, with the
federal goal of territorial power dispersion.
● The British model supported strong, unitary governance through majoritarian rule,
while federalism promoted decentralization and the accommodation of minorities.
● Canada’s innovation lay in balancing these opposing systems, creating a political
structure that reflected both the need for unity and the need to recognize regional and
cultural diversity.
AUSTRALIA:
● A ustralia’s federation, achieved in January 1901, was shaped by its colonial past,
geographic scale, and socio-economic dynamics. The influence of British imperial
relationships, internal political developments, and the roles of political elites, parties,
unions, the press, farmers, and industrialists all contributed to the push for union.
● A key factor often cited is the mismatch between the vastness of the territory and the
relatively small, dispersed population. This made federalism an attractive solution,
enabling both shared governance and local autonomy in managing Australia’s diverse
and expansive regions.
INDIA:
● India became a federation in 1950, but its path was marked by ambiguity and
complexity. The Constituent Assembly deliberately used the term "federal"
ambiguously, reflecting diverse views on unity, decentralization, and minority
protection, as well as fears of civil unrest and separatism.
● The partition of India in 1947 intensified the urgency for a federal structure. With the
Indian National Congress’s dominance, the new constitution favored a strong central
authority. India’s federation was shaped by both the idealism of the independence
movement and practical governance needs.
● Historically, decentralization had been part of British rule since the Government of
India Act of 1858, with increasing local legislative powers introduced through acts in
1861, 1892, 1909, 1919, and 1935.
● Like Canada and Australia, India’s federation emerged from the “unpackaging of
empires,” inheriting a centralized imperial framework that the new government
repurposed into a centralized federal structure.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FEDERALISM:
● T he defining characteristic of a federal system is the simultaneous existence of two
powerful motives: the desire of constituent units to be united for shared purposes, and
their deep-rooted wish for self-government in other areas.
● This duality leads to a constitutional division of powers between levels of government,
which is a central feature of all federal systems.
● Although federal systems are often described as decentralized, what sets them apart
from decentralized unitary systems is not merely the extent of decentralization, but the
constitutional guarantee of autonomy for the constituent units.
● This means the powers exercised by regional governments are protected by the
constitution, not simply delegated by the central government.
● In practice, however, federations vary widely. The scope of powers, responsibilities,
and financial resources assigned to different levels of government can differ
significantly. Key indicators include the division of legislative and administrative
uthority, control over financial resources, the role of non-governmental agencies,
a
constitutional safeguards, and the extent of regional participation in national
decision-making.
● Federal systems are not fixed or static. They evolve over time in response to social,
political, economic, and ethnic factors.
● Scholars, especially in the context of countries like the United States and Canada,
have shown how these factors influence the structure and processes of federal
systems, leading some towards greater decentralization and others towards
centralization (Watts, 1998).
● In its 1979 reportComing to Terms, the Task Force on Canadian Unity identified seven
key features of a federation:
.
1 Two levels of government, each acting directly on citizens;
2. A central government elected by the entire federation, with power to legislate and tax;
3. Regional governments elected by their own populations, with similar powers in their
jurisdictions;
.
4 A constitutional division of legislative, executive, and financial powers;
5. A written constitution that cannot be unilaterally changed;
6. An impartial arbiter to resolve disputes over powers;
7. Mechanisms for intergovernmental interaction.
● The report also contrasted federations with confederations. A confederation is an
association of sovereign states joined by a treaty or pact, typically under international
law.
● The central body—called a diet, council, congress, or assembly—has limited authority,
mainly in foreign affairs, and consists of delegates appointed by the member states.
FEDERATION:
CONDITIONS TO BECOME A FEDERATION:
● G EOGRAPHICAL CONTIGUITY: Geographical contiguity isnecessary for a
federation. If the units are geographically far apart, their federation cannot be formed,
● DESIRE FOR UNION: Formation of a federation is practicablewhen the units desire
certain common purposes. For this they give certain powers to the union without
losing their identity.
● ABSENCE OF NOTICEABLE DIFFERENCE AMONG THE FEDERATING UNITS:
There should not be too much inequality among the states. If there is too much
difference then the big states will try to dominate over small states.
● ADEQUATE ECONOMIC RESOURCES: There must be adequateeconomic
resources among the states. A dual government entails a lot of expenses. Again if
adequate resources are not there in a state it has to depend upon the centre for
everything and the centre will dictate terms to it.
● S IMILARITY OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS: The social and political
institutions in the state should more or less be the same,
● POLITICAL EDUCATION: Since a federation is a complicated union, it will work well if
the people are politically educated and enlightened.
● NATIONAL FEELINGS: All the units must have a senseof loyalty to the centre, so
that during war and other emergencies they can remain united.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FEDERALISM AND FEDERATION:
● F ederalismis apolitical philosophy or principlethat advocates for the division of
powers between two levels of government — usually a central government and
regional governments — in such a way that both levels have independent authority in
their own spheres.
● Federation, on the other hand, is theactual political system or structurethat is
created based on the principles of federalism. It is apractical arrangementin which
two or more states or regions unite under a central government, while retaining certain
powers independently. Countries like the United States, India, and Australia are
examples of federations.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A FEDERATION:
● W RITTEN CONSTITUTION: A federation is governed bya written constitution which
is the supreme law of the land and binds both the central and state governments.
