BASIC ELECTRONICS

for the Petroleum Industry

FOURTH EDITION
1,000 TURNS 100 TURNS

100 TURNS 10 TURNS

1,000 10
ES = × 110 ES = × 110
110 V AC 100 110 V AC 100
= 1,100 × VOLTS = 11 VOLTS

PRIMARY SECONDARY

SECONDARY PRIMARY
A. Step-Up Transformer B. Step-Down Transformer

ELECTRIC
MOTOR

CONNECTING WIRES
BARE OF INSULATION
AND TOUCHING AT
SHORT THIS POINT
CIRCUIT
TRANSFORMERS
+ –

BATTERY
TRANSFORMERS

+
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0

PETROLEUM EXTENSION SERVICE • THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN

 Basic Electronics
for the Petroleum Industry
FOURTH EDITION

written by

Will L. McNair

edited by

Ron Baker

published by

The University of Texas

Continuing Education
PETROLEUM EXTENSION SERVICE
Austin, Texas

2004
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

McNair, Will L.
Basic electronics for the petroleum industry / Will L. McNair
p. cm.
ISBN 0-88698-199-9
1. Electronics. 2. Electricity. I. Title.
TK7816.M385 2003
621’.381—dc21

2003005019

© 2004 by The University of Texas at Austin

All rights reserved.
First Edition published 1943. Fourth Edition 2004
Printed in the United States of America

This book or parts thereof may not be reproduced in any

form without permission of Petroleum Extension Service,
The University of Texas at Austin.

Brand names, company names, trademarks, or other

identifying symbols appearing in illustrations or text are
used for educational purposes only and do not constitute
an endorsement by the author or publisher.

The University of Texas at Austin is an equal opportunity

institution. No state tax funds were used to print or mail this
publication.

Catalog No. 1.41040

ISBN 0-88698-199-9
 Contents

Figures vii

Tables xi

Preface xiii

Acknowledgments xv

About the Author xvii

Chapter 1. Basic Mathematics 1

Addition 1
Subtraction 2
Multiplication 2
Division 3
Exponents 3
Equations 5
Subscripts 7
Binary Numbers 8
Octal Numbers 8
Hexadecimal Numbers 9
Binary Coded Decimal Code 9
American Standard Code for Information Interchange 9
Gray Code 10
Review Questions 10

Chapter 2. The Nature of Electricity 11

Atoms 11
Voltage 12
Current 13
Resistance 13
Introduction to Ohm’s Law 14
Introduction to Power Law 14
Review Questions 14

Chapter 3. Galvanic Cells and Batteries 15

Galvanic Cells 15
Batteries 15
Review Questions 18

Chapter 4. Ohm’s and Power Laws 19

Circuits 19
Ohm’s Law 19
Power Law 19
Ohm’s Law Examples 20
Simple Circuits 21
Series Circuits 22

iii
 Parallel Circuits 23
Malfunctioning Circuits 24
Switches in Circuits 25
Review Questions 26

Chapter 5. Conductors and Insulators 27

Characteristics of Materials 27
Current-Carrying Capacity of Conductors 28
Relationship Equation 30
Review Questions 32

Chapter 6. Properties and Characteristics of Magnetism 33

Magnets and Magnetism 33
History 33
Earth as a Giant Magnet 33
Magnetic Properties 34
Nature of Magnetism 34
Types of Magnets 36
Current and Magnetic Fields 38
Coils 40
Magnetic Circuits 41
Review Questions 45

Chapter 7. Induction Principles and AC Generators 47

Alternating Current 47
Direct Current 47
Electric and Magnetic Fields 47
Electromagnetic Induction 48
Alternating Current Properties 53
Review Questions 55

Chapter 8. Electrical Components, Impedance, and Power 57

Resistors 57
Potentiometers 63
Inductors and Inductance 66
Capacitors and Capacitance 68
Impedance 77
Power 78
Review Questions 80

Chapter 9. Electromagnetic Equipment 81

Transformers 81
Filter Choke Coils 89
Induction Motors 89
Power Factor 96
Solenoids 100
Electromechanical Relays 101
Review Questions 101

Chapter 10. Semiconductors and Applications 103

Basic Semiconductor Theory 103
Semiconductor Diodes 106
Bipolar Transistors 110

iv
 Field-Effect Transistors 117
MOSFETs 119
Solid-State Designations 119
Integrated Circuits 119
Review Questions 126

Chapter 11. Digital Logic 129

Binary Numbers 129
Digital Logic 132
Solid-State Logic Gates 137
Sequential Logic and Memory Devices 140
Flip-Flop Circuits 141
Logic Counter Circuits 147
Encoders and Decoders 150
Storage of Binary Information 152
Review Questions 152

Chapter 12. Electrical Test Instruments 153

d’Arsonval Movements 153
Multimeters 159
Oscilloscopes 161
Additional Test and Measuring Instruments 170
Test Instrument Overview 171
Review Questions 171

Chapter 13. Troubleshooting Techniques and Safety 173

Recordkeeping 173
Familiarity with Equipment 174
Operation and Maintenance Manuals 174
Test Instruments 175
Troubleshooting Steps 177
Circuit Testing 180
Troubleshooting Intermittent Malfunctions 181
Field Troubleshooting 181
Remote Terminal Units 181
Field Troubleshooting Instruments 182
Shop Troubleshooting 182
Electrical Safety 183
Safety Summary 189
Review Questions 189

Glossary 191

v
 Figures

1. Beam balance balanced by two 2-pound weights. 5

2. A copper atom has 29 electrons. 12
3. Battery with a conductor connects to + and – terminals. Note direction of electron flow
and hole flow. 13
4. Circuit diagram showing current flowing from + to – terminal of battery. 13
5. Four batteries connected in series. Note that current flows in only one path. 16
6. Three batteries connected in parallel. Note that current flows through two paths, one on the battery’s
positive side, and the other on the negative side. 17
7. Ohm’s law wheel 19
8. Power law wheel 20
9. A simple circuit with a battery, lamp, and copper wire 21
10. A series circuit 22
11. Parallel circuits 23
12. Short circuit 25
13. Open circuit 25
14. Simple switch 25
15. Switch in a simple circuit 25
16. Switch in a series circuit 25
17. Switches in a parallel circuit 26
18. Four types of switches 26
19. Examples of insulated wires 27
20. Earth’s poles and magnetic lines of force 33
21. Magnetic lines of force 34
22. A. Magnetic molecules arranged in a random manner. B. Magnetic molecules arranged in an
organized manner 34
23. A piece of soft iron placed near a magnet 35
24. The position of a compass needle in relation to north and south poles of magnets 36
25. Reaction between two magnets 36
26. Various shapes of magnets 37
27. Proper storage of magnets 38
28. A and B. Effect of current flow on a compass 38
29. A. Two parallel conductors carrying current that flows in the same direction. B. Parallel conductors
with current flowing in opposite directions. 39
30. Two conductors at right angles to each other; current flow in each conductor tries to move the
conductors into a parallel position. 39
31. Current flow in a loop; note north and south poles 40
32. Magnetic field around a loosely-wound coil 40
33. Magnetic field around a tightly-wound coil 40
34. Right-hand rule for coils 41
35. Series circuits; magnetic circuit (top) with Rowland’s law and electrical circuit (bottom) with Ohm’s
law 42
36. Magnetizing force vs flux density for three materials 43
37. Magnetic parallel circuit and equivalent parallel electric circuit 44
38. Electromagnet 44
39. A-D. Electric fields and charges 48

vii
 40. Inducing voltage by moving the conductor 49
41. Inducing voltage by moving the magnet 50
42. Inducing voltage in a rotating coil 51
43. Coil connected to a generator 51
44. Voltage waveforms produced by a rotating coil 52
45. Three-phase voltage 54
46. Two types of resistors and the symbol for a resistor 57
47. Resistor color code 58
48. Relative resistor sizes in various power ratings 62
49. Series and parallel resistors 63
50. AC voltage and current relationship in resistive circuits 63
51. Types of potentiometers 64
52. Schematic symbols of a potentiometer and a rheostat 64
53. Multiple-stacked potentiometers 65
54. Inducing voltages in inductive circuits 66
55. The retarding effect of inductance in a circuit 67
56. Waveforms of current values and voltage values in an inductive AC circuit 67
57. Coil-wrapped capacitor 68
58. Rectangular capacitor plates 68
59. Variable capacitor 68
60. Charging and discharging a capacitor 69
61. Relative size and voltage ratings of capacitors 72
62. Two types of electrolytic capacitors 72
63. Color code chart for capacitors 75
64. Time delay using capacitors 75
65. Graph of current values and voltage values in a capacitive alternating current circuit 76
66. Single-phase AC induction motor 77
67. Vector diagram of an R, H, and C circuit to determine impedance 77
68. Combining R, H, C vectors into impedance 78
69. Vector representation of Watts and VAR 79
70. Use of transformers in a distribution system 81
71. Induction of current in a secondary circuit 82
72. An iron ring provides a path for magnetic lines. 83
73. Using coils to intensify the magnetic field 83
74. Laminated transformer core 83
75. Core with coils in place 83
76. Examples of transformer windings 84
77. Variable voltage transformers 85
78. Current and voltage relationship 85
79. Identification of transformer terminals (electrical) 87
80. Identification of transformer terminals (electronic) 87
81. Power transformer 88
82. A filter choke, two types of transformers, and a schematic diagram for the audio output
transformer 89
83. AC squirrel-cage induction motor 90
84. Squirrel-cage rotor 90
85. A squirrel-cage induction motor’s stator 91
86. Stator core of an induction motor 91
87. Partially-wound stator for a squirrel-cage motor 91
88. A typical squirrel-cage rotor, or armature 92
89. Revolving magnetic fields in the stator of a three-phase induction motor 93
90. Three-phase currents in the armature of an induction motor 93

viii
 91. Speed-torque specifications for NEMA designs A, B, C, and D 6-pole motors 96
92. Connections for determining the power factor of an induction motor circuit 97
93. Power triangle for the circuit in figure 92 98
94. Power factor improvement with an increased load on the motor shown in figure 92 100
95. Solenoid valve 101
96. Single-pole, single-throw (SPST) relay 101
97. Double-pole, double-throw (DPDT) relay 101
98. Lattice structure of semiconductor crystals 103
99. Lattice structure of n-type material 104
100. Lattice structure of p-type material 104
101. Movement of free holes through semiconductor crystal 105
102. Electron flow in n-type crystal 105
103. Hole flow in p-type crystal 106
104. Interaction of free electrons and holes at a p-n junction 106
105. Effect of reverse bias on a p-n junction 107
106. Forward bias of a p-n junction 107
107. Symbols for diodes 107
108. Forward-reverse characteristics of a diode 108
109. Check valve analogy of a diode 108
110. Power rectifier 109
111. Zener diode characteristic 110
112. Npn transistor 111
113. Pnp transistor 111
114. Npn transistor biasing 112
115. Pnp transistor biasing 113
116. IGBT power transistor 115
117. SCR construction and terminals 116
118. Power SCRs 116
119. SCR Characteristics p-n junction field-effect transistor 116
120. P-n junction field-effect transistor 117
121. Source-drain current characteristics as a function of gate bias 118
122. MOSFET construction 119
123. Operational amplifier circuit diagram 121
124. Symbol for an op amp 121
125. Op amp with feedback resistor 121
126. Op amp differentiating circuit 122
127. Op amp as an integrating amplifier 122
128. Half-wave transformer-rectifier 122
129. Transformer center-tap full wave rectifier 123
130. Full-wave rectifier with LC filter 123
131. Full-wave rectifier with RLC filter 124
132. Rectifier bridge full-wave rectifier 124
133. Zener regulated circuit 125
134. DC regulators 125
135. Sophisticated adjustable voltage regulator 126
136. Three-phase half-wave rectifier 127
137. Printed wiring board voltage regulator 127
138. Logic-relay logic symbols 136
139. Diode AND circuit 137
140. Diode OR circuit 138
141. Transistor AND circuit 138
142. Transistor OR circuit 139

ix
143. Transistor NOT circuit 139
144. Transistor NOR circuit 140
145. Exclusive OR circuit 140
146. An npn transistor flip-flop circuit 141
147. Flip-flop with 3-trigger inputs 142
148. Frequency dividing flip-flops 143
149. A latch circuit and logic diagram 144
150. Schmidt trigger circuit and waveform 146
151. Differentiating circuit and waveform 146
152. Diode pulse selection technique 147
153. Binary counter using flip-flops and gates 147
154. Logic gates forming a half adder 148
155. A full adder gate arrangement 149
156. An adder used to add 4-digit binary numbers 149
157. Diagram of an encoder 150
158. A decoder for convening binary numbers to decimal digits 151
159. Simple electroscope 153
160. Example of a d’Arsonval meter movement 154
161. A simple single-scale voltmeter 155
162. An analog voltmeter with selector switch for choosing any of five voltage ranges 155
163. Analog current meter circuit 155
164. An ammeter arrangement with five ranges 156
165. A simple form of ohmmeter 157
166. A multi-range ohmmeter 157
167. AC voltmeter with rectifiers and range switch 158
168. Sine wave after full-wave rectification 158
169. Sine wave after half-wave rectification 158
170. Arrangement for measuring alternating current 159
171. Analog multimeter 159
172. Testing field-effect transistor (FET) circuits with a VOM 159
173. Digital multimeter 160
174. Digital multimeter displays 160
175. Dual-channel oscilloscope 161
176. Principal parts of a typical cathode ray tube 162
177. Positioning controls for an oscilloscope 163
178. Minimum number of special circuits in an oscilloscope 164
179. A sawtooth wave of the sort used to drive the horizontal deflection amplifier 165
180. Pattern of sine wave on oscilloscope screen 166
181. Sine wave of 15 volts value 167
182. Sawtooth pulse 168
183. Dual-trace scope-meter 169
184. Typical screen display of dual-trace scope-meter 169
185. Connecting scope-meter to computer 169
186. Digital current meter 170
187. Circuit diagram of a type 741 op amp with a typical package format 173
188. A 1950s-era modular device. Note the vacuum tubes and large relays. 174
189. Printed circuit card containing integrated circuits and numerous discrete components 174
190. Manufacturer’s instruction manuals 175
191. A troubleshooting chart 176
192. A step-by-step troubleshooting table 177
193. Diagram of test points 178
194. Flow diagram for troubleshooting generator controls 179

x
 Tables

1. Numbers Arranged in Vertical Columns of Hundreds, Tens, and Ones 1

2. Decimal and Binary Equivalent Numbers 8
3. Binary Number in Groups of Three (Top) and Decimal Equivalents (Bottom) 8
4. Hexadecimal and Binary Equivalent Numbers and Letters 9
5. BCD, Binary, and Decimal Equivalent Numbers 9
6. ASCII Characters and the Equivalent Binary Numbers 10
7. Gray Code Numbers with Equivalent Binary Numbers 10
8. Current-Carrying Capacity of Copper Wire 29
9. Resistivities of Conductors (per mil-foot at 200°C) 30
10. Temperature Coefficients of Conductors (per mil-foot at 20°C or 68°F) 30
11. Characteristics of Standard-Gauge Copper Wire Conductor 31
12. Preferred Values of Resistors 60
13. Prefixes for SI Units 61
14. Dielectric Constants 71
15. Dielectric Strengths 71
16. NEMA Specified Motor Torque Values 95
17. Trigonometric Functions 99
18. Truth Table for C = AB 134
19. Truth Table for D = ABC 134
20. Truth Table for D = A + B + C 135
21. Buffer Gate 135
22. AND Gate 135
23. OR Gate 137
24. Inverter (NOT) Gate 137
25. NAND Gate 137
26. NOR Gate 137
27. Flip-Flop Truth Table 143
28. Body Response to Various Current Levels 184
29. Arc Flash Energy 185

xi
 Preface

Basic Electronics for the Petroleum Industry begins with simple electrical concepts and moves to more com-
plex topics as the book progresses. This book is the outgrowth of a series of editions that began in 1965
and was last updated in 1980. It has evolved from a single book to individual units, and is now back to a
single book that reflects current technology.
A study of basic electronics is best done with a combination of text materials, self-study, classroom
study, and lab exercises. Creative work with construction of these circuits enhances the student’s compre-
hension and practical knowledge of electricity. A number of electronic stores can provide components,
integrated circuit chips, wiring boards, and other hardware to convert principles into reality.

