Structure of Atom – Notes
Page 1: Introduction to Atomic Structure
Definition of Atom: The smallest particle of an element which retains its chemical identity
during a reaction.
Early Ideas of Atom:
- Democritus (400 BC) – proposed that matter is made up of indivisible particles called
'atomos'.
- Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1803):
1. Matter consists of tiny indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical in mass & properties.
3. Atoms of different elements differ in mass & properties.
4. Atoms combine in simple whole numbers to form compounds.
5. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Limitations of Dalton’s Theory:
- Discovery of subatomic particles showed atom is divisible.
- Isotopes & isobars contradicted Dalton’s statement that atoms of same element are identical.
Page 2: Discovery of Subatomic Particles
Electron (J. J. Thomson, 1897):
- Discovered using cathode ray tube experiment.
- Negatively charged, Charge = -1.6 × 10■¹■ C, Mass = 9.1 × 10■³¹ kg.
Proton (E. Goldstein, 1886):
- Discovered via canal rays (anode rays).
- Positively charged, Charge = +1.6 × 10■¹■ C, Mass ≈ 1.67 × 10■²■ kg.
Neutron (James Chadwick, 1932):
- Neutral particle inside nucleus.
- Mass ≈ proton, Provides stability to nucleus.
Page 3: Atomic Models
Thomson’s Model (1898) – "Plum Pudding Model": Atom is a positively charged sphere with
electrons embedded.
Failure: Could not explain scattering of α–particles.
Rutherford’s Model (1911) – "Nuclear Model":
- Gold Foil Experiment → most α–particles passed undeflected, few deflected.
- Conclusions: Nucleus is dense, small, positively charged; electrons revolve around nucleus.
- Limitation: Could not explain stability of atom.
Bohr’s Model (1913):
1. Electrons revolve in fixed circular orbits (energy levels).
2. Energy remains constant in an orbit.
3. Energy absorbed/emitted only during transition.
- Success: Explained hydrogen spectrum.
- Limitation: Failed for multi-electron atoms.
Page 4: Quantum Mechanical Model
Schrödinger (1926) developed wave equation for electrons.
Dual Nature: Electrons show wave + particle nature (de Broglie).
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle: Exact position & momentum of electron cannot be
known simultaneously.
Orbitals: Regions of maximum probability of finding electron.
- s → spherical, p → dumbbell, d → double dumbbell, f → complex.
Quantum Numbers:
1. Principal (n): Shell/energy level.
2. Azimuthal (l): Subshell (s=0, p=1, d=2, f=3).
3. Magnetic (m): Orientation of orbital.
4. Spin (s): Spin of electron (+½ or –½).
Page 5: Electronic Configuration & Summary
Electronic Configuration: Arrangement of electrons in orbitals.
Rules:
- Aufbau Principle: Lower energy orbitals fill first.
- Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: No two electrons have same 4 quantum numbers.
- Hund’s Rule: Orbitals fill singly first with parallel spins.
Examples:
- H: 1s¹
- He: 1s²
- O: 1s² 2s² 2p■
- Na: 1s² 2s² 2p■ 3s¹
Summary: Atom = nucleus (p+n) + electrons in orbitals. Models evolved from Dalton →
Thomson → Rutherford → Bohr → Quantum Mechanical Model. Presently accepted: Quantum
Mechanical Model.