● DUAL POLITY: There are two levels of government —the central (union) government
and the state governments — each with its own powers and responsibilities.
● DIVISION OF POWERS: Powers are clearly divided betweenthe two levels of
government by the constitution to avoid conflict and overlap.
● INDEPENDENT AND IMPARTIAL JUDICIARY: The judiciaryinterprets the
constitution and resolves disputes between the centre and the states.
ADVANTAGES OF A FEDERATION:
● A DVANTAGEOUS TO SMALL STATES: Small and weaker statesbenefit from shared
resources, defence, and diplomacy while maintaining their identity.
● RECONCILIATION OF LOCAL AUTONOMY WITH NATIONAL UNITY:Federalism
allows local governments to handle regional issues effectively while contributing to
national unity.
● UNITY WITH DIVERSITY: It permits cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity while
maintaining a unified policy in matters of national interest.
CONFEDERATION OVERVIEW:
● L OOSE UNION OF SOVEREIGN STATES:A confederation is a union where
independent states voluntarily unite for limited purposes like defence or foreign affairs.
● LIMITED CENTRAL POWER:The central body has minimalpowers and usually
consists of a legislature and executive with restricted authority.
● VOLUNTARY MEMBERSHIP: Member states can leave theconfederation at will; they
retain full sovereignty.
● EXAMPLE:The United States from 1776 to 1787 was a confederation.
● NOT A CONFEDERATION: The United Nations is not a confederation as it lacks the
legal and structural features of one.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN FEDERATION AND CONFEDERATION:
Aspect FEDERATION CONFEDERATION
Nature It is permanent. It is not permanent.
State Formation Creates a new state. Does not create a new state
Secession onstituent units cannot
C onstituent units can secede
C
secede. anytime
Sovereignty eld by the federal
H eld by the member states.
H
government. The federal The federal government is
government holds ultimate accountable to member
authority; member states are states, which are the
subordinate. ultimate authority.
Central Authority federal government
A sually a weak body
U
governs the member states. appointed by the member
states.
owers of Central
P etermined by the
D ocuses on joint foreign
F
Authority constitution; generally policy and defense; has
includes control over limited powers.
diplomatic, military,
economic, and legal spheres
Common Government common legislature,
A o common government;
N
executive, and judiciary are remains a league of states.
formed.
Citizenship ouble citizenship may exist S
D ingle citizenship of that
(unit and federal state). particular state.
Examples anada, United States of
C ld Swiss Confederacy,
O
America, Mexico, United States of America
Venezuela, Brazil, India (1781–1789), European
Union (EU).
CONCLUSION:
● The extensive recent literature on federalism, federal system, and federations points
to three broad conclusions.
● First, in the context of the contemporary global scene, federal political systems are
combining shared rule and self rule to provide a practical way of combining the
benefits of unity and diversity through representative institutions, but they are no
panacea for humanity's political ills.
● Second, the effectiveness of a federal political system depends on the degree of
public acceptance of the need to respect constitutional norms and structures, and on a
spirit of compromise and tolerance.
● Third, within the broad structure and spirit within the broad genus of federal system
and even within the narrower species of federations, there are many variations in the
application of the federal idea.
NIT-3
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ONSTITUTIONALISM
C
INTRODUCTION:
● Constitutionalism is a key principle in political theory that limits government power,
protects individual rights, and upholds the rule of law. It provides the foundation for
how modern states are organized and governed.
● Its essence lies in restraining governmental authority, safeguarding individual rights,
and establishing a framework for the rule of law.
● When approached through comparative political analysis, constitutionalism becomes
a lens through which we can discern the varied ways nation’s structure and interpret
their foundational laws, providing a nuanced understanding of global political systems.
● Comparative political analysis of Constitutionalism involves the examination of
similarities and differences in how nations design and implement their constitutional
frameworks.
● This scrutiny encompasses the separation of powers, a cornerstone concept
emphasising the division between executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CONSTITUTIONALISM:
● C onstitutionalism has ancient roots, beginning in civilizations like Mesopotamia and
Ancient Greece. Athens introduced early democratic principles that emphasized
political accountability and rule-based governance. The Roman Republic further
contributed with ideas of a mixed government and rule of law.
● A major milestone was the Magna Carta of 1215, which limited the powers of the
English monarch and established the idea that rulers must follow the law. This was a
critical step in the development of constitutional governance.
● During the Enlightenment, philosophers like John Locke and Montesquieu expanded
constitutional thought. They introduced the concepts of individual rights, the
separation of powers, and the social contract, shaping the theoretical foundation of
modern constitutions.
● The American and French Revolutions in the 18th century marked turning points. The
U.S. Constitution of 1787 created a structured government with checks and balances.
The French Declaration of the Rights of Man emphasized equality and individual
liberty.
● In the 19th and 20th centuries, many nations adopted written constitutions, defining
governmental structures and guaranteeing rights. After World War II, global institutions
like the United Nations promoted constitutional values through documents like the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
● Today, constitutionalism is central to democratic systems around the world. It
continues to uphold the rule of law, limit government power, and protect individual
freedoms. Its diverse history reflects humanity’s enduring effort to achieve fair and
accountable governance.