Will L. McNair, P.E.

xiii
 Acknowledgments

Over 35 years of contributions by various individuals and organizations have gone into this book. Former
contributors to earlier editions include George L. Coenen, PETEX electronics instructor, Bruce Whalen,
PETEX publications coordinator, David R. Skinner, consultant for PETEX, and representatives from com-
panies that include Amerada Hess Corporation, Amoco, Atlantic Richfield, ITT Snyder, Shell Oil, Phillips
Petroleum, Mobil Oil, and Continental Oil Company, some of which no longer exist at all or have changed
names because of mergers.
Publication of this most recent book was achieved under the guidance of the publication staff of
PETEX, including managing editor, Kathryn Roberts; layout artist, Debbie Caples; and proofreader, Doris
Dickey; as well as the guidance and encouragement of PETEX director Ron Baker and Kilgore training
manager, Bill Brantley.
Particular recognition is given to Sue Marie Myers who worked diligently in preparing the manuscript,
organizing the book’s structure, and performing initial editing of the work from rough notes and markups.

xv
 About The Author

Will L. McNair is a graduate electrical engineer from Mississippi State University with over 20 years of
experience as a design and development engineer with companies that include General Electric, Varo, and
Baylor Company. After his experience with these companies, he has been a consultant and technical trainer
for companies worldwide, focusing on electrical applications for the petroleum industry. He has taught
electrical and electronic courses in seminars and schools to over 5,000 personnel within the past 20 years.
These subjects ranged from basic electricity to sophisticated solid-state topics such as SCR motor drives,
variable frequency drives, programmable logic controllers, SCADA, and many others.
During this period, he headed the Energy Training Division at Texas A&M University for two years,
has written three other textbooks and been published in various industry magazines, including the Oil
& Gas Journal, World Oil, Drilling Contractor, and others. He has contributed to several patents related to
solid-state technology and developed several advanced products for the oil and gas industry.
He is a registered engineer in Texas and member of IEEE, TSPE, Society of Petroleum Engineers,
IADC, NFPA, and ISA.

xvii
 1
Basic Mathematics

To understand electrical relationships in circuits and digits, or numbers, in this column are 10 or multiples
components, you must also understand mathematics. of 10, as 20, 30, 40, and so on up to 90. The next col-
Mathematics—math, for short—helps you visual- umn to the left is the hundreds column. The digits
ize how electricity and electrical circuits work. The in this column are 100 or multiples of 100 up to 900.
math that follows is basic and is offered mainly as This columnar arrangement continues to the
a refresher to those who may be out of practice in left in thousands, ten thousands, millions, billions,
working with numbers. and so on. For example, the number 8,649 can also
be expressed as having nine ones, four tens, six hun-
dreds, and eight thousands.
ADDITION
Regardless of the sizes of the numbers, to add
Addition unites, or puts together, two or more things
them correctly, the last digit to the right in each
that are often represented by a symbol called a num-
number should be placed directly under the other
ber. (Numbers are also called integers and digits.) The
in a vertical column. For example, to add 14, 7, 121,
number obtained by adding two or more numbers
and 2,390, they should be arranged as—
is the sum, or total. The character for addition is the
14
plus sign (+).
7
The first step in addition is to arrange the num-
121
bers to be added in vertical columns, such as those
2,390.
in Table 1. In numbers with more than one digit, the
column on the right is the ones column. This column Notice that the numbers line up—are flush—
contains a one-digit number: 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on up with the right-hand ones column. Put another way,
to 9. The next column to the left of the ones column the numbers are flush right. Also notice that as long
is the tens column. It is the tens column because the as the numbers are flush right, they may be written
in any order. For example, the previous four numbers
TABLE 1 can be written as—
Numbers Arranged in Vertical Columns 7
of Hundreds, Tens, and Ones 2,390
Hundreds Tens Ones 14
121
100 10 1 or in any other order and the correct answer can be
200 20 2 obtained. Remember, however, that the numbers
must be flush with the right-hand column.
300 30 3
Always begin by adding the numbers in the
400 40 4 right-hand, ones column first. If the sum can be ex-
500 50 5 pressed by one digit, from 0 to 9, write it under the
600 60 6 column. If, on the other hand, the sum contains more
than one digit, (10 or more), write the right-hand
700 70 7
digit of the sum under the column added, and add
800 80 8 (or carry) the remaining digits to the next column
900 90 9 on the left. For example, if the sum of the column is
23, write 3 under the column, and add 2 to the sum

1
2 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

of the digits of the next column to the left. The com- check the answer by adding the remainder to the
mon expression for this action is, “put down 3 and subtrahend. In this case, 28 + 78 = 106.
carry the 2.”
As an example, add 8,145, 234, and 756. The
MULTIPLICATION
solution is—
8,145 Multiplication is adding one of two given numbers
234 as many times as there are units in the other number.
+ 756 Multiplication shortens the process of addition. Thus,
multiplying 3 times 8 gives an answer equal to the sum
9,135.
of 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3, which is 24. The number
In this case, 5, 4, and 6 add up to 15; so, write 5 under the
that is multiplied, or increased, is the multiplicand. The
ones column and carry, or add, 1 to the tens column. In
multiplier is the number by which the multiplicand is
the tens column, 1, 4, 3, and 5 are 13. Write 3 under the
multiplied. It indicates how many times the multi-
tens column and add 1 to the hundreds column. Thus,
plicand is to be increased. Thus, 451 times 25 means
1, 1, 2, and 7 are 11. Write 1 under the hundreds column
to add 451 to itself 25 times. The result obtained by
and add 1 to the thousands column. Finally, add 1 to the
multiplying one number by another is the product.
thousands column to obtain the correct answer of 9,135.
The multiplication sign (×) is called the times
sign. For example, 3 × 4 is read as 3 times 4. When
SUBTRACTION letters or symbols are used in an equation, the mul-
Subtraction is removing, or taking, one number from tiplication sign is often omitted. For example, if I is
another number. The number that is subtracted is the multiplied by R, it is usually written as IR instead of
subtrahend, and the number from which it is taken is I × R. Also, sometimes the symbol • is used between
the minuend. The number that represents the result the multiplicand and the multiplier. For example, 2
of subtraction is the remainder. The minus sign (–) × 2 can also be written as 2 • 2. Using • instead of ×
indicates subtraction. As an example, subtract 43 avoids confusion when an unknown quantity in an
from 576. This action can also be stated as 576 minus equation is indicated by the letter x. For instance,
43, or 576 – 43. In any case, the solution is— while x × 2 might be confusing, especially when writ-
576 minuend ing it with pen or pencil on paper, x • 2 will not be.
– 43 subtrahend As an example problem, multiply 232 by 3.
The solution is—
533 remainder.
232 multiplicand
Notice again that the numbers line up (are flush) with
× 3 multiplier
the right-hand ones column.
If a number in the subtrahend is larger than the 696 product.
number in the minuend, then an operation termed In multiplication, as in addition, numbers must
borrowing occurs. For example, subtract 78 from 106. sometimes be carried to obtain the correct answer.
The solution is— For example, what is 396 × 822? The solution is—
106 396
– 78 × 852
28. 792
In this case, to subtract the 8 in the ones column, 1 is bor- 1980
rowed (taken from) 10, which leaves 9. The 1 in front of 3168
the 6 makes it 16. Then, 8 from 16 is 8, and 7 from 9 is 2. 337,392.
Thus, the answer is 28. This operation can be shown as—
In this case, 2 × 396 is 792, 5 × 396 is 1,980, and 8 ×
109 16 396 is 3,168. Adding the products of the individual
– 78 numbers yields a final product of 337,392. Also, no-
28. tice how the products line up. For example, the 0 in
Cross out the 10 to leave 9, and put 1 in front of 6 to 1,980 is placed under the 9 in 792, and the 8 in 3,168
make it 16. Incidentally, when subtracting, you can is placed under the 8 in 1,980. Proper alignment is
essential to obtain the correct answer.
Basic Mathematics 3

DIVISION solve the example problem of long division. First,

Division is the reverse of multiplication. It finds how determine how many times 8 goes into 42. Because
many times one number is contained in another 8 × 5 is 40, perhaps 5 is the first number in the quo-
number. For example, to divide 8 by 4 means to find tient. However, 5 × 86 = 430, which is larger than 428.
how many times 4 is contained in 8, or, put another This larger number is unacceptable because we must
way, what number is multiplied by 4 to result in 8? subtract this number from the first three numbers in
In this case, the number is 2. the dividend. So, 4 is the first number in the quotient
When the division sign (÷) appears between because 4 × 86 = 344. Next, determine that 428 – 344
two numbers, it indicates that the first number is to = 84 and bring down the 9 from the dividend. Eight
be divided by the second. For example, 16 ÷ 4 means goes into 84 nine times, and 9 × 86 = 774, which is
to divide 16 by 4, or, to find the number that, if mul- written below 849. Now, subtract 774 from 849, which
tiplied by 4, equals 16. The answer is 4. The number is 75. Bring down the 9, determine that 8 goes into 75
to be divided is the dividend, and the number that eight times, and multiply 8 times 86 to come up with
does the dividing is the divisor. The result obtained 688. Finally, subtract 688 from 759, which yields 71.
by division is the quotient. Thus, in long division, 42,899 divided by 86
Another way of writing numbers to be divided results in a quotient of 498 with a remainder of 71. A
is to use the sign , wherein the dividend is to the remainder results when one number (86 in this case)
right of the , the divisor is inside the , and the does not divide evenly into another number (42,899
quotient on top, as in in this case). The remainder can be expressed as a
3 fraction so that the answer to the example is 498⁷¹⁄₈₆.
6 18. The remainder can also be expressed as a decimal
number. Simply divide 71 by 86 to obtain the decimal
This format reads, “18 divided by 6 yields 3,” or “6
number 0.8256. So, another way of expressing the
into 18 is 3.” You can check the answer by multiplying
answer is to write 498.8256, which, incidentally, is
the quotient by the divisor; if it equals the dividend,
how most hand-held calculators express the solu-
then it is correct. In this example, 3 × 6 = 18.
tion, although perhaps to more decimal places, as
As another example, divide 345 by 3, which, re-
in 498.82558.
member, is another way of determining what number
As you just read, numbers in fractional form,
times 3 equals 345. The answer is 345 (the dividend)
such as ²⁵⁄₅, also indicate division. This fraction is the
÷ 3 (the divisor) = 115 (the quotient). Check the an-
same as writing 25 ÷ 5. In the fraction, the dividend 25
swer by multiplying the quotient 115 by the divisor
is the denominator and the divisor 5 is the numerator.
3, which equals the dividend 345. This problem is an
The solution, or quotient, is 5.
example of short division. It is called short division
because one number, 3 in this case, goes into the other
number, 345 in this case, in one simple step. EXPONENTS
On the other hand, long division requires more In electricity and electronics, very large numbers and
calculation. For example, divide 42,899 by 86. The very small decimal fractions are sometimes used.
solution is— These numbers and fractions can be expressed more
498 compactly as powers of 10. For example, 1,000 can be
86 42899 expressed as 103, which is a short way of writing 10
– 344 × 10 × 10. (10 × 10 = 100; and 100 × 10 = 1,000.) Thus,
849 when a number is raised to a power, it is a way of
– 774 stating that the number is multiplied by itself by the
number it is raised to.
759
The number to which a number is raised is an
– 688
exponent. For example, the 4 in 104 is the exponent.
71.
Another way to state it is, “10 raised to the fourth
Because long division requires more steps, it power.” And, an even shorter way is, “10 to the 4.”
has made a modern hand-held calculator a must- However, a number raised to the power of 2 is usu-
have item. However, as a review, let’s manually ally stated as the number squared. For example, 102
4 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

is usually stated as, “10 squared,” and not, “10 to the For example, let’s multiply 1,000 by 100. Rather than
second power,” or “10 to the 2.” Also, any number carrying out conventional multiplication, it is easier
raised to 3 is usually stated as the number cubed. For to use exponents and add them. Thus—
example, 103 is usually read as, “10 cubed.” 1,000 × 100 = 103 × 102
If a number has no written exponent, an expo- 103 + 2 = 105
nent of 1 is understood—that is, 10 = 101, for example. 105 = 100,000, or 1 followed by
The number 100 can be represented as 10 x 10, or 102; five zeros.
1,000,000 as 106. Notice that 1,000,000 is 1 followed
Similarly, to multiply 1,200 by 210—
by 6 zeros and that it can also be written as 106. Thus,
1,200 × 210 = (12 × 102) × (21 × 101)
the exponent indicates how many zeros the number
= (12 × 21) × 103
contains. For example, 108 is a short way of writing
= 252 × 103
the number 1 followed by 8 zeros, or 100,000,000.
= 252,000 (252 followed by
Finally, be aware that any number raised to the 0
three zeros).
power is equal to 1. Thus, 100 equals 1, as does 1,0000.
Raising a number to a negative power, such
Division of Exponents
as 10 , is a short way to state a fraction or decimal
–1

of the number. For example, 10–1 is the same as ¹⁄₁₀ To divide exponents, subtract them. This statement
or 0.1. (Incidentally, when writing decimals, math- in equation form is—
ematical convention requires placing a zero in front am ÷ an = am–n (Eq. 2)
of the decimal place. Thus, .1 is always written as
0.1.) Other examples of numbers raised to negative where
powers are 10–2, which is the same as ¹⁄₁₀₀ or 0.01; and a = base number,
10–3, which is the same as ¹⁄₁₀₀₀ or 0.001. Notice that m, n = exponents.
10–3 equals ¹⁄₁₀₀₀, which is 1 over 1,000 or 1 followed For example, divide 1,000,000 by 1,000—
by three zeros. The exponent indicates the number 1,000,000 ÷ 1,000 = 106 – 103
followed by the same number of zeros in the fraction. = 106–3
For example, 10–6 is the same as ¹⁄₁₀₀₀₀₀₀. However, in = 103
a decimal, the exponent reflects the number of places = 1,000, or 1 followed by 3
the number is carried to. For example, 10–6 is 0.000001, zeros.
or the decimal point followed by 6 numbers, only five Similarly, to divide 252,000 by 210—
of which are zeros.
252,000 = 252 × 103
Numbers besides 10 can also be written more 210 21 × 101
compactly by using decimal points and exponents.
= 252 × 10
2
The number 3,140,000, for example, is equal to 3.14 × 21
1,000,000. It is more compactly written as 3.14 × 106.
In this case, the decimal point is moved six places to = 252 × 102
21
the left, and the exponent of 10 is 6. Another example
= 12 × 102
is the decimal number 0.0002. This number is equal
= 1,200, or 12 followed by 2
to 2 × 0.0001, or 2 × 10–4. The decimal point is moved
zeros.
four places to the right, and the exponent of 10 is –4.