KEY PRINCIPLES OF CONSTITUTIONALISM:
● RULE OF LAW:Constitutionalism upholds the principle of the rule of law, meaning
that all individuals, including government officials, are subject to and accountable
under the law. This ensures fairness and equality before the law, preventing arbitrary
use of power.
● LIMITED GOVERNMENT: Constitutionalism promotes the idea of limited
government, restraining the authority of the state. It seeks to prevent tyranny, even
when represented by a majority. The powers of the government are defined and
limited by the constitution, protecting individual rights and minority voices.
● SEPARATION OF POWERS: This principle advocates for dividing governmental
functions among different branches—typically the legislative, executive, and
judicial—to prevent the abuse and concentration of power in any one organ of the
state.
● CHECKS AND BALANCES:Constitutionalism includes mechanismsfor each branch
of government to monitor and limit the actions of the others. This mutual oversight
prevents any single branch from becoming too powerful and reinforces the separation
of powers.
● INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS:Protecting individual rights isfundamental to constitutionalism.
Constitutions safeguard the rights and freedoms of citizens, preventing arbitrary
government actions that could infringe upon them.
● POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY:Constitutionalism embraces theidea that ultimate
authority lies with the people. Governments derive legitimacy from the consent of the
governed, who have the right to participate in decision-making.
● CONSTITUTIONAL SUPREMACY:This principle states that the constitution is
supreme over all ordinary laws. Any law or government action inconsistent with the
constitution is considered invalid.
● JUDICIAL REVIEW:Stemming from constitutional supremacy,judicial review allows
courts to interpret laws according to the constitution and strike down those that violate
constitutional provisions, especially those affecting citizens' rights. It ensures that
constitutional interpretation evolves with time.
● DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE:While not identical to democracy,constitutionalism
supports democratic principles by ensuring governments remain accountable through
free and fair elections, enabling the expression of popular will.
POST COLONIAL CONSTITUTIONALISM:
● P
ost-colonial constitutionalismrefers to the developmentof legal and political
systems in countries that gained independence from colonial rule. These constitutions
im to reflect national identity, uphold democracy, promote human rights, and move
a
beyond colonial legacies. They often blend indigenous legal traditions with modern
democratic values.
● Colonial rule, beginning in the late 15th century, was marked by European powers
expanding their empires across the world. It imposed foreign governance systems,
exploited resources, and disrupted indigenous cultures and legal traditions.
● Thelegal systemsintroduced by colonisers reflected their own norms and often
ignored local customs, entrenching inequality and disconnecting law from lived
realities.
● Theimpact on legal systemswas long-lasting. Coloniallegal legacies often
marginalised indigenous law, creating challenges for post-colonial nations striving for
inclusive and just governance. Decolonising these systems remains a key step toward
constitutional justice.
● Theemergence of post-colonial nationsin the mid-20thcentury saw efforts to
create constitutions that balanced modern governance with traditional values.
● These nations faced challenges like ethnic diversity, economic disparity, and political
instability but aimed to build inclusive, democratic, and culturally grounded
constitutional orders.
KEY PRINCIPLES OF POST-COLONIAL CONSTITUTIONALISM:
1. S OVEREIGNTY AND INDEPENDENCE: It emphasises the sovereigntyand
independence of post-colonial states, reflecting a break from colonial rule.
2. INCLUSIVITY AND DIVERSITY: Strives for inclusivity,recognizing and
accommodating diverse ethnic, cultural, and linguistic identities within the
constitutional framework.
3. HUMAN RIGHTS: Prioritises the protection of humanrights, seeking to rectify
historical injustices and ensure fundamental rights for all citizens.
4. RULE OF LAW: Establishes the supremacy of the ruleof law, ensuring that legal
frameworks are just, transparent, and applicable to all citizens.
5. DEMOCRATIC GOVERNANCE: Encourages democratic governancestructures,
promoting participation, representation, and accountability in decision-making
processes.
6. LAND AND RESOURCE RIGHTS: Addresses issues relatedto land and resource
rights, often seeking to rectify historical dispossession and promote equitable
distribution.
7. CULTURAL RECOGNITION: Acknowledges and protects indigenouscultures,
languages, and traditions, fostering a constitutional environment that values cultural
diversity.
8. R EPARATIONS AND TRANSITIONAL JUSTICE: May incorporate mechanisms for
reparations and transitional justice to address historical wrongs and promote
reconciliation.
9. DECOLONIZATION OF LEGAL SYSTEMS:Strives to decolonize legal systems,
revisiting and reforming laws inherited from colonial powers to better reflect local
realities and values.
10.INTERNATIONAL SOLIDARITY: Recognizes the importanceof international
cooperation and solidarity, fostering respect in the post-colonial era.
GENERAL CHALLENGES IN CONSTITUTIONALISM
● INTERPRETATION OF CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS: Ambiguities lead to
differing interpretations, especially on rights and original intent.
● EROSION OF DEMOCRATIC NORMS: Leaders may exploit constitutions to
undermine checks and balances, leading to illiberal democracies.
● GLOBAL INTERCONNECTEDNESS: Issues like climate changeand pandemics
require constitutional adaptation beyond national borders.
● INCLUSIVITY AND REPRESENTATION: Marginalised groupsmay be
underrepresented; addressing historical injustices is crucial for equity.
● TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS: Digital privacy, surveillance,and online
discourse require updated constitutional protections.
● ECONOMIC INEQUALITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE: Constitutions must balance
individual rights with collective responsibilities to ensure fairness.
COMPARATIVE POLITICAL ANALYSIS – KEY CHALLENGES
1. C ULTURAL VARIATIONS AND LEGAL TRADITIONS: Different societies have
contrasting views on rights and governance, complicating universal application of
constitutionalism.
2. ENFORCEMENT AND RULE OF LAW: Uneven law enforcement weakens
constitutionalism; comparative study helps assess institutional effectiveness.
3. POLITICAL INSTABILITY AND CONSTITUTIONAL EROSION:Instability can
undermine constitutions; comparisons reveal patterns and vulnerabilities.
4. EXECUTIVE POWER AND CHECKS AND BALANCES:Power imbalances threaten
constitutional health; analysis reveals how systems manage this.
5. TRANSITIONING DEMOCRACIES:Democracies in development face unique
challenges; lessons can be drawn from other nations' experiences.
6. GLOBALISATION AND CONSTITUTIONAL ADAPTATION: Interdependence
pressures constitutions to evolve while balancing sovereignty and cooperation.
7. TECHNOLOGICAL CHALLENGES: Nations differ in handling digital rights and
privacy; ongoing analysis is needed to update constitutional norms
NIT-1
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SOCIO-ECONOMIC STRUCTURES
A. CAPITALISM
INTRODUCTION:
● Capitalism is a socio-economic system where social structures, institutions, and
relations are woven around the market and private entities.
● It can be defined as a structure where the means of production is owned by a very
small section of the propertied class of people who purchase wage labour from the
vast majority of property less or working class of people.
● Thus, in essence, capitalism is a means of production for generating profits where the
private player owns the factors of production, and in which the profit comes from the
surplus value of labour and enhanced labour productivity.
● The surplus value of labour is the price at which the product is sold minus labour
charges that are paid to the producer (labourer).
● The capitalist class earns profit by selling the products at higher prices than the costs
for inputs. Therefore, capitalism also denotes a class-based social structure where the
rich capitalist class owns the mode of production and the labour class sells its labour
at a market-determined rate.
● This relationship between the capitalist and labour class is hierarchical and unequal.
The capitalist class is dominant whereas the labour class is the subordinate class.
ORIGIN, EVOLUTION AND GROWTH OF CAPITALISM TO GLOBALISATION:
1. CAPITALISM – A PRODUCT OF MODERNITY
❖ Capitalism is an outcome of the period of Modernity that began in Europe after the
medieval ages. The period provided the philosophical and political background upon
which capitalism originated and developed.
❖ Some of these were seen in movements such as Renaissance or Enlightenment,
Reformation and the subsequent Industrial Revolution.
2. FROM FEUDALISM TO CAPITALISM
❖ Feudalism which is commonly understood as serfdom was an economic system
characterised by the division of society into two major classes – the feudal lords and
serfs, with the latter bound by the obligation to produce for the fulfilment of the
economic demands of the former.
❖ Feudalism declined for various reasons beginning in England and giving way for the
capitalist system of economic organisation to take root.
. M
3 ERCANTILISM
❖ In the modern period, capitalism can further be traced through various stages, one of
them being mercantile capitalism.
❖ Some features of this system include state protection for trading companies, trade
wars between nations, and colonial conquests (defensive) to have a passive state
presence.
❖ In the later phase, expansion of output became essential to create employment. This
eventually led to the growth of multilateral patterns, leading to the emergence of
MNCs and TNCs.
4. GLOBALISATION AND NEO-IMPERIALISM
❖ Soon the flow of capital became international. This period from 1970 and beyond is
characterised by the spread of this multi-dimensional phenomenon known as
globalisation.
❖ Neoliberal beliefs of the free market, competition and productivity came to be hailed
again as the panacea against the sluggish economic performance of the past
(Keynesianism).
❖ Thus, the flow of capital from capitalist countries to other countries as FDI by MNCs
was the primary cause of the internationalisation of capital.
❖ Capitalism is by its very nature expansionist. It produces more services than required.
It also re-invests the profit for more production. Hence capitalism, for its sustenance,
requires new markets, new services, and new consumers.
❖ Globalization is a manifestation of the worldwide expansion of capitalism in the
post-cold war era.
TYPES OF CAPITALIST SYSTEM IN CONTEMPORARY WORLD:
● ENTERPRISE CAPITALISM:
❖ Enterprise capitalism is the purest form of capitalism as it is based on the ideas of
classical economists like Adam Smith.
❖ This type of capitalism is prevalent in the United States of America. This system is
based on the idea of free market and minimal state interference.
❖ The enterprise capitalism promotes marketization and is a driving force behind
economic globalisation.
● SOCIAL CAPITALISM:
❖ This type of capitalism is present in western and central Europe. According to
Heywood the central theme of this model is the idea of a social market; that is an
attempt to marry the disciplines of market competition with the need for social
cohesion and solidarity.