Raising to a Power
Multiplication of Exponents
To raise a number to a power using exponents,
To multiply exponents, add them. This statement in
multiply the exponents. This statement in equation
equation form is—
form is—
am × an = am + n (Eq. 1)
(am)n = am × n (Eq. 3)
where
a = base number where
m, n = exponents. a = base number
m, n = exponents.
Basic Mathematics 5

For example, to find the square of 100—

(100)2 = (102)2
= 102 × 2
= 104
= 10,000.

Extracting Roots
2-lb WEIGHT 2-lb WEIGHT
The root of a number is the opposite of raising a num-
ber to a power. For example, 92 is 81, and the square BEAM IS
HORIZONTAL
root of 81 is 9. To extract a root using exponents, OR BALANCED
divide the exponent by the index of the root to be
taken. The equation is—
Figure 1 Beam balance balanced by two 2-pound
n
am = am ÷ n (Eq. 4) weights.
where
a = base number following is not an equation: 2 + 3 ≠ 2 + 2. In other words,
m, n = exponents. 2 + 3 ≠ 2 + 2 means that 2 + 3 (5) is not equal to 2 + 2 (4).
For example, to find the square root of 10,000— Another symbol is ≈, which stands for approximately
equal to. For example, 0.0009 ≈ 0.001. In this case, 0.0009
2 2
10,000 = 104 is approximately equal to 0.001; rounding 0.0009 down
= 104÷2 to 0.001 makes it almost, but not quite, equal.
= 102
= 100. Use of Symbols in Equations
Although the text uses the symbol 2
to indicate Symbols, such as φ, or letters, such as x, are often used
a square root, usually the symbol is used alone in equations to represent numbers. Symbols and let-
(without the 2) to indicate a square root. For ex- ters make the equation more compact and easier to
ample, the square root of 16 is written as ₁₆. How- write. For example, in electrical work, a basic equa-
ever, to indicate other roots, such as cube root and tion is Ohm’s Law. This law equates current to the
fourth root, the symbol is used with the appropriate ratio of voltage and resistance. Thus, the equation
numbers. For example, the symbol for the cube root can be written as—
of a number is 3 . For the fourth root, the symbol Voltage (volts)
is 4 , and so on. Current (amperes) = . (Eq. 5)
Resistance (ohms)
This equation can, however, be written more com-
EQUATIONS pactly and easily by letting I represent current in
An equation is similar to a set of balanced scales (fig. amperes (amps), E represent voltage in volts, and R
1). Just as objects of equal weight balance a scale, for represent resistance in ohms. Now, the equation can
an equation to be an equation, it must also be in bal- be written as—
E
ance. That is, an equation states that one thing or a I = (Eq. 6)
group of things on one side of the equation is equal to R
where
another thing or another group of things on the other
side of the equation. For example, 2 + 3 = 1 + 4. This I = current, amperes
E = voltage, volts
equation states that 2 plus 3 is equal to (is the same
R = resistance, ohms.
thing as) 1 plus 4. It is a true equation because 2 + 3
= 5 and 1 + 4 = 5. The equation can also be written as Using symbols or letters also makes an equation
2 + 3 = 5, 1 + 4 = 5, or 5 = 5. fit not just one, but many situations. For instance, if
For an equation to be true, both sides must be George Ohm had written his equation as 2 amps = 10
equal in value. The symbol = means equal to. On the
volts
/5 ohms, the equation would be valid for only these
other hand, the symbol ≠ means not equal to. Thus, the values. That is, it would be valid only in dealing with
a circuit having 10 volts placed across a resistance
6 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

of 5 ohms. Only in that specific case would the cur- substituting the assumed values (the numbers), as 2
rent be equal to 2 amps. So, instead of using specific + 2 = 8/4 + 2, which solves as 4 = 2 + 2 and 4 = 4.
values, Ohm’s law uses letters, which can represent The second operation that can be used to rear-
any number or value. Equation 6, I = E/R, is a general range an equation is to subtract the same number or
equation because many sets of values—not just one value from both sides of the equation. Assume that A
set—can be used in the equation. = 3, B = 9, and C = 2. A basic equation can be stated in
Symbols or letters in an equation can stand for numbers or in letters. In numbers, let’s say it is 3 = ⁹⁄₃;
any number as long as the sum of the numbers on the in letters, let’s say it is A = B/A. The same value, 2 or C
left side of the equation equals the sum of the numbers in this case, can be subtracted from both sides, which
on the right side of the equation. Remember: an equa- results in 3 – 2 = ⁹⁄₃ – 2 and A – C = B/A – C. Collecting
tion is like a balance. One side must equal the other. the terms results in 1 = 3 – 2, which is 1 = 1. Substitut-
ing the values of A, B, and C in the symbolic equation,
Rearranging Equations the result is 3 – 2 = ⁹⁄₃ – 2, which also comes out to 1 =
Often, to solve an equation when the unknown value is 1. Again, because the same operation occurs on both
on the right side of the equal sign, it must be rearranged. sides of the equation, it is not destroyed.
For example, if 6 = ¹²/x, and you wish to know the value The third operation that can be used to rear-
of x, you must rearrange the equation so that x is on range an equation is to multiply both sides of the
the left side. The operation, in this case, is known as equation by the same number. Assume that A = 6, B
“solving for x.” When solved for x, the equation reads = 24, C = 4, and D = 2. A basic equation can be stated
as x = ¹²⁄₂. To understand how this rearrangement was in numbers as 6 = ²⁴⁄₄, or in abstract symbols as A =
achieved, consider that rearranging equations involves B
/C. Both sides can be multiplied by 2 or D, as in 6 ×
performing mathematical operations to both sides of the 2 = ²⁴⁄₄ × 2 or A × D = B/C × D. The terms collect as 12
equation. Several operations can be performed on an = 6 × 2 and 12 = 12. And, substituting the assumed
equation without destroying it, including addition, sub- values in the symbolic equation, the result is 6 × 2 =
traction, multiplication, and division. These operations ²⁴⁄₄ × 2, which comes out to 12 = 6 × 2 and 12 = 12.
move unknown factors to the left side of the equation Once again, the equation is not destroyed.
so that the equation can be easily solved. Also, keep The fourth operation that can be used to rear-
in mind that more than one operation is sometimes range an equation is to divide both sides of the equation
required to rearrange an equation. by the same number. Assume that A = 24, B = 4, C = 6,
The first operation that rearranges an equation and D = 2. A basic equation can be stated in numbers or
is adding the same number to both sides of it. To per- abstract symbols. In numbers it is 24 = 4 × 6; in symbols,
form the operation, assume that A = 2, B = 8, and C = it is A = BC. Both sides of the equation can be divided
4. A basic equation can be formed from the numbers by the same value. In this case, let’s say 2 or D. Dividing
by 2 or D works out to ²⁴ = ⁴ ⁶ in numbers and A/D =
×
or the letters, as 2 = ⁸⁄4 or A = B/C. Without destroying
the equation, the same value can be added to both BC
/D in symbols. Collecting the terms comes out to 12 =
sides, as 2 + 2 = ⁸⁄4 + 2 or A + A = B/C + A. Notice that ²⁴⁄ and 12 = 12. Substituting the assumed values in the
symbolic equation, the result is ²⁴  = ⁴ ⁶. Collecting the
×
the equation has not been invalidated because the
same number or letter is added to both sides of it. In terms comes out to 12 = ²⁴⁄, which is 12 = 12.
the first case, 2 is added to 2 on the left side of the So, to rearrange, or solve, equations, you can
equation and 2 is added to ⁸⁄4 on the right side of the move values from one side of the equation to the other.
equation. Similarly, in the second case, A is added to And, in some cases, you can leave out some of the
A on the left side of the equation and A is added to B/C steps. You can move a term from one side of the equa-
on the right side. Because the same operation—addi- tion to the other if you change the term’s sign. That is,
tion in this case—has been done to both sides of the if you move a positive (+) number from one side to the
equations, they are still valid. other, it becomes a negative (–) number. (In the same
The next step is to collect the terms, which means way, a negative number becomes a positive number.)
to perform the mathematical operations. So, in the To show this action, assume that A = 3, B = 5, C = 2,
first equation, 2 + 2 = 2 + 2, which is 4 = 4. In the second and D = 10. These numbers and symbols can be put
equation, 2A = B/C + A. Now, it is simply a matter of into equation form as 3 + 5 + 2 = 10 and A + B + C = D.
Basic Mathematics 7

In the numeric equation, let’s move +2 from equations, cross-multiply both sides of the equa-
the left to the right side, where it becomes –2. The tions to obtain 3 × (6 + 2) = 4 × (5 + 1) and A(D + 2)
equation now reads 3 + 5 = 10 – 2, which works out = C(B + 1). [Note that A(D + 2) is the same as A × (D
to 8 = 8. In the equation with symbols, let’s move +C + 2).] Collecting the terms results in 18 + 6 = 20 + 4,
to the other side, where it becomes –C. The equation which is 24 = 24. Similarly, substituting numbers for
then reads A + B = D – C. In both cases, we moved one the letters gives a result of 3(6 + 2) = 4(5 + 1), which
value from the left side to the right side and changed equals 3 × 8 = 4 × 6 to yield a final result of 24 = 24.
its sign from positive (+) to negative (–). Now, let’s As a final example of rearranging (solving)
add –2 to the numerical equation and –C to the sym- an equation, let’s look at Ohm’s Law, which, you
bol equation, as in 3 + 5 = 10 – 2, which works out to recall, in equation form is I = E/R. This equation can
8 = 8. In the equation with symbols it comes out as be solved for one unknown if two values are given.
A + B = D – C. When we substitute numbers for the Let’s say that E = 10 and R = 2. In this case, I = 10/2,
symbols, the result is 3 + 5 = 10 – 2 or 8 = 8. which equals 5 amps. However, if I = 2 and E = 10
Also, in equations that contain multiplication and and R is unknown, then the equation reads 2 = 10/R.
division, when you move a multiplied or divided term To determine R, the equation should be rear-
from one side to the other, you change the operation— ranged—that is, the equation needs to be solved
that is, if the equation contains division on the right side, for R. The first step is to multiply both sides of the
moving it to the left changes it to multiplication and vice equation by R to make it read R × I = E/R × R. Multiply-
versa. For example, assume that A = 2, B = 4, and C = 8. ing both sides of the equation by R allows the Rs on
Now suppose that AB = C. If we wish to solve for A, we the right side of the equation to cancel out. That is,
can move B to the right side, where it is divided into C. the R on the right is the same as R/1, so the equation
This operation makes the equation now appear as A = can now be written as R × I = E/R × R/1. The Rs cancel
C
/B. Substituting numbers for letters, the solution is 2 = each other, leaving the equation to read R × I = E (E
8
/4 or 2 = 2. The operation did not negate the equation. is the same as 1E). Finally, because R is the desired
Another short cut is cross-multiplying, whereby quantity, I is moved from the equation’s right side
a number is removed from the denominator of one to the left side. Recall that in the case of multiplica-
side of an equation and placed in the numerator of tion and division, moving an expression from one
the other side of the equation. Assume that A = 2, B side to the other of an equation changes the expres-
= 4, C = 3, and D = 6. The basic equation can be stated sion’s mathematical operation. That is, because I is
in numbers as 2/4 = 3/6 and in letters as A/B = C/D. We can multiplied on the left, moving it to the right means
now cross-multiply—that is, multiply the numerator it is divided. So, the equation finally reads as R = E/I.
by the denominator on each side of the equation. In other words, the equation has been solved for R.
Thus, 2 × 6 = 4 × 3, which works out to 12 = 12. In With the equation rearranged, the known
the equation with letters, AD = BC. Substituting the values of 10 for E and 2 for I are substituted and
numbers for the letters results 2 × 6 = 4 × 3, which the indicated division performed. The quotient that
works out to 12 = 12. results is equal to the unknown, R. Thus, R = 10/2, and
A third shortcut is to invert both sides of a R is equal to 5 ohms.
fractional equation. Assume again that A = 2, B = 4,
C = 3, and D = 6. As usual, the basic equation can be
stated in numbers and in letters. In numbers, it is 2/4 SUBSCRIPTS
= 3/6, or 1/2 = 1/2; in letters, it is A/B = C/D. Inverted, the Frequently, a letter representing a quantity is an-
equations are 4/2 = 6/3 (2 = 2) and B/A = D/C. notated with a small number or letter on its lower
Note that when the numerator or denominator right side. These small numbers are subscripts. For
contains two or more factors separated by a plus or example, in electrical circuits, resistors are often
a minus sign, the whole unit must be handled as a identified as R1, R2, R3, or R4, which means that four
group. To explain, assume that A = 3, B = 5, C = 4, resistors are in the circuit. (A circuit is a complete
and D = 6. Then, assume that 1 is added to one electrical path from one terminal of a source of elec-
side of the equation and 2 to the other side, so that tricity to the other.) Each is identified with the letter R
the result is 5 + 1 = 6 + 2 or B + 1 = D + 2. To solve these and a subscripted number—1 through 4 in this case.
3 4 A C
8 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