❖ In this system, the state undertakes a number of welfare activities and the trade
unions are very strong. A good example of this type of system is Germany. In
ermany a form of ‘stakeholder capitalism’ has developed that takes into account the
G
interest of workers and those of the wider community.
❖ This contrasts with the shareholder capitalism found in the USA. In crux, the market
remains largely free of governmental interference and the government actively takes
part in welfare activities to maintain social cohesion.
● COLLECTIVE CAPITALISM:
❖ According to Heywood this type of capitalism is based on the example of post-1945
Japan. Later this model was adopted by South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore and
other East Asian countries.
❖ It has even influenced the current Chinese capitalism. This type of capitalism mainly
takes account of the social factors and weaves capitalism around the indigenous ways
of life.
❖ The workers give their loyalty, commitment and hard work and they are rewarded with
lifetime employment, pension and social protection. A particular stress is placed on
teamwork and the building up of collective identity, which is underpinned by relatively
narrow income differentials between managers and workers.
LINKING CAPITALISM AND GLOBALISATION:
● Capitalism is closely linked to globalisation, especially after the Cold War period.
● Industrial capitalism was established in 19th-century Europe and its settler colonies.
● Colonies were economically linked to European capitalist powers in an unequal
manner.
● The 1917 Bolshevik Revolution in Russia posed the first major challenge to capitalism.
● After World War II, the USA emerged as a dominant capitalist power.
● The USSR rose as a socialist alternative, leading to a global ideological divide.
● Post-WWII decolonisation led newly independent countries to adopt socialist or mixed
economies.
● These economies limited economic freedom, regulated private investment, and
promoted state control and self-sufficiency.
● As a result, global economic integration was limited during this period.
● By the 1980s, the Soviet bloc and socialist economies began facing serious issues.
● Gradually, many countries started shifting toward capitalist models.
● The collapse of the USSR in 1991 marked the end of true socialist economies (except
for North Korea and Cuba).
● After the Cold War, capitalist, socialist, and developing countries all began adopting
neoliberal policies.
● Neoliberalism promoted liberalisation, privatisation, and economic integration.
● These changes significantly accelerated globalisation through increased international
interaction and interconnected economies.
CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF CAPITALISM:
Overview of capitalist criticism
While capitalism has dominated the global economy for the past three centuries, it has faced
widespread criticism from a variety of groups, including Marxists, socialists, religious thinkers,
anarchists, environmentalists, and feminists. The core criticisms focus on issues such as
private property, labour exploitation, imperialism, inequality, dehumanization, and
environmental degradation.
Marxist critique of capitalism
Karl Marx remains the most influential critic of capitalism. His scientific critique centers on
class struggle, where the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) exploits the proletariat (working class)
through ownership of private property. Marx argued that capitalism represents the final stage
of systemic human exploitation and that bourgeois democracy excludes true democratic
participation for the majority. He predicted an inevitable proletarian revolution to overthrow
capitalism.
Lenin and imperialism
Vladimir Lenin extended Marxist critique by arguing that capitalism's search for profit leads
to imperialism—where powerful nations exploit weaker ones. He saw imperialism as a
symptom of capitalism’s inherent need to expand.
B. SOCIALISM:
INTRODUCTION:
● In today's era of democratic governance, understanding political ideologies is
essential for evaluating governance systems and policies. Globally, two main political
ideologies are prominent: liberalism and socialism.
● Socialism is a major modern political ideology that addresses issues in human life. It is
not just a socio-economic philosophy but also a political theory and social movement
that adapts to different conditions and times. For example:
❖ Russia and China: Socialism manifests as a totalitarian system where the
state controls all aspects of life.
❖ Western Countries: Socialism often takes the formof a welfare state, where
the economy is controlled to ensure public welfare.
❖ India: Socialism is influenced by thinkers like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal
Nehru, and others, resulting in concepts like Gandhian socialism or democratic
socialism.
● Despite these variations, the core idea of socialism is the state or society controlling
the production and distribution of natural wealth to prevent private property and
exploitation.
● S
ocialism opposes a non-interventionist or capitalist state, advocating for the state to
manage resources and wealth to ensure equal distribution and prevent the rise of
private property. This equal distribution is seen as essential for a stable and just
society, with a focus on helping the poor and oppressed.
RISE OF SOCIALISM:
● Socialism did not originate in political thought but developed as a reaction to
individualist ideology, emerging distinctly during the Industrial Revolution. It arose as a
backlash against both the political and individualist systems of the time.
● Historically, socialist ideas can be traced back to ancient times, emphasizing equality
and public welfare.
● In India, ancient religious literature reflects socialist sentiments. For example, the
Rigveda condemns greed and praises equal distribution of wealth.
SOCIALISM IN WESTERN POLITICAL THOUGHT:
● The roots of socialism in Western political thought can be traced back to Plato. While
the Sophists and Socrates contributed to political thought, they did not specifically
address socialist principles.
● Plato, in his work "The Republic" (380 BCE), planted the seeds of socialism by
depicting an ideal state. He introduced the idea of communism regarding personal
property and family, arguing that these aspects mislead individuals in their social lives.
● In his ideal state, Plato prohibited property and family for the ruling and military
classes, advocating for communal ownership. However, his vision was directed from
above and inherently unequal, so he is not considered a complete socialist.
● Socialism emerged as a reaction to the French and Industrial Revolutions, which
significantly reshaped society and life. These revolutions sparked enthusiasm and
hope for creating an equal and rational society based on technology and science.
● However, the industrial society's concentration of wealth and uncontrolled competition
led to poverty and crisis, prompting the need for a society based on equality,
cooperation, and social welfare.
UTOPIAN SOCIALISM:
● J erome Blanqui's "History of Political Economy" (1839)highlighted early socialist
thinkers:Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, and Saint-Simon,who emphasized moral
and social well-being and rejected competition as a societal model.
● Saint-Simon:Advocated scientific planning and industrialorganization led by
scientists and technicians.
● Viewed national states as large corporations; promoted economic development and
infrastructure (banks, railways).
● S upported state socialism with social and economic equality through technological
progress. Opposed parliamentary democracy and voting, favoring a system of
economic and scientific governance.
● Emphasized peaceful international relations and condemned military power misuse.
● Criticized poor working conditions and supported ideas like planned economy, full
employment, and work-based sharing. First to describe the conditions of the Industrial
Revolution.
● Robert Owen:Known as the father of British socialismand a successful industrialist
and reformer.
● In"A New View of Society"(1813), promoted religioushumanism and believed human
character is shaped by external conditions.
● Advocated collective ownership, cooperative markets, classless society, social justice,
and civic education. Applied his ideas in his textile mills: reduced work hours,
improved conditions, established school and childcare, which increased profits.
● Founded ‘New Harmony’ community in America. Played a key role in the cooperative
and trade union movement in England.
● CHARLES FOURIER:Criticized capitalist civilizationand promoted economic equality
for social emancipation. Proposed the ‘phalanstère’: an ideal European community
fulfilling everyone's desires.
● Suggested dividing production into labour, capital, and capacity, with shared excess
production. Ranked labour into essential, useful, and preferred, with essential
receiving highest income.
● Advocated job choice, freedom from forced work, a 'social minimum', and fixed annual
income ensuring the right to work.
SCIENTIFIC SOCIALISM:
● U topian socialism aimed to build an ideal, oppression-free society but lacked practical
methods or governance principles. To address these shortcomings,scientific
socialism, especially Marxism, emerged. Karl Marxopposed capitalism, inequality,
and class discrimination, offering a systematic critique and practical framework for
change.
● Marxist Theory and Revolution:Marx’s ideology focused on alabor revolution,
emphasizing how capitalism commodifies workers and creates a wage-dependent
class.
● He asserted that political power and laws are shaped by the economic system.
Advocating worker unity through the slogan“Workersof the world unite,”Marx pushed
for class consciousness and social revolution.
● Scientific Approach and Goals:Usingdialectical materialismand a
historical-economic analysis, Marx proposed a scientific roadmap to achieve a
lassless, non-exploitative society. His ideology was rooted in compassion for the
c
working class and a strong opposition to capitalist injustices.
Development of Collectivism:As a non-violent responseto radical socialism,
●
collectivismpromoted peaceful, democratic reformsto realize socialism. It supported
nationalizing industries, eliminating harmful capitalist competition, and using state
control for public welfare.
● Features of Collectivist Socialism:In a collectivistmodel, the central government
oversees national affairs while local institutions handle local governance. Key features
include settingminimum wages, ensuringemployment for all, promoting
cooperation across economic sectors,reducing inequalitythrough taxation, and
distributing essential goods fairly.
LABOUR UNIONISM:
● L abour unionism, founded in opposition to capitalism, arose from the working-class
movement in France. It was a response to the lack of support for workers' interests in
the post-French Revolution system, where occupational classes controlled
governance, limiting workers' freedom.
● Workers unified through class struggle, strikes, and collective action, leading to the
development of labour unionism as a means of advocating for workers' rights.
FABIANISM:
● F abianism, established by English intellectuals in 1884, is often termed an intellectual
movement. Its main goal was to introduce socialist principles to educated people,
aiming to establish socialism through democratic, orderly, and peaceful means. Early
proponents included scholars like Sidney Webb, George Bernard Shaw, Annie Besant,
Graham Wallas, and G.D.H. Cole.
● The core principle of Fabianism is to restructure society by transferring land and
industrial capital from private ownership to society for the public good. This aims to
ensure fair distribution of the country's natural and acquired wealth among its people.
● Fabianism thinkers believe that the state should exert its authority over all production
sectors to ensure equitable distribution of benefits and break the cycle of economic
inequality. They reject violence and revolutionary tactics, preferring legal mechanisms
to implement socialism.
CATEGORY SOCIALISM:
● C ategory socialism emerged in early 20th-century England as a response to
dissatisfaction with existing socialist ideologies like Fabianism.
● G .D.H. Cole describes category socialism as a system based on the partnership of
producers and state control of industries. It advocates for industrial independence and
emphasizes that workers should have real and influential power.
● Category socialism goes beyond mere social ownership of means of production; it
aims for workers to control and operate industries, ensuring complete freedom and
social utility in production. Its goal is to establish a democratic social organization.
COMMUNISM:
● C ommunism entails the abolition of the state and private property, creating a classless
and self governing society. In practice, achieving communism has been challenging.