BINARY NUMBERS to use a table, such as Table 2, which counts through

Numbers and characters in digital, or binary, form four binary digits. [Incidentally, binary digits are
have made it possible to develop digital electronic termed bits, which comes from combining b(inary)
devices such as computers, programmable logic and (dig)it. So, four binary digits are also 4 bits.] In
controllers, and similar digital equipment. Digital any case, binary numbers larger than those in the
electronic devices cannot recognize conventional table, which run from 20 to 23, can be achieved by
numbers such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and so on. They can only adding more columns whose values are 24, 25, 26, 27,
recognize the presence or absence of a binary signal 28, and so on. The second row of numbers across the
that is abbreviated as 1 or 0. A binary number is so top of the table converts 2 raised to various powers.
called because it consists only of two numbers—0 For example, 23 equals 8.
and 1. With the table, it is easy to determine equiva-
The binary numbering system is a base 2 sys- lent numbers in each system. For example, the binary
tem—that is, only two numbers, 0 and 1, form all number 1010 is 10 in the decimal system. Likewise,
numbers. By contrast, the conventional system is a the decimal number 9 is 1001 in the binary system.
base 10 system in that 10 numbers, from 0 to 9, form
all numbers. (It is also called the decimal system from OCTAL NUMBERS
the fact that deci means 10 in Latin.) In the binary Octal numbers are used in a digital device called a
system, 1 is the largest value while 0 is the lowest. programmable logic controller, or PLC, for short.
Digital devices use only 1 and 0 to make discrete PLCs are used in process control systems to run and
decisions or show their states. manage the variables that occur in such systems. For
A binary number can be converted to decimal example, a PLC could maintain a constant level of
and decimal to binary. Perhaps the easiest method is liquid in a tank or a vessel by reading level sensors
and sending corrective signals to devices to adjust
TABLE 2 the liquid flowing into and out of the vessel.
Decimal and Binary Equivalent Numbers As the name implies, octal numbers are a base 8
23 22 21 20 system—that is, the system consists of eight numbers:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. A subscript of 8 following an
8 4 2 1 Decimal Value
octal number designates it as such. So, a number
0 0 0 0 0 such as 5718 indicates that the number is octal and
0 0 0 1 1 not decimal.
We convert binary numbers to octal numbers
0 0 1 0 2
in two steps. First, combine the binary number in
0 0 1 1 3 groups of three bits. For example, the binary number
0 1 0 0 4 110111101001001111 is regrouped as 110 111 101 001
001 111. Second, the equivalent decimal number for
0 1 0 1 5
each group is determined. The easiest way to make
0 1 1 0 6 the conversion is to use a table, such as Table 3.
0 1 1 1 7 The first row has the grouped binary numbers; the
1 0 0 0 8 second row shows the decimal equivalents.
Table 3 shows that the octal number for the
1 0 0 1 9
example binary number is 6751178.
1 0 1 0 10
TABLE 3
1 0 1 1 11
Binary Number in Groups of Three (Top)
1 1 0 0 12 and Decimal Equivalents (Bottom)
1 1 0 1 13
110 111 101 001 001 111
1 1 1 0 14
6 7 5 1 1 7
1 1 1 1 15
Basic Mathematics 9

HEXADECIMAL NUMBERS So, the hexadecimal equivalent for the example bi-
Many electronic display systems, such as a com- nary number is 37A4F16.
puter screen, use hexadecimal numbers to elec-
tronically convert binary numbers for displaying BINARY CODED DECIMAL CODE
characters and objects. The hexadecimal system is Binary coded decimal (BCD) code is used to store in-
a base 16 system—that is, it uses 16 symbols, which formation in computers and is used in electronic
are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, and F. A input devices such as thumbwheel switches and
hexadecimal (hex, for short) number is indicated seven-segment displays. It consists of the four-digit
with a subscript of 16. For example, the number binary equivalent of the 10 decimal numbers from 0
42A9D16 is a hex number. to 9. To show a decimal number in BCD, we write
Combining the binary in groups of 4 bits as the equivalent binary number for each digit. For
shown in Table 4 facilitates converting binary num- example, the decimal number 72 becomes 0111 0010
bers to hex numbers. in BCD, because the binary number for 7 is 0111 and
the binary number for 2 is 0010. The space between
TABLE 4
the four digits signifies a BCD coded number. Table 5
Hexadecimal and Binary Equivalent
Numbers and Letters shows BCD, binary, and decimal equivalents. Notice
that all the BCD numbers have four digits.
23 22 21 20
Hex Value TABLE 5
8 4 2 1
BCD, Binary, and Decimal
0 0 0 0 0 Equivalent Numbers
0 0 0 1 1
BCD Binary Decimal
0 0 1 0 2
0 0 1 1 3 0000 0 0
0 1 0 0 4
0001 1 1
0 1 0 1 5
0010 10 2
0 1 1 0 6
0 1 1 1 7 0011 11 3
1 0 0 0 8 0100 100 4
1 0 0 1 9
0101 101 5
1 0 1 0 A
1 0 1 1 B 0110 110 6

1 1 0 0 C 0111 111 7
1 1 0 1 D
1000 1000 8
1 1 1 0 E
1001 1001 9
1 1 1 1 F

As an example of converting a binary num- AMERICAN STANDARD CODE FOR

ber to a hex number, suppose the binary number INFORMATION INTERCHANGE
is 110111101001001111. First, arrange the binary
American standard code for information interchange
numbers in groups of four, then find the equivalent
(ASCII) code is used in PLCs to repre­sent numbers,
alphanumeric numbers in the table and write them
letters and symbols. It is also used to send and receive
under the groups, as—
alphanumeric data such as the letters and symbols
0011 0111 1010 0100 1111 found on a computer keyboard. Each character or
3 7 A 4 F. symbol uses up to 7, or sometimes 8, binary digits
10 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

to represent it. Table 6 is a partial list of characters As an example of using the table, note that the letter
and symbols in the ASCII code. They can also be F has the binary ASCII code of 1000110 and that the
found in digital handbooks and on the worldwide + sign has the ASCII code of 0101011.
web (the internet).
GRAY CODE
TABLE 6 Gray code is useful in mechanical encoders because
ASCII Characters and the Equivalent a slight change in location only affects one bit in the
Binary Numbers code. Thus, it is often used to transmit binary code
Character Binary No. Character Binary No. from rotating equipment when tracking the position
of the shaft. As the shaft rotates from one position to
@ 100 0000 0 011 0000 another, only one bit changes in the code to permit
A 100 0001 1 011 0001 a more stable and precise monitoring of its position.
Table 7 shows the Gray code number next to the
B 100 0010 2 011 0010
equivalent binary number.
C 100 0011 2 011 0010
D 100 0100 3 011 0011 TABLE 7
E 100 0101 5 011 0101 Gray Code Numbers with Equivalent
Binary Numbers
F 100 0110 6 011 0110
G 100 0111 7 011 0111 Gray Code Binary

H 100 1000 8 011 1000 0000 0000

I 100 1001 9 011 1001 0001 0001
J 100 1010 : 011 1010 0011 0010
K 100 1011 ; 011 1011 0010 0011
L 100 1100 < 011 1100 0110 0100
M 100 1101 = 011 1101 0111 0101
N 100 1110 > 011 1110 0101 0110
O 100 1111 ? 011 1111 0100 0111
P 101 0000 SP 010 0000 1100 1000
Q 101 0001 ! 010 0001 1101 1001
R 101 0010 " 010 0010 1111 1010
S 101 0011 # 010 0011 1110 1011
T 101 0100 $ 010 0100 1010 1100
U 101 0101 % 010 0101 1011 1101
V 101 0110 & 010 0110 1001 1110
W 101 0111 ' 010 0111 1000 1111
X 101 1000 ( 010 1000
Y 101 1001 ) 010 1001
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Z 101 1010 * 010 1010
[ 101 1011 + 010 1011 1. What is the sum of 100, 1,000, and 10,000?
\ 101 1100 , 010 1100 2. Divide 300 by 6.

] 101 1101 - 010 1101 3. Multiply 40 by 25.

^ 101 1110 . 010 1110 4. Show the exponent of 4 to the number 89.
5. What is the binary equivalent number of 14?
_ 101 1111 / 010 1111
 2
The Nature of Electricity

Matter is anything that has mass or weight and oc- means that a sodium atom and a chloride molecule
cupies space. Mass is the quantity of matter that a combine to form a molecule of table salt.
substance contains. It is related to weight, but, unlike Sometimes elements merely mix together and do
weight, mass is independent of external conditions not combine chemically. Such a combination is a mix-
such as buoyancy of the atmosphere or acceleration ture. Examples of mixtures are natural gas, steel, brass,
caused by gravity. For example, an object on earth and air. Air, for example, is a mixture of several gases,
may weigh 24 grams, but the same object on the moon such as nitrogen, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. These
weighs only 4 grams. Because the earth’s gravity is gases do not react chemically; so, they are a mixture.
six times that of the moon, the object weighs six times
more on the earth than it does on the moon. How-
ever, if an object on earth has a mass of 24 grams, it
ATOMS
has a mass of 24 grams whether it is on the moon or As mentioned earlier, the atom is the smallest divi-
anywhere else in our universe. sion of an element. An atom consists of a heavier part
Matter is electrical in nature. The three forms of called the nucleus and very small particles revolving
matter are solids, liquids, and gases. Matter is made around it called electrons. The nucleus is the central
up of elements and combinations of elements. An ele- region of an atom, composed of protons and neutrons
ment is an individual substance not made up of other and containing almost all of the mass of the atom. The
elements or substances. For example, the element mass of an electron is very small; indeed, an electron’s
copper is not made up of other substances. An ele- mass is only 9.1 × 10-28 grams. 9.1 × 10-28 means 9.1
ment consists of only one kind of atom. Atoms make with the decimal point shifted 28 places to the left.
up the smallest substance within an element and are Thus, the mass of an electron is very small indeed.
the fundamental building blocks of our universe. Besides being very light in mass, an electron exhibits
About 100 elements occur naturally, but chem- a quality that is called a negative charge. Usually, we
ists and physicists have created more in nuclear labo- simply say that electrons are negatively charged.
ratories, so that 115 have been identified at this time. The nucleus of the atom contains particles
Future experiments may yield even more. In any case, called protons and neutrons. These particles are about
elements combine chemically to form materials found 1,845 times heavier than the electron. The proton ex-
in everyday life. For example, the elements sodium hibits an opposite and equal relation to the electron
and chlorine combine to form sodium chloride, which and has a positive electrical charge. Neutrons have
is ordinary table salt. no electrical charge—that is, they are neutral. Other
As stated earlier, an atom is the smallest unit of particles and forces exist in the nucleus, and nuclear
an element. When the atoms of an element combine scientists spend a great deal of time studying them.
with themselves or with other elements, they form a When two or more atoms unite chemically and
molecule. For example, oxygen, which has the chemi- the properties of the separate elements are changed,
cal symbol of O, naturally occurs as a molecule, the a compound is produced. The smallest unit of a com-
symbol of which is O2. An oxygen molecule is ab- pound is the molecule, which, as mentioned previ-
breviated as O2 to indicate that it is composed of two ously, contains two or more atoms.
atoms of oxygen. Similarly, a molecule of sodium Atoms have different amounts of electrons, pro-
chloride, or table salt, is abbreviated as NaCl—so- tons, and neutrons. Indeed, it is the different number
dium is Na and the chloride molecule is Cl. NaCl of electrons, protons, and neutrons that account for

11
12 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

the fact that different elements have different physical away from the nucleus, just as centrifugal force holds
properties. For example, the difference between gold the earth away from the sun.
and mercury—at least on an atomic level—is that If an atom has enough negatively-charged
gold has 79 electrons and protons, and mercury has 80 electrons to balance the positively-charged protons,
electrons and protons. Moreover, each has a different it is electrically neutral. Normally, atoms are just that:
number of neutrons in its nucleus. Of course, gold and neutral. If, however, an atom loses an electron to a
mercury differ greatly in their outward appearance. neighboring atom—if the electron becomes a free
The copper atom has 29 electrons, which rotate electron—the atom has one more positive charge than
around its nucleus in distinct groups called rings, or negative charges. In such a state, the atom becomes
shells, much as planets rotate around the sun (fig. 2). positively charged. Such an atom is in a stressed and
The copper atom has four separate rings of electrons abnormal condition. So, it exerts certain forces in an
rotating around its nucleus. The inner ring has two attempt to obtain a free electron from another atom
electrons, the second has eight, the third has 18, and and get back to its normal state. Heat, light, and
the fourth has one. The outer ring may not hold all electrical pressure can furnish the extra energy to
the electrons it is capable of holding. Put another cause this exchange of free electrons among atoms.
way, the outer ring may not be completely filled with Some atoms have a large number of free elec-
electrons. This phenomenon is true for the copper trons, and others have very few. Copper, for instance,
atom, because the outer ring has only one electron, has 1.64 × 1024 free electrons per cubic centimetre
which leaves it unfilled. Consequently, the electron (cm3). Copper is therefore a good conductor—that
in the outer ring is so loosely bound to the nucleus is, it has many free electrons that flow between the
that it can migrate from one atom to another and is copper atoms. On the other hand, atoms that make
called a free electron. up rubber compounds have only three or four free
electrons per cubic inch (in3). Such material is a
nonconductor, or an insulator. In a nonconductor,
FREE very little flow of free electrons occurs. Thus, a
ELECTRON
conductor’s free electrons are not tightly bound to
4 RINGS: the nucleus, while a nonconductor’s electrons are
29 ELECTRONS
tightly bound to the nucleus.

VOLTAGE
–29 NUCLEUS:
±35 35 NEUTRONS The electrical pressure, or potential, that causes
29 PROTONS
electrons to move in a conductor is electromotive force
(abbreviated emf). Often, the pressure that is emf is
called voltage or, in some cases, potential. The letters
E or V usually stand for voltage. The volt is the unit
of measurement for voltage. A volt is the amount
of electrical pressure that forces 1 ampere (amp)
Figure 2 A copper atom has 29 electrons. of current through a resistance of 1 ohm. Batteries
and generators are two common sources of voltage.
The letter E usually abbreviates voltage that
Positive and negative, or opposite, charges
comes from a battery, generator, or transformer. The
attract each other, and like charges (negative and
letter V usually abbreviates the voltage that exists
negative or positive and positive) repel each other.
across the terminals (a terminal is one of the electrical
Because electrons are negatively charged and the
input or output points of a circuit or a component)
proton in the nucleus is positively charged, it would
of an electrical component. This voltage is often
seem that the negatively-charged electrons would go
referred to as the voltage drop or load voltage. Also,
to the positively-charged nucleus and remain there.
potential difference is another term for voltage that
However, the electrons rotate, or orbit, the nucleus
flows from one terminal to another in a component.
at such great speed that centrifugal force holds them
The Nature of Electricity 13

CURRENT
Visualize a conductor, such as a copper wire, con-
nected to the terminals of a battery (fig. 3). One end
is attached to the battery’s positive terminal and the
other end to the negative terminal. The potential dif-
ference between the terminals causes the conductor’s
free electrons to move from the battery’s negative
terminal to the positive terminal. As these free elec-
trons flow from one terminal to the other, they leave
+ –

DIRECTION DIRECTION
OF HOLE OF ELECTRON
FLOW FLOW Figure 4 Circuit diagram showing current flowing
from + to – terminal of battery.

CONDUCTOR that it flows where no external path is provided, such

(Copper Wire)
as between the terminals of a single cell.
The unit that indicates the amount of current
+ – flowing through a conductor is the ampere, which
is often shortened to amp. An ampere is defined in
terms of the rate of current flow. Specifically, 1 amp
BATTERY of current flow equals 6.28 × 1018 electrons (or holes)
flowing past a point in one second. Current flow is
similar to fluid flow in, say, barrels per hour (bbl/hr)
or cubic metres per hour (m3/hr). Since nothing hap-
Figure 3 Battery with a conductor connects to + pens instantly, most electrical occurrences are rated
and – terminals. Note direction of electron flow and in reference to the time it takes for them to happen.
hole flow. The letter I is a symbol for current in amperes and
represents the intensity of the current flow.
spaces, or holes, in the atoms. The holes also move, but
in the opposite direction from the electrons. Thus, the RESISTANCE
holes leave the positive terminal of the battery and
The amount of current passing through a conductor
return to the negative side of the battery. Hole flow
depends on the electrical pressure applied to it and on
is exactly opposite from free electron flow.
the nature of the conductor’s material. Materials with
In electronics, conventional current flow is
a great number of free electrons make good conduc-
shown as hole flow and not electron flow. Conse-
tors. Materials with characteristics that lie between
quently, circuit diagrams (schematics) for electronic
being good conductors and being nonconductors are
devices show current flowing from the positive
semiconductors.
terminal to the negative terminal (fig. 4). Because
A material’s ability to conduct current is called
current flows from the positive terminal of the volt-
conductivity, and its ability to oppose the flow of
age source, the positive terminal is the hot terminal.
current through it is called resistivity. Most materi-
The negative terminal is the return terminal and is
als are characterized by their resistivity rather than
sometimes grounded—that is, it is connected to the
their conductivity. All materials have some ability
earth or to a conducting body that serves in place of
to oppose the flow of current, except at extremely
the earth. Be aware that current flows between the
low temperatures.
terminals of a battery through an external path, such
In practice, no perfect conductor exists—that
as a length of conductive wire, in the same direction
is, all conductors have the property of resistance to
14 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

some degree. Resistivity to current flow is a prop- Because the letter V can also stand for voltage,
erty of a material, just as color, hardness, or weight the power equation can also be stated as—
are properties of a material. Resistance is a measure-
P = VI (Eq. 11)
ment of resistivity, which is usually represented by
the letter R and is measured in units called ohms. where
P = power, watts
V = voltage, volts
INTRODUCTION TO OHM’S LAW I = current, amps.
The relationship between voltage, current, and If a lot of power is involved, then the power
resistance states that the amount of current flow in equations can be expressed in kilowatts, or thousands
an electrical circuit is directly proportional to the of watts, as—
amount of voltage and inversely proportional to the EI
P = (Eq. 12)
amount of resistance. In equation form, this relation- 1,000
ship known as Ohm’s law is— or
E VI
P = (Eq. 13)
I = R (Eq. 7) 1,000

where
I = current, amperes REVIEW QUESTIONS
E = voltage, volts 1. Define matter.
R = resistance, ohms. 2. What are the three states of matter?
Rearranging this equation, or solving the equation 3. What is an element? Name several.
for each value, results in— 4. What is the difference between a compound
and a mixture?
E = IR (Eq. 8)
5. What is an atom? A molecule?
and 6. What does the nucleus of an atom contain?
E
R = I (Eq. 9) 7. What causes the different physical properties
of elements?
8. What is meant by a ring, or shell?
INTRODUCTION TO POWER LAW 9. In what ring, or shell, is the free electron found?
When voltage forces current to flow through resis- 10. Under what conditions is an atom electrically
tance, heat is produced. Voltage can also force cur- neutral?
rent flow through a direct current (DC) motor and 11. When is an atom positively charged?
produce speed and torque from the motor. The prod- 12. Define the following in terms of free elec-
uct of voltage and current to produce useful work trons: good conductor, semiconductor, and
is referred to as power, which is usually represented nonconductor, or insulator.
by the letter P. Power in a DC circuit is expressed in 13. What is an electric current? What unit is used to
units of watts or in large quantities, kilowatts (KW). express the rate at which electric current flows?
In equation form, power is— 14. What is conductance and resistance?
P = EI (Eq. 10) 15. Explain the difference, in terms of free elec-
trons, between materials having low resis-
where tance and those having high resistance.
P = power, watts 16. What is the unit of resistance?
E = voltage, volts 17. What is voltage? What unit is used to express
I = current, amps. voltage?
 3
Galvanic Cells and Batteries

Electrical and electronic circuits require a source of in water, dissociates into positive and negative ions,
voltage to function. Current does not flow unless a thus increasing its electrical conductivity. An ion is
source of electrical pressure acts on the circuit com- simply a positively- or negatively-charged atom.)
ponents. Direct current (DC) sources include electro-
chemical devices such as galvanic cells and batteries.
BATTERIES
Although solid-state devices are another source of
A battery is made up of several galvanic cells con-
DC, they are discussed in another section. Many de-
nected in series to produce a voltage higher than that
vices deliver voltage, including electrochemical cells, or
of one cell. (Connecting an electrical device or circuit
batteries, photovoltaic cells, and thermoelectric devices.
in series means that current can travel only in a single
Each of these devices produces DC voltage that can
path. Also, the current is the same throughout the
deliver current to components and equipment.
device or circuit.) The kind of electrical charge at a
cell or battery’s terminal determines the terminal’s
GALVANIC CELLS polarity. A terminal’s polarity is either positive or
An electrochemical, or galvanic, cell is built by using negative, depending on whether its electrical charge
the proper chemicals and two dissimilar materials is positive or negative. That is, if the terminal’s elec-
immersed in, or surrounded by, the chemicals. A trical charge is positive, the terminal is said to have
conductor or an electronic device is attached to each positive polarity. Conversely, if the terminal’s charge
end of the dissimilar materials. The place where is negative, it has negative polarity.
the connections are made is called a terminal. One A common lead-acid battery is an automobile
terminal has a negative charge and the other has a battery. Typically, such a battery consists of six
positive charge. The negative terminal has an excess galvanic cells connected in series to produce a volt-
of electrons, and the positive terminal has a lack, age at its terminals of 12 volts DC. One terminal is
or deficiency, of electrons. This situation sets up an positive (+) while the other is negative (-).
energy difference between the two terminals, which Strictly speaking, a battery is formed only
is called potential or potential difference. when two or more cells are connected. However, it
If an external path or a component is connected is customary to call a single cell a battery. Although
to the terminals, the potential causes the free electrons not strictly correct, this manual follows conventional
and corresponding holes to move through the external usage and also refers to a single cell as a battery.
path or component. The holes flow from the positive
terminal to the negative terminal of the cell. This move- Construction of Batteries
ment of holes in one direction is referred to as current. Many years ago, humans discovered that if a person
A device consisting of a single-positive and a placed two different metals in a liquid so that they
single-negative terminal along with activating chemi- did not touch each other, and if the liquid reacted
cals is referred to as a cell. A cell is the smallest unit chemically with the metals, a potential difference,
of this type of device. A typical cell contains sulfuric or voltage, was set up between the metals. This ar-
acid as its electrolyte and two dissimilar terminals rangement is a cell. For example, a lead-acid cell is
made of lead and a lead compound. This cell is a made with a lead plate and another plate with lead
lead-acid cell. It produces a voltage of about two volts. peroxide pressed into its grids. The negative plate
(An electrolyte is a chemical that, when dissolved is the lead plate, and the positive plate is the lead

15
16 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

peroxide plate. The liquid is a solution of sulfuric Dry cells, such as flashlight batteries, are
acid and water and is an electrolyte. This combination primary cells while those with liquid electrolyte are
produces a potential difference (a voltage) of 2.1 volts secondary cells. Primary cells cannot be recharged and
at the terminals of the cell when fully activated. are discarded. However, secondary cells, such as a
When the same materials from a cell are used, lead-acid car battery, can be recharged from an elec-
the voltage is the same, even if the size of the material tronic battery charger or another source of DC voltage
varies. It is the nature of the materials that determines and current. By passing a current from an external
the voltage of a cell, not the quantity or size of the ma- source through the battery in the reverse direction,
terial. For example, a small AAA (triple A) flashlight the chemical action can be reversed and the active
cell and a large number 6 dry cell both furnish 1.5 chemicals driven back into the solution.
volts, yet the number 6 cell is many times bigger than The rating of a battery can be expressed in
a triple A battery. While the quantity of materials does several ways, including its voltage, maximum con-
not affect the amount of voltage, it does determine the tinuous current over an 8-hour period, ampere-hour
amount of current (amperes) that a cell can furnish. rating and cold cranking amperes (CCAs). Typically,
The number 6 dry cell can furnish a greater current for the larger the battery, the more amperes it delivers.
a longer time than the small flashlight cell.
Earlier, the manual mentioned that, in order Batteries Connected in Series
to make a battery cell, two dissimilar metals must be When cells or batteries are connected in series, their
placed in a liquid (an electrolyte), and that the liquid voltages add up (fig. 5). The purpose in connecting
must react chemically with the metals. However, as batteries in series is to increase the voltage. When
voltage flows through the electrolyte from one of the cells or batteries are connected in series, unlike po-
metals to the other, the active material in the liquid is tentials are connected—that is, a positive to a nega-
chemically transformed into another compound. When tive. When the batteries are properly connected, the
the chemical reaction is complete—that is, when all the terminals are opposite in polarity.
active material in the solution has been transformed
chemically into another chemical, the battery is dead. Batteries Connected in Parallel
Also, sometimes the electrolyte is not a liquid. A parallel circuit is a circuit with two or more paths
Instead, it is formed from a dry, solid material. So, through which the current flows. The total current equals
some batteries, like flashlight batteries, are dry cells— the sum of the currents through the various paths. How-
the terminals are not in a liquid, but rather, in a dry ever, the voltage is the same throughout the circuit. So,
electrolytic material. On the other hand, car batteries, connecting batteries in parallel increases the amount of
in which the terminals are placed in a liquid solution current that can be taken from the battery (fig. 6). Batter-
of sulfuric acid, are wet cells. ies of equal voltages must be used in the parallel circuit.

+ 48 VOLTS –

+ – + – + – + –

BATTERY A BATTERY B BATTERY C BATTERY D

12 V 12 V 12 V 12V

Figure 5 Four batteries connected in series. Note that current flows in only one path.
Galvanic Cells and Batteries 17

As an example, a number 6 dry cell can furnish parallel, the voltage is still 12, but the system can fur-
1 ampere for 30 hours. Should a need occur for a nish 2 amperes for 100 hours. The additional current
current flow of 2 amperes for a period of 30 hours, from a second, or booster, battery can make it easier
two number 6 dry cells can be connected in parallel to start a car or truck in very cold weather.
to meet this need. (Note that connecting batteries in A measurement taken from the negative ter-
parallel does not increase the voltage.) When two minal of one battery to its positive terminal yields
batteries of equal ratings are connected in paral- +12 volts; the same measurement taken on the next
lel, the supply of chemical material available to be battery also yields +12 volts. The difference between
transformed into electrical energy doubles. Electri- +12 volts and +12 volts is 0. So, no potential difference
cally, this doubling means that the batteries yield exists between the two terminals. Since no poten-
the same voltage but deliver more amperes for the tial difference occurs, the terminals may be joined
electrical loads. together without any current flow. No potential
A typical 12-volt car battery can supply 1 ampere difference means no current flow.
for 100 hours. With two of these batteries connected in On the other hand, batteries of unequal voltage
cannot be connected because a potential difference ex-
ists at the terminal points. If two unequal voltage batter-
ies were connected, heavy current would flow from one
+ 12 VOLTS –
battery to the other. In other words, the higher voltage
would discharge into the battery with the lower voltage.

+ – Battery Ratings
Most commercially available lead-acid batteries are
rated at 12 volts. However, other lead-acid batter-
BATTERY A ies that are rated for 8 or 6 volts may be purchased.
12 V
Within certain limits, batteries can be constructed in
a variety of voltages in multiples of 2 volts.
The short-time current rating for a battery is
typically rated in cold cranking amperes (CCAs). A
typical battery’s CCA can be hundreds of amperes
+ –
for several seconds, which may be required to crank,
or start, a cold engine. For a battery that is constantly
being used, its maximum continuous current is its
BATTERY B ampere-hour rating divided by 8 hours. An ampere-
12 V
hour equals a flow of 1 ampere for one hour.