While the USSR attempted to implement communist goals, it fell short due to various
factors such as the lack of a strong civil society.
● For most socialist thinkers, communism is seen as a goal following the establishment
of a socialist state. The USSR and China aimed to transition towards communism, but
both faced obstacles.
● By the 1980s, China was moving towards a free-market system despite claiming to
pursue "real" socialism. Overall, communism remains an ideal that has been difÏcult to
achieve in practice.
CONCLUSION
● S ocialism has a long history, but it became a systematic ideology to address economic
and social inequality caused by capitalism.
● While Marx saw socialism as scientifically grounded, it's mainly associated with his
ideas.
● Under Marxism, socialism arises when the working class overthrows capitalism and
gains control over production. This stage aims to pave the way for communism, a
classless society.
C. COLONIALISM AND NEOLIBERALISM:
● C olonialism and decolonisation have significantly shaped global history, influencing
the social, political, and economic conditions of both colonisers and colonised states.
This lesson aims to explore the meaning, types, and stages of colonialism, along with
related concepts like imperialism, new imperialism, and neo-colonialism. It also delves
into the historical context and consequences of decolonisation.
● The emergence of industrialism in 18th-century Europe created a need for raw
materials and markets, prompting European powers to expand their territories. This
expansion took the form of colonialism, where regions in Asia, Africa, and South
merica were divided among European countries through military conquest or political
A
control.
The quest for colonies led to intense competition among European powers, both
●
internationally and domestically. These rivalries often resulted in conflicts and wars.
For example, in India, British and French ambitions clashed, leading to a series of
battles. International events, like the Seven Years War (1756), directly impacted
colonial conflicts such as the Carnatic Wars in India.
● Ultimately, colonial rivalries, particularly in India, resulted in the dominance of the
British Empire. Similar struggles for control occurred in regions like the Middle East,
Africa, and Southeast Asia, marked by wars and diplomatic efforts among European
powers to secure territorial possessions.
COLONIALISM: CONTEXT AND FORMS
● C OLONIALISMA political and economic system wherea country extends control
beyond its borders for profit or power. Characterized by an unequal relationship
between coloniser and colonised. Colonisers exploit the colonised regions for
economic gain, often ignoring the interests of local populations.
● IMPERIALISMGoes beyond economic control to dominatecultural, social, and
political life in colonies. Rooted in ideologies like the "white man's burden," which
claimed Europeans had a duty to civilise colonised people. Justified exploitation and
racism, influencing post-colonial mindsets (e.g., obsession with fair skin in India).
● CULTURAL IMPACT AND POST-COLONIAL REFLECTION:Colonialism shaped
global perceptions of civilisation, culture, and identity. Post-colonial studies emerged
to critically assess the lingering effects of colonial rule. These reflections challenge
colonial narratives and seek to reclaim indigenous perspectives.
● NEW IMPERIALISM:Refers to late 19th and early 20th-century expansion by
Western Europe, the U.S., Russia, and Japan.Focused on Africa and Asia, marked by
aggressive territorial acquisition and dominance.
● FORMS OF COLONIALISM
❖ Settler colonialism:Large-scale migration for socialand economic benefit
(e.g., U.S., Australia).
❖ Exploitative colonialism:Limited settlement aimedat resource extraction or
labor exploitation.
❖ Surrogate colonialism:Support for the settlement of a foreign population in
another country.
❖ Internal colonialism:Unequal power and economic relationsbetween a
dominant center (metropolis) and a less developed periphery
NEO-COLONIALISM:
● A modern form of colonialism using economic and political influence rather than direct
control.Involves conditional aid and financial support to control other nations,
especially post-colonial states.
● ORIGINS OF THE TERM:Coined by Jean-Paul Sartre in1956. Popularized by
Ghana’s former president Kwame Nkrumah during Africa's decolonisation in the
1960s.
● CONTEXT:Emerged during the Cold War when superpowers(e.g., USA and USSR)
influenced decolonised Asian and African states to wage proxy wars.
● KEY DIFFERENCES FROM OLD COLONIALISM:Earlier colonialismused military
and political domination.Neo-colonialism uses globalisation, foreign aid, and
debt-based dependency to assert control.
● MECHANISMS OF CONTROL:Foreign capital, developmentalaid, and infrastructure
projects often come with strings attached. Multinational corporations are tools for
economic dominance. Countries like the United States and China use these methods
to expand influence in Asia and Africa.
DECOLONISATION
● T he First World War significantly weakened colonial empires as their resources and
manpower were heavily used in the conflict. This led to a growing recognition among
colonial powers that decolonisation was inevitable.
● A slow shift began from colonial domination towards ideals of freedom and
independence. The devastation of the Second World War further accelerated this shift,
as the global order was destabilised and the call for independence became stronger
across colonised nations.
● POST-WORLD WAR II IMPACT:The Second World War caused unprecedented
destruction in Europe and Asia, leaving behind political and economic chaos. In its
aftermath, colonial powers were too weakened to maintain control over their empires.
● The war created the conditions for widespread decolonisation, as it shattered the
legitimacy of colonial rule and encouraged nationalist movements in Asia, Africa, and
elsewhere.