Charging Batteries
Batteries become discharged after the ampere-hour
+ – rating of use is consumed. To put it another way,
if a battery is rated for 100 ampere-hours, and it is
continuously delivering 10 amperes, it becomes fully
BATTERY C discharged in about 10 hours. The battery will require
12 V
recharging with an electronic battery charger.
To recharge a battery, the charger’s positive
lead is connected to the battery’s positive terminal
and the charger’s negative lead is connected to the
Figure 6 Three batteries connected in parallel. battery’s negative terminal. The charger delivers the
Note that current flows through two paths, one on
required ampere-hours to replace those that were
the battery’s positive side, and the other on the nega-
used in operation. The charging rate can be either a
tive side.
low-ampere trickle charge or it can be a fast charge.
18 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Battery Safety REVIEW QUESTIONS

Batteries can cause injury or damage if precautions 1. Can a primary battery be recharged?
are not observed when working around them. Since 2. Name three electrical ratings of a battery.
the batteries contain acid, avoid any contact with the 3. State the components of a lead-acid battery.
skin or other material, such as clothing, that acid 4. Series batteries are used for what purpose?
may damage. In wet cell batteries, the flammable 5. Paralleled batteries are used for what pur-
hydrogen gas can escape from the battery vents. So, pose?
be sure no open flames, or anything that can cause 6. How should battery chargers be connected
a spark, is near the battery. Otherwise, an explosion to batteries for recharging?
or fire can result. Avoid any sparks at the battery 7. What type of gas is generated from a battery
terminals. during operation and is it dangerous?
Overcharging or overdischarging can produce
internal heat in batteries, which may produce high
pressure and rupture of the battery cases. Avoid
overcharging batteries and do not allow them to
become overdischarged.
 Ohm’s and Power Laws
4
CIRCUITS of resistance, in ohms, in a circuit to limit current to
A circuit is a complete path in which current will flow. a given value, use, R = E/I. Finally, to determine the
The path is from one battery terminal, or another voltage needed to create a flow of current through
source of voltage, back to the other battery terminal. a given resistance, use E = IR. When two variables
The three elementary circuits are simple, series, and (voltage, current, or resistance) are known, Ohm’s
parallel. A simple circuit consists of a single path law provides an easy way to find the third by select-
from one terminal of a source of electricity, through ing the Ohm’s law equation that has the unknown
one electrical device, and back to the terminal of the on the left side.
electricity source. For example, one simple circuit A drawing is available for finding the appropri-
consists of a battery, a light bulb, and a conductor ate Ohm’s equation to solve a problem. Called the
such as copper wire. Current flows from the nega- Ohm’s law wheel (fig. 7), it shows how to select the
tive terminal of a battery, through the copper wire correct equation. For example, if values for E and
and light bulb, and back to the battery’s positive R are known, then it shows that I = E/R. Similarly, if
terminal. A series circuit consists of a single path values for I and R are known, then the wheel shows
from the battery or source of voltage through two that E = IR.
or more electrical devices back to the other terminal
of the battery. A parallel circuit consists of two or
more complete and separate paths for current flow.
Incidentally, circuits often contain resistors.
Resistors are electrical devices that oppose the flow
of electricity through a circuit. Besides the actual
E
electrical component that is called a resistor, other
devices in a circuit create resistance when they con-
vert electrical energy into another form. For example, I R
an incandescent lamp creates resistance as it converts
electrical energy to light, and an electric heater cre-
ates resistance as it converts electric energy to heat.

OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law states that the strength or intensity of an Figure 7 Ohm’s law wheel
electrical current (I) is directly proportional to the
electromotive force (E) and inversely propor­tional
to the resistance (R) of the circuit. Ohm’s law relates POWER LAW
voltage, which is the electrical pressure that causes As you recall, besides Ohm’s law, the power law is
the current flow; current, which is the rate at which available to determine the power a circuit is capable
electrons flow; and resistance, which is the opposition of producing. Like Ohm’s law, the power law also
that a circuit offers to the flow of electrons. consists of three variables; voltage, E or V, measured
Ohm’s law can determine the amount of cur- in volts; current, I, measured in amperes; and power,
rent that will flow in a circuit. In this case, use I = E/R to P, measured in watts. In equation form, the power
find the current in amperes. To determine the amount law is P = EI, or P = VI. To determine the amount of

19
20 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

power in watts produced in a circuit component or Substituting known values in the equation yields E
the supply, use P = VI or P = EI. To determine the = 0.01 × 100 = 1 volt.
amount of current in amps required to produce the
power, use I = P/E. To determine the voltage in volts Resistance
needed to produce a given amount of power, use E To calculate the resistance of a device, it is necessary
= P/I. As long as two of the variables of voltage, cur- to know the amount of current that flows through
rent, or power are known, the power law provides it when a certain voltage is applied. To obtain the
an easy way to find the third by selecting the power answer, use Ohm’s law in the form of R = E/I, where
law equation that has the unknown on the side. Just resistance (R) equals voltage (E) divided by current
as for Ohm’s law, a power law wheel (fig. 8) is avail- (I). For example, what is the resistance of a light bulb
able for finding the appropriate equation. if the applied voltage in the circuit is 125 volts and
the current through the bulb is 2 amperes? To solve
it, substitute the known values in the equation so
that R = 125/2, which means that R = 62.5 ohms.
Note that when a light bulb is not energized (it
is turned off), the resistance of its filament is low: about
20 ohms for a 60-watt bulb. In this case, the resistance
P of the bulb can be measured with an ohmmeter. (An
ohmmeter is an instrument with special leads, or wires,
which, when placed in the circuit on both sides of a
I E resistor, directly measures the resistance in ohms of
an electrical circuit.) When the bulb is operating in a
circuit, the filament becomes very hot: about 2,000°F
(1,093°C). This change in temperature causes a large
change in the filament’s resistance. The way in which
an ohmmeter works keeps it from being used in an
energized circuit. So, in this case, you can use Ohm’s
Figure 8 Power law wheel law to calculate it. Unlike measuring resistance,
however, instruments are available that can measure
voltage and current in energized circuits.
OHM’S LAW EXAMPLES
Voltage Current
The current that flows in an electric circuit is equal to
An electrical device is rated at a certain current and
the voltage divided by the resistance. The equation
resistance. Often, it is necessary to know the voltage
is I = E/R, where, as usual, I = current in amperes, E
required to cause current to flow through the device.
= electrical pressure in volts, and R = resistance in
Ohm’s law in the form E = IR—that is, where electri-
ohms. Thus, if we wish to know how much current
cal pressure (E) equals current (I) times resistance
flows through an electric heater that has a resistance
(R)—can provide this answer. For example, what
of 10 ohms if the heater is connected to a 120-volt
is the voltage needed to force 1.2 amperes through
power outlet, we simply substitute the known val-
a device whose resistance is 80 ohms? To solve it,
ues in the equation. The equation then reads I = 120/10,
substitute the known values in the equation. Thus, E
which works out to 12 amperes.
= 1.2 volts times 80 ohms, or E = 1.2 × 80, which equals
96 volts. Therefore, 96 volts are required to force 1.2
amps through a device with 80 ohms of resistance. Power
Another example: a relay has a resistance of The power that produces heat in a resistive compo-
100 ohms and requires 0.01 amperes to operate. What nent such as a lamp is equal to the current times the
voltage is required? The solution is E = IR, where voltage. The equation is P = VI or P = EI, where P =
E = unknown, I = 0.01 amperes, and R = 100 ohms. power in watts, V or E = electrical pressure in volts,
and I = current in amperes. So, if we want to know
Ohm’s and Power Laws 21

how much power is dissipated in an electric heater 4 to 18. The smaller the gauge number, the larger
that is connected to a 120-volt power outlet with a is the diameter of the wire. For example, number
current rating of 12 amperes, we simply substitute 6 wire has a diameter larger than number 12 wire.
the known values in the equation. The solution is P = The larger the wire’s gauge, the less resistance to
120 × 12, which equals 1,440 watts or 1.44 kilowatts. current flow it offers. Thus, with the heavy gauge
wires in figure 9A, very little of the battery’s voltage
is applied to the ends, or terminals, of the filament.
SIMPLE CIRCUITS On the other hand, the filament has high resis-
A simple circuit consists of a single path from tance. High resistance means that fewer free electrons
one terminal of the source of electromotive force, exist in the filament’s material. Also, the free electrons
through one electrical device, and back to the other that exist in the material must travel at a higher veloc-
terminal of the source of electromotive force. For ity than they do in the copper conductors. The high-
example, figure 9A shows a single path from one velocity electrons have collisions with the atoms in the
battery terminal going to a lamp and back to the filament’s material, and the energy of motion (kinetic
battery’s other terminal. This circuit is a simple energy) of the electron is transformed into heat. These
circuit because it has only one device—in this case, collisions are similar to a high-speed bullet striking a
a lamp. Current flow is from the positive terminal steel plate that it cannot penetrate. The bullet hits the
of the battery, through a copper wire to the light plate with so much energy that it melts. The transfor-
bulb, through the filament in the bulb, and through mation of the energy of motion of electrons into heat
a wire back to the negative terminal of the battery. in the filament causes the filament to become white hot
As long as the circuit is not broken and the and give off light. The process must be continuous for
battery can furnish current, the light bulb glows. the light bulb to continue to glow. In other words, the
The filament of the bulb is tungsten wire that can current must flow continuously through the filament
withstand high temperatures without melting. The for the filament to continue to glow. Without current
wire is also small in diameter and is relatively long flow, no electron collisions occur, no heat is given off,
because it is coiled. Most of the resistance of this and no light occurs. Keep in mind, though, that it is
circuit is concentrated in the filament. The con- the resistance of the filament that limits and controls
necting wires from the battery are made of copper the amount of current that flows in the circuit.
and are large enough in diameter—they have a Figure 9B is a schematic diagram of the simple
heavy gauge—to have low resistance. Wire gauges circuit in figure 9A that uses symbols to represent
are stated in numbers and commonly range from each component. The diagram uses a battery symbol

LAMP

I LAMP-RESISTOR

R1
I
+ —

BATTERY 12 V
12 V + —

A. Simple Circuit with B. Simple Circuit Using

Physical Components Component Symbols

Figure 9 A simple circuit with a battery, lamp, and copper wire

22 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

at bottom, and is labeled 12V, which abbreviates

12 volts. So, the schematic shows a 12-volt battery
in the circuit as the source of electrical pressure, or
electromotive force. Figure 9B also uses a symbol for R1 R2 R3 R4

a resistor, labeled R1, which represents the lamp. The I

straight heavy lines represent the copper wire. Sche-
matic diagrams normally present electrical circuits
because they are simpler than a detailed drawing of
the circuit’s components as in figure 9A. + —
A symbol can represent virtually every elec- E1
trical component in a circuit diagram. In general,
a rectangular box, with descriptive terms beside it,
Figure 10 A series circuit
represents fixed equipment such as control boxes,
cabinets, and similar devices. Circular symbols rep-
resent round or rotating devices, such as lamps, coils, Resistance in Series Circuits
motors, and generators.
It is important to understand that the resistance used
In circuit diagrams, components often are
to determine the current in the circuit is not that of an
designated with an abbreviation and a reference
individual resistor but the total circuit resistance. In
designation such as that of the lamp-resistor, R1, in
equation form, the total circuit resistance is—
figure 9B. Reference designations can be employed
when using Ohm’s law to solve for the current in a RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 (Eq. 14)
circuit, and when describing a circuit, troubleshoot- where
ing it, maintaining it, and ordering replacement parts. RT = total resistance, ohms.
The current in the circuit shown in figure 9A–B
can be determined using Ohm’s law if the battery For example, if R1 is 50 ohms, R2 is 10 ohms, R3 is 40
voltage is 12 volts DC and the lamp resistance is 6 ohms, and R4 is 20 ohms, the total resistance is 50 +
ohms. Thus, I = 12/6, which equals 2 amperes. Further, 10 + 40 + 20 = 120 ohms.
the voltage drop in the circuit, measured across the
lamp, is V = IR, which is 2 × 6 = 12 volts. In other Current in Series Circuits
words, the voltage developed across the resistor (the With the known total resistance and voltage in the
voltage drop) is the same as that delivered from the circuit, current can be calculated using Ohm’s law.
battery (the supply voltage). So, for the circuit in figure 10, if the total resistance
The power dissipated in the lamp in figure 9 can of a circuit is 120 ohms and E1 is 240 volts, then I =
also be determined using the power law. In this case, 240
/120. Thus, current (I) is equal to 2 amperes.
it is P = VI, which works out to P = 12 × 2, or 24 watts.
Voltage Drops in Series Circuits
SERIES CIRCUITS The value of the individual voltage drops across
each resistor can be determined and the results
When more than one component is added in se-
added to obtain total voltage drop through the
quence to another, a series circuit is created (fig. 10).
circuit. To determine individual voltage drops in
For example, if four resistive components are placed
the circuit in figure 10, take the circuit’s current
end-to-end and the resulting circuit load terminates
and multiply it by the resistance (R) of each resistor.
at a DC supply, current flows in each component. The
Thus, the voltage drop across resistor R1 is V1 = IR1
resulting current is the same in each component as well
= 2 × 50 = 100 volts.
as the supply source. Current flows from the positive
The corresponding voltage drops across the
terminal of the battery, through each resistor in series,
remaining resistors are—
and returns to the negative terminal of the battery.
To solve for current in the series circuit in figure V2 = IR2 = 2 × 10 = 20 volts
10, the supply voltage must be known as well as the V3 = IR3 = 2 × 40 = 80 volts
values of the resistors. V4 = IR4 = 2 × 20 = 40 volts.
Ohm’s and Power Laws 23

Adding the sum of the total voltage drops yields the Adding the sum of the individual resistor’s power
following result— dissipation, the result is PT = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 = 200 +
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 100 + 20 + 80 + 40 = 40 + 160 + 80 = 480 watts.
240 volts. The amount of power delivered by the DC
supply is also determined by using the power equa-
The sum of the voltage drops in this circuit, then,
tion. In this case, P1 = IEsupply = 2 × 240 = 480 watts. The
is equal to the value of the supply voltage. In any
sum of the power dissipated in each component in
electrical series circuit, the sum of the voltage drops
this circuit, which is 480 watts, is equal to the power
equals the supply voltage.
delivered by the supply source, which is also 480
watts. In any electrical series circuit, the sum of the
Power Dissipated In Series Circuits individual power losses is equal to the power deliv-
The power dissipated by each component in a series ered by the supply source.
circuit is obtained from the power law. The power
law states that the power in watts (P) is equal to the
PARALLEL CIRCUITS
product of the current (I) through a component, times
the voltage (V) across a component, or P = IV. In the A parallel circuit is a circuit in which two or more
circuit in figure 10, where several resistors exist, the complete and separate paths are available for the
power (P1) in the first resistor (R1) is P1 = IV1 = 2 × 100 current to flow. For example, the circuit in figure 11A
= 200 watts. has three current paths. Current leaves the positive
The corresponding power that is dissipated in battery terminal, flows through each bulb, and back
the remaining resistors is— to the battery. In a series circuit, if one bulb burns
out or is removed, all the other bulbs will fail to light
P2 = IV2 = 2 × 20 = 40 watts
because the burned out, or missing bulb, interrupts
P3 = IV3 = 2 × 80 = 160 watts
current flow. On the other hand, in a parallel circuit,
P4 = IV4 = 2 × 40 = 80 watts.

LAMP 3 LAMP-RESISTOR

R3

LAMP 2

LAMP-RESISTOR

R2
LAMP 1

LAMP-RESISTOR
IT IT

R1
+ —
IT IT

12 V
BATTERY + —
E
A. Parallel Circuit with B. Parallel Circuit Using
Physical Components Component Symbols

Figure 11 Parallel circuits

24 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

one bulb can be removed or burned out, and the other resistors in figure 12 are—
bulbs will continue to burn. Current continues to flow R1 = 50 ohms
through the alternate paths. Consequently, parallel R 2 = 10 ohms
circuits are widely used in the wiring systems of R 3 = 40 ohms, and
houses, automobiles, and other systems.
that voltage (E1) in the circuit is 240 volts DC. The
In a parallel circuit, the current leaving or re-
current in branch 1 is I1 = E/R1 = 240/50 = 4.8 amperes.
turning to the battery divides through the number
The current in branches 2 and 3 are I2 = E/R2 = 240/10 =
of paths used. The voltage across each branch of
24 amperes and I3 = E/R3 = 240/40 = 6 amperes. So, the
a parallel circuit is the same. The current through
total current from the supply is IT = I1 + I2 + I3, which
each branch of the circuit may or may not be the
equals 4.8 + 24 + 6 = 34.8 amperes.
same, depending on whether the resistances of the
If only the value of the supply current is
branches are the same or different. One lamp could
needed, and not the individual branch currents,
be a large bulb with a large amount of current flowing
supply current can be determined with the resistance
through it, while another might be a small bulb with
reciprocal equation for parallel circuits. So,
correspondingly smaller current flowing though it.
1
In any case, the three currents passing through the RT = 1 + 1 + 1
,
three bulbs in figure 11A add up to the current leav- 50 10 40
ing and returning to the battery. In the parallel circuit, 1 1
which works out to 0.02 + 01 + 0.025 = 0.145 = 6.897 ohms.
all lamps receive the full battery voltage. Because resistance and voltage are now known, total
current (IT) can be determined with the equation IT
Resistance and Parallel Circuit Currents = E/RT = 240/6.897, which equals 34.8 amperes. The two
In the parallel circuit in figure 11B, the sum of the methods of determining the supply current produced
currents from the DC supply is equal to the sum of the the same result of 34.8 amperes. The procedure to
individual branch, or parallel component, currents. follow is determined by that which is desired in the
In equation form, the total current is equal to— analysis.

IT = I1 + I2 + I3 (Eq. 15)
MALFUNCTIONING CIRCUITS
where When something goes wrong with an electrical
IT = total current, amperes. circuit, many people immediately blame the trouble
This relationship is true for any number of parallel on a short, which means a short circuit. In reality, two
circuit branches—that is, the sum of the currents (IT) types of defective circuits are common. One is a short
into parallel loads is equal to the supply current. circuit and the other is an open circuit.
To determine the current in each individual In one type of short circuit (fig. 12), defective
branch using Ohm’s law, the supply voltage (E) and insulation on the connecting wires allows bare wires
the value of the branch resistance (R1, R2, R3, etc.) must to touch. Heavy current can then flow from the nega-
be known. With this information, the current is equal tive terminal of the battery to the point where the
to I1 = E/R1. If only the supply current is to be calculated, bare wires touch, and back to the positive terminal
and not the individual branch currents, the total cir- of the battery. The result is a short circuit. Very little
cuit resistance, RT, must be known. To determine total resistance exists in this accidental circuit, so current
circuit resistance (RT), the reciprocal equation is used. flow is high; indeed, flow can be great enough to
This equation is suitable for any number of parallel cause the wires to become red hot and burn in two.
branches. The reciprocal equation is— The other type of faulty circuit is one in which
one of the connecting wires has become broken or cut
1
RT = (Eq. 16) (fig. 13). All current flow ceases, so the lamp cannot
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + etc.
R1 R2 R3 R4 burn. Such a fault is an open circuit.
When trouble occurs in a circuit, chances are
where good that it is either a short circuit or an open circuit.
RT = total resistance, ohms. A short circuit blows fuses, trips circuit breakers, burns
For example, suppose that the values for the lamp- wires or components, and can create fire and smoke.
Ohm’s and Power Laws 25

INSULATING BAR

COPPER BAR
CONNECTING WIRES
BARE OF INSULATION
AND TOUCHING AT
SHORT THIS POINT
CIRCUIT

INSULATING MATERIAL
+ —

Figure 14 Simple switch

BATTERY

Figure 12 Short circuit

An open circuit shows up as equipment failure or SWITCH

malfunctioning components. Moreover, open circuits
usually do not blow fuses or trip a circuit breaker.
+ —
SWITCHES IN CIRCUITS
A switch, such as the one in figure 14, is a handy
mechanical device for opening or closing an electrical BATTERY

circuit. A switch starts and stops the action of a device

in the electrical circuit. Figure 15 is a graphic repre-
sentation of a switch in a simple circuit. Opening or
closing the switch turns the bulb on or off. Figure 16 Figure 15 Switch in a simple circuit
represents a switch in a series circuit. Operating the
switch turns three bulbs, wired in series, on or off.

X X
CONNECTING
WIRE BROKEN
AT THIS POINT
X
SWITCH

+ —
+ —

BATTERY
BATTERY

Figure 13 Open circuit Figure 16 Switch in a series circuit

26 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Further application of switches is shown in

a parallel circuit (fig. 17). Switch 1 (S1) is a master
switch because it must be closed before the circuits
SINGLE-POLE SINGLE-THROW
controlled by switch 2 (S2) and switch 3 (S3) can be (SPST)
completed back to the battery. After S1 is closed, S2
and S3 are used to turn on and off the lamps in their
circuits. Put another way, the master switch can turn
everything off, and the individual switches can turn SINGLE-POLE DOUBLE-THROW
(SPDT)
on or off separate lamps or circuits.
The switches in figure 17 are the simplest of all
and are called single-pole, single-throw (SPST) switches.
In figure 17, they are in open position. Switches may
DOUBLE-POLE SINGLE-THROW
be combined in one unit and operated by the same (DPST)
lever. For example, besides the single-pole, single-
throw (SPST) switch, three others are the single-pole,

DOUBLE-POLE DOUBLE-THROW
(DPDT)
S3

Figure 18 Four types of switches

S2
REVIEW QUESTIONS
S1
1. What is a circuit? Define a series circuit.
2. In an eight-bulb, 120-volt Christmas tree light
— + string that is wired in series, what voltage is
developed across each lamp?
3. Will two lamps connected in a series circuit
BATTERY burn with the same brilliance if they are of
different sizes?
4. In a series circuit, what unit of electricity is
the same through each unit?
Figure 17 Switches in a parallel circuit
5. When the voltages across several units in
a series circuit are added, what is the sum
double-throw (SPDT); the double-pole, single-throw equal to?
(DPST); and the double-pole, double-throw (DPDT) (fig. 6. Draw a series circuit showing how a switch
18). In the SPST switch, one side of the single switch should be connected.
is attached to the circuit and the switch is either open
7. How many branches or paths does a parallel
or closed on the other side of the circuit. In the SPDT
circuit have?
switch, a single switch is open or closed on two sides
8. What is the same across each branch of a
of the circuit. In the DPST switch, two switches are
parallel circuit?
combined and are operated on one side of the circuits.
In the DPDT switch, two switches are combined and 9. What is the sum of the currents flowing in
operate on both sides of the circuit. the branches of a parallel circuit equal to?
 5
Conductors and Insulators

CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS
Various materials exhibit various electrical properties. (300 OHMS)
For example, materials such as aluminum, copper, and
silver have low resistance. Consequently, they make
good conductors of electricity. Thus, they are often
braided or drawn to make wire, or cable, for connecting (72 OHMS)
electrical components. Connecting wire should have
low resistance so that little of the available voltage
is lost while the equipment is operating. Therefore, TRANSMISSION LINES
resistance of wires and cables should be as low as
economically possible. Economics is an important fac-
tor. For example, silver has less resistance—is a better
conductor—than copper or aluminum; however, silver
is much more expensive, so it is seldom used. COAXIAL CABLE
Another consideration is that one conductor
should not make contact with another conductor at
a different voltage, or potential. A short circuit can
develop, which is a malfunction. To prevent short HOOKUP WIRE
circuits, insulating materials cover conductors at
various points in the circuit. Rubber or plastic thick
enough to be effective is one material that can coat
MAGNET WIRE
wires and cables to prevent short circuits and the
damage they cause.
Also, some wire and cable not only have plastic Figure 19 Examples of insulated wires
insulation for protection, but also an outer metal clad-
ding, or coating. This cladding may be solid alumi-
num sheathing or braided copper. In either case, the electrical components together in equipment such
cladding protects the cable or wire from mechanical as amplifiers and other electronic devices. Magnet
damage—that is, it protects the cable when it is struck wire is a copper conductor that is insulated with
or crushed by an outside force such as a dropped tool, thin enamel or enamel-like coating. Prior to making
people stepping on it, or similar forces. a connection with it, this coating must be scraped
Figure 19 shows several insulated wires. The away from the wire. Magnet wire gets its name from
300-ohm ribbon line at the top is often used to connect its use as windings in electromagnets, transformers,
an antenna to a television set. The 72-ohm double- motors, and generators. Its insulation must be thin
wire transmission line is used in various gauges to so that it can be wound several times around a core:
conduct alternating current in households, industrial thick insulation would not allow it to be wound an
plants, offices, and so on. Coaxial cable has many uses. adequate number of times. So, instead of a plastic
It is called coaxial because several wire conductors coating, varying grades of enamel or varnish are
are bundled around each other to form a single, baked onto magnet wires to provide good insulat-
although thick, wire. Hookup wire is used to wire ing properties.

27
28 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

The insulation that covers a conductor depends larger than higher numbers. Another measure of wire
on the temperature of the conductor and the voltage diameter is mil size, which is based on the size of the
to be applied to the circuit. Consider, for example, cross-sectional area of the wire. (Mil size is further ex-
spark-plug wires. In a spark-plug wire, the conduct- plained later in this section.) The gauge or circular mil
ing wire is small in gauge because it conducts only size of wires used in circuits depends on the amount
about 0.001 ampere. The insulation, on the other of current (amperes) that will flow in the circuit. If a
hand, must be of good quality and be thick enough circuit will carry large currents, then the connecting
to withstand about 25,000 volts. Spark-plug wire in- conductors must also be large in size. The size of the
sulation is much like a high-pressure pipe because a conductor varies directly not only with the current it
high-pressure pipe must also be made of high-quality must conduct, but also with the length of the conductor.
materials and have relatively thick walls. The greater the current to be carried, and the longer the
The conductors used in wiring and cable may be conductor is, the larger the conductor must be.
either solid or stranded. Solid wire is less costly, but, Current flowing through a wire is much like
in large sizes, it is difficult to bend and flex. Stranded fluid flowing through a pipeline. If the volume of
wire easily bends around corners in conduits or trays, fluid passing through the line is large, then the pipe
so it is used where such flexibility is required. must be large. Further, if the pipeline is long, fluid
Ribbon line can conduct high-frequency al- pressure drops because of friction as the fluid moves
ternating currents from one point to another with against the pipe walls. Consequently, a large diam-
minimum loss in signal strength. As previously eter pipe must be used to combat pressure losses.
mentioned, one popular use is to connect television A car’s battery cables are somewhat like the
antennas to the receiver. Ribbon line consists of two large pipeline. They must be large because the starter
conductors covered with polyethylene insulation that circuit demands a high current; also, the voltage drop
is formed into a ribbonlike strip. Thin, flat, twin-lead must be kept to a minimum. On the other hand, the
transmission line is rated in terms of its characteristic car’s headlamp circuit is more like a small pipeline;
surge impedance. Impedance is a measure of the total it is wired with smaller line because the headlights
opposition to current flow in an alternating current (AC) demand a smaller current.
circuit. (AC is current that flows in one direction in a As current passes through wire, heat is given
circuit and then reverses flow. Reversal of current flow off. This heating effect is proportional to both the
happens rapidly—for example, in many AC circuits resistance of the wire and the square of the current
in the United States, reversal happens 60 times in 1 it is carrying. The electrical industry has established
second.) Because impedance is similar to resistance, standards for the maximum current-carrying capac-
it is measured in ohms. Thus, ribbon line is available ity of conductors for various types of service. The
with impedance values of 300 ohms, 150 ohms, and National Electric Code, NFPA 70, Article 310, is the
75 ohms. The impedance of the wire is determined by primary standard used in selecting wire size and
the size of the wire and spacing between conductors. insulation for various applications.
Coaxial cable is constructed with a center wire Wire size is a measure of its cross-sectional
that is covered with polyethylene insulation. The area. As you now know, it can be given in terms of
second conductor is copper braid that fits over the gauge, in which case it can be stated as American wire
polyethylene insulation. Finally, a vinyl cover pro- gauge (AWG). The wire’s area increases as the AWG
tects the braided conductor. Coaxial cable (coax for size decreases. On some wire tables, the smallest size
short) is used for the same purpose as twin-lead rib- is 40 AWG, which is so small it can carry only a small
bon line but has the advantage of not being affected amount of current. AWG increases are indicated by
by outside electric and magnetic fields. It, too, is rated double digit numbers lower than 40, such as 12 and
in terms of its characteristic impedance. 10, and single digit numbers, such as 4, 2, and 0.
The largest AWG is quadruple zero, or 0000, which
is usually stated as, “four ought,” and is written as
CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY 4/0. AWG 4/0 can carry hundreds of amperes.
OF CONDUCTORS For wire or cable sizes beyond 4/0, some wire
Earlier, this manual mentioned that wire is often sized tables give them in circular mils (cmil) or thousand
by gauge, with lower gauge numbers having diameters circular mils (kcmil). (A circular mil is the square of
Conductors and Insulators 29