● THE COLD WAR BEGINS:As World War II ended, the UnitedStates and the Soviet
Union emerged as the two global superpowers, dominating in military, economic, and
diplomatic spheres.
● While the U.S. experienced economic prosperity, the Soviet Union sought to expand
its influence. The ideological rivalry between these two powers—capitalism versus
communism—led to the Cold War, a period of geopolitical tension from 1947 to 1991.
● G LOBAL DIVISION DURING THE COLD WAR:The Cold War divided the world into
three ideological blocs. The "First World" included industrialized democracies like the
U.S., Europe, and Japan.
● The "Second World" consisted of communist nations led by the Soviet Union. The
"Third World" comprised the rest of the world—mostly newly independent nations
emerging from colonial rule—who often became arenas for proxy conflicts between
the two superpowers.
NEO-COLONIALISM
CONCEPT:
● A fter independence, power in former colonies was often transferred not to the general
population, but to local elites.
● These elites inherited colonial structures like the army, police, judiciary, laws, and
bureaucracy.
● Decolonization was more a shift fromdirecttoindirectrule rather than complete
freedom.
● Despite constitutional independence and sovereignty, true autonomy was limited,
leading to the recognition ofneo-colonialism.
● Behind the appearance of political freedom, Western economic powers continued to
dominate indirectly.
● The root of this domination lay in the economic systems left behind by colonial powers
at the time of independence.
● Resources in the newly independent "Third World" countries remained largely under
the control of First World countries.
● Development aidemerged as the main instrument ofneo-colonial control.
TIED AID BY THE USA:
● D uring the Cold War, the US providedmilitary aidto newly independent countries to
help them combat internal communist movements.
● Examples include: Taiwan vs. China, South Korea vs. North Korea, South Vietnam vs.
North Vietnam
● As anti-communist allies, these countries also receivedeconomic aidfrom the US
(Chan, 1993).
● Initially, this aid wasuntied, meaning recipientcountries were not required to spend it
on US goods.
● By thelate 1950s, the US began increasingly offeringtied aid, requiring the aid to be
spent on US goods and services.
● B ilateral aid programs served dual purposes: (i) Redistributing US dollars to enable
foreign countries to purchase US exports; (ii) Securing military, political, and economic
advantages for the US globally
● In 1961, the US established the United States Agency for International Development
(USAID) to consolidate existing aid efforts.
● The US policy of aid-tying eventually influenced Europe and Japan to adopt similar
practices.
TIED AID BY INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND:
● T he International Monetary Fund (IMF) acted as a proxy for the US in its tied aid
strategy.
Developing countries began to borrow from the IMF in their pursuit of development.
● Decisions on which countries received aid were based largely on political and
ideological factors, not on developmental needs (Haynes, 2008).
● The IMF required aid-receiving countries to liberalize trade and payment systems.
● Its economic philosophy emphasized: (i) Free market forces; (ii)Minimal government
intervention; (iii)Opposition to policies such as price subsidies, rationing, and
protection of domestic industries, which were seen as market distortions.
IMPLICATIONS:
● T he IMF strategy resulted in the takeover of the domestically owned businesses by
their foreign competitors and devaluation raised the cost of living.
● Developing countries found that the IMF ordered them like debt slaves as their debt
kept them tied to their creditors. If they remain within the system, the debtor countries
were doomed to perpetual underdevelopment.
NEOLIBERALISM AND GLOBALISATION:
. H
1 ISTORICAL CONTEXT:
● The Third World debt crisis of the late 1970s set the stage for major global economic
shifts.
● The Reagan-Thatcher era of the 1980s promoted neo-liberal ideology.
● The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1989 marked the end of the Cold War and the
Second World.
● With the US as the sole superpower, it became increasingly difficult to envision
alternatives to capitalism (Dietrich, 2000).
● D uring this neo-liberal backlash, the World Bank and IMF blamed the debt crisis on
the inward-oriented, statist development strategies of the 1950s and 1960s (Deacon,
2007).
● By the 1990s, neoliberal globalization was universally promoted as the only viable
path forward.
2. CONCEPTS:
● Neoliberalism emphasizes minimal government interference and views the market as
the sole social regulator.
● In economic terms, globalization reflects the growing acceptance of free markets and
private enterprise as key drivers of economic activity (Ghai, 1997).
● The World Bank and IMF promoted the Structural Adjustment Program (SAP), making
loans conditional on: (i) Reducing public spending; (ii) Balancing national budgets;
(iii) Encouraging private sector development, often through export-led growth
● Korten (1999) outlined core features of globalization:
❖ Global corporations control money, technology, and markets
❖ A common consumer culture drives a global quest for material gratification
❖ Corporations prioritize profitability, disregarding local or national consequences
❖ All relationships, personal and corporate, are market-defined
❖ There is no loyalty to place or community
● As a result:
❖ The global economy produces goods where costs are lowest
❖ Sells them where markets are most profitable
❖ Moves profits to countries with the lowest taxes
3. IMPLICATIONS:
a. Destabilisation of government
b. Disempowerment of People
c. Increase in Poverty
d. Reduction of Welfare
e. Civil wars
f. Terrorism
g. Emergence of global middle class
h. Newly industrialized country
i. Anti-global protests
j. American financial crisis
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