the wire’s diameter in thousandths of an inch.) In Keep in mind, however, that many factors come
countries where the metric system is used, wire size into play when engineers plan electrical installations.
is expressed in square millimetres (mm2). Therefore, a particular installation could require
As stated earlier, wire sizes in the United States wires with more or less current capacity than shown
are made in accordance with the AWG system. This in the table. For example, bare wires of a given size
system calculates the diameter and circular mil area that transmit power in the open countryside can
for each gauge number. As the gauge number in- safely carry a great deal of current because they are
creases, the size of the wire decreases. Thus, No. 30 well ventilated. The same size wire, however, could
gauge wire is very small, with a circular mil area of not carry nearly as much current when used as a
101. The next larger size wire is No. 29 gauge. It has winding in an unventilated transformer.
a circular mil area of 127, which is 1.26 times 101 (the
circular mil area of No. 30 gauge wire is 101). No. 28 Length and Cross-Sectional Area
gauge wire is 1.26 times 127, which is 160. This system of Conductors
continues to include all wire sizes. Electrical circuits transform electrical energy into
A circular mil is the square of the wire’s other forms of energy, such as heat or mechanical
diameter measured in thousandths of an inch, or energy. Various kinds of conductors form circuits,
milli-inches. For example, if a stranded cable has 50 and they all have the property of resistance. Four
strands, each strand of which is 0.1 inches (in.) in factors determine the resistance of a conductor—
diameter (d), the circular mil size is calculated by first 1. the resistivity of the material,
determining that the strand’s diameter (d) is equal to 2. the length,
100 milli-inches, because 0.1 × 1,000 = 100. Then, the 3. the cross-sectional area (the gauge), and
circular mil size of a single strand is d2, which is 1002, 4. the temperature.
or 10,000 cmils. This figure may also be expressed as
As the length of a conductor is increased, its
10 kcmils because 10,000 ÷ 1,000 = 10. Finally, because
resistance increases, just as the resistance to fluid
the cable contains 50 strands, the cable’s total size is
flow in a long pipe is greater than in a short one.
10 × 50, or 500 kcmils.
Conversely, as the cross-sectional area of the con-
Table 8 lists the typical maximum current-
ductor increases, the resistance decreases, just as
carrying capacities for several sizes of copper wire.
the resistance to fluid flow is less in a large-diameter
For example, a copper wire with an AWG of 12 can
pipe than in a small-diameter pipe. The difference in
safely conduct 25.0 amperes of current (the shaded
resistivity is also similar to fluid flow through a slick
area in the table).
plastic pipe versus a rough iron pipe. Flow through
the plastic pipe is easier than through the iron pipe.
TABLE 8
As you read earlier, because conductors are
Current-Carrying Capacity of Copper Wire
usually round, their cross-sectional area is usually
AWG Size Current, Amperes measured in circular mils—that is, the conductor’s
diameter is measured in thousandths of an inch, mul-
20 2.5 tiplied by 1,000, and this number is squared. Thus, a
wire 0.004 in. in diameter has a cross-sectional area
18 5.0
of 16 circular mils, because 0.004 × 1,000 = 4, and 42 =
16 10.0 16. Here the word mil means one thousandth of an
14 20.0 inch, or 0.001 in. Wire or conductor that is 0.001 in.
in diameter and 1 foot (ft) long is a mil-foot.
12 25.0
10 40.0 Conducting Materials
8 50.0 The resistance of a conductor also depends on
6 80.0 the kind of material used to make the conductor.
For example, a mil-foot of copper wire has a re-
4 105.0
sistance of 10.4 ohms at 200°C (392°F), compared
with 17.0 ohms for a mil-foot of aluminum wire.
30 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Copper is less resistant than aluminum because resistance changes owing to temperature changes
copper has more free electrons than aluminum. cannot be tolerated.
Table 9 lists the resistivities of several elements and Liquids that conduct current (electrolytes)
alloys used for conductors. The relative merit of these behave the opposite of metals: an electrolyte’s re-
materials as conductors can be seen from this table. sistance goes up when the temperature goes down.
Incidentally, Constantan is an alloy that is made of 55 For example, a solution of sulfuric acid and water is
percent copper and 45 percent nickel. Nichrome is the the electrolyte in an ordinary car battery. Because an
trademarked name of an alloy of nickel and chrome. electrolyte’s resistance increases as the temperature
Because of Nichrome’s high resistance (600 ohms), decreases, a car battery furnishes less current in cold
it is often used for the elements in electric heaters. weather than in warm weather.
The amount that resistance increases per de-
TABLE 9 gree Celsius per ohm is the temperature coefficient.
Resistivities of Conductors This value ranges between 0.003 and 0.006 for pure
(per mil-foot at 200°C) metals. Table 10 gives the temperature coefficients
per mil-foot for several conductors at a temperature
Silver 9.9 ohms Iron 75 ohms of 20°C (68°F).
Copper 10.4 ohms Lead 132 ohms
TABLE 10
Gold 14.0 ohms Constantan 302 ohms
Temperature Coefficients of Conductors
Aluminum 17.0 ohms Mercury 577 ohms (per mil-foot at 20°C or 68°F)
Nickel 47.0 ohms Nichrome 600 ohms
Nickel 0.006 Aluminum 0.0039
Copper and aluminum should never be joined Iron 0.0055 Silver 0.0038
together, or, as electrical engineers say, they should Tungsten 0.0045 Nichrome 0.00044
never be combined in a common termination. If they Copper 0.00393 Constantan 0.000008
are connected, corrosion occurs at the point of the con-
nection. The corrosion is galvanic corrosion because a
small electric current flows from one conductor to the RELATIONSHIP EQUATION
other. This electrical flow has nothing to do with the
The relationship of the four factors that determine
normal flow of electricity in the circuit. Rather, the flow
the resistance of a conductor (specific resistance,
is the result of a miniature galvanic cell, or battery, that
length of the conductor, cross-sectional area of
is created when two different, or dissimilar, metals are
the conductor, and temperature), is shown in the
joined. That is, an electric potential occurs between the
equation—
dissimilar metals and electrons flow from one metal to  l

the other, which, over time, builds up corrosion. The R = x cm  (Eq. 17)
corrosion caused by the contact of dissimilar metals
where
results in high resistance, loose connections, and undue
R = resistance in ohms
heat because of voltage drops. Indeed, enough heat can
x = resistance per mil-foot
be produced to cause a fire and other damage.
l = length in feet
cm = area in circular mils.
Temperature Effects
Temperature affects the resistance of a conductor and In spite of equation 17’s availability, practicing
is an important variable in industrial applications of electricians and electronics personnel seldom use
electric or electronic equipment. The resistance of it because copper wire tables have been prepared
pure metals (elements) increases with an increase in that give the same information. It is easier to simply
temperature and decreases with a decrease in tempera- look it up in a table. Table 11 is an example of a
ture. Certain alloys, such as Constantan, show very commercially available copper wire table. It lists
little variation in resistance with changes in tempera- several AWG numbers for copper wire. It also
ture. Such alloys are therefore used in circuits where gives the wire’s diameter in mils, circular mils,
and square inches (in.2), as well as the resistance
 TABLE 11
Characteristics of Standard-Gauge Copper Wire Conductor

Cross-sectional areaOhms per

Diameter, mils 1,000 feet Pounds
AWG No. (0.001 in.) Circular mils in.2 at 25°C (77°F) per 1,000 ft

0000 460.0 212,000.0 0.1660000 0.0500 641.0000

000 410.0 168,000.0 0.1320000 0.0630 508.0000
00 365.0 133,000.0 0.1050000 0.0795 403.0000
0 325.0 106,000.0 0.0829000 0.1000 319.0000
1 289.0 83,700.0 0.0657000 0.1260 253.0000
2 258.0 66,400.0 0.0521000 0.1590 201.0000
3 229.0 52,600.0 0.0413000 0.2010 159.0000
4 204.0 41,700.0 0.0328000 0.2530 126.0000
5 182.0 33,100.0 0.0260000 0.3190 100.0000
6 162.0 26,300.0 0.0206000 0.4030 79.5000
7 144.0 20,800.0 0.0164000 0.5080 63.0000
8 128.0 16,500.0 0.0130000 0.6410 50.0000
9 114.0 13,100.0 0.0103000 0.8080 39.6000
10 102.0 10,400.0 0.0081500 1.0200 31.4000
11 91.0 8,230.0 0.0064700 1.2800 24.9000
12 81.0 6,530.0 0.0051300 1.6200 19.8000
13 72.0 5,180.0 0.0040700 2.0400 15.7000
14 64.0 4,110.0 0.0082300 2.5800 12.4000
15 57.0 3,260.0 0.0025600 3.2500 9.8600
16 51.0 2,580.0 0.0020300 4.0900 7.8200
17 45.0 2,050.0 0.0016100 5.1600 6.2000
18 40.0 1,620.0 0.0012800 6.5100 4.9200
19 36.0 1,290.0 0.0010100 8.2100 3.9000
20 32.0 1,020.0 0.0008020 10.0400 3.0900
21 28.5 810.0 0.0006360 13.1000 2.4500
22 25.3 642.0 0.0005050 16.5000 1.9400
23 22.6 509.0 0.0004000 20.8000 1.5400
24 20.1 404.0 0.0003170 26.2000 1.2200
25 17.9 320.0 0.0002520 33.0000 0.9700
26 15.9 254.0 0.0002000 41.6000 0.7690
27 14.2 202.0 0.0001580 52.5000 0.6100
28 12.6 160.0 0.0001260 66.2000 0.4840
29 11.3 127.0 0.0000995 83.4000 0.3840
30 10.0 101.0 0.0000789 105.0000 0.3040
31 8.9 79.7 0.0000626 133.0000 0.2410
32 8.0 63.2 0.0000496 167.0000 0.1910
33 7.1 50.1 0.0000394 211.0000 0.1520
34 6.3 39.8 0.0000312 266.0000 0.1200
35 5.6 31.5 0.0000248 325.0000 0.0954
36 5.0 25.0 0.0000196 423.0000 0.0757
37 4.5 19.8 0.0000156 533.0000 0.0600
38 4.0 15.7 0.0000123 673.0000 0.0476
39 3.5 12.5 0.0000098 848.0000 0.0377
40 3.1 9.9 0.0000078 1,070.0000 0.0299
32 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

in ohms per 1,000 ft, and how much 1,000 ft of the REVIEW QUESTIONS
wire weighs.
1. How does the length of a wire affect its re-
As an example of using the table, you can see
sistance?
that AWG No. 12 copper wire (the shaded area in
the table) has a diameter of 81.0 mils (or 0.081 in.), 2. What effect does a cross-sectional area have
a circular mill area of 6,530, a cross-sectional area of on the resistance of a wire?
0.00513 in.2, a resistance of 1.62 ohms per 1,000 ft, and 3. How does temperature affect the resistance
a weight of 19.8 pounds per 1,000 ft. of a wire?
 Properties and Characteristics of Magnetism
6
A close relationship exists between electricity and because of its historical interest; nevertheless, it
magnetism. Therefore, it is important to learn about was the beginning of humankind’s knowledge of
magnetism and its relation to electronics. magnetism. It was not until the 1800s, however, that
scientists began to investigate and to discover the
properties of magnetism.
MAGNETS AND MAGNETISM
A magnet is a piece of iron or steel that attracts other
bits of iron or steel. Magnetism is the force that occurs EARTH AS A GIANT MAGNET
when a magnet attracts iron. Magnetism also occurs The earth is a huge magnet and is surrounded by a
when electricity moves through a conductor. Put magnetic field. The earth has magnetic poles and geo-
another way, magnets and certain electrical devices graphic poles (fig. 20). Because the earth’s magnetic
exhibit magnetism. Magnetism is responsible for axis does not quite coincide with the geographic
the operation of generators, magnetos, motors, volt- axis, the magnetic and geographic poles are not at
meters, relays, and many other important devices. the same place on the surface of the earth. This fact
Magnetism can transform electrical energy is important to those who plot courses or find direc-
into mechanical energy and mechanical energy into tions when traversing the earth. This difference in
electrical energy. For example, an electric motor the location between the magnetic pole, or magnetic
transforms electrical energy into mechanical energy north, and the geographic pole, or true north, is the
because electricity turns a shaft in the motor. Then, angle of declination, or magnetic deviation.
when the shaft is connected to another device, such Magnetic deviation varies from place to place
as a pump, it performs mechanical energy, or work. on the earth. Because declination varies, geographers
On the other hand, a generator transforms mechani-
cal energy into electrical energy. For example, when NORTH
a device that provides power, such as a diesel en- NORTH GEOGRAPHIC
MAGNETIC POLE
gine, is hooked up to a generator to make it turn, the POLE LINES OF
generator makes, or generates, electricity. FORCE

HISTORY
Over 2,000 years ago, humans discovered that a type
of naturally-occurring iron ore possessed the pecu-
liar property of being able to attract small pieces of
iron. The Greeks named this iron ore, which was a
form of iron oxide, magnetite. Later, ancient explor-
ers found that an elongated piece of magnetite, if
suspended by a string, would always point in the
same direction. People then began to navigate us- SOUTH
SOUTH MAGNETIC
ing magnetite as a compass. Because it led early GEOGRAPHIC POLE
POLE
explorers in their travels, they called it lodestone,
which means way stone, in the sense that the stone
led the way. Today, lodestone is important mainly Figure 20 Earth’s poles and magnetic lines of force

33
34 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

have developed and published maps that show the of electricity than copper because copper cannot be
amount of declination for a particular location. For magnetized, and materials other than copper can be
example, in Los Angeles, California, the angle of used as conductors. Because steel contains iron, it is
declination is 14° west of true north. So, to determine also an important material.
true north from this location, one must subtract 14° Iron or steel bars can be magnetized by—
from the compass reading. On the other hand, in 1. placing them in a north-south direction
New York City, the angle of declination is 15° east and jarring them with a hammer.
of true north. So, add 15° to the compass reading to 2. rubbing them with a magnet.
determine true north from this location. 3. inserting them in a current-carrying coil.
Early users of the compass discovered that
The third method is the best way to magnetize iron
one end of the compass needle always pointed to
or steel.
the North Pole while the other end pointed to the
South Pole. On some maps, geographers designated
the north magnetic pole as the northward direction NATURE OF MAGNETISM
the compass always pointed, whereas, in fact, the In the 1830s, the German physicist Wilhelm Weber
magnetic pole is close to, but not the same as, the formulated a theory about the nature of magnetism.
geographic North Pole. Geographers also termed Weber’s theory assumes that all metals contain mo-
the South Pole the south magnetic pole. lecular magnets. That is, each metal molecule is a
Magnetic lines of force are assumed to come tiny magnet. However, the molecular magnets that
out of the north pole of a magnet and to enter the compose an unmagnetized bar of iron or steel are ar-
magnet’s south pole as closed loops (fig. 21). The ranged at random (fig. 22A). With this arrangement,
compass needle aligns itself so that the earth’s lines adjacent molecules neutralize each other’s magne-
of force enter at its south pole and leave at its north tism, and no external magnetic effect is produced.
pole. Because the north pole of the needle is defined But, when an unmagnetized bar is subjected to a
as the end that points in a northerly direction, it magnetizing force, the individual north and south
follows that the magnetic pole in the vicinity of the poles of the molecules align themselves so that all
north geographic pole is in reality a south magnetic the north poles are pointing in one direction and all
pole and vice versa. the south poles are pointing in the other direction
(fig. 22B). The presence of excessive heat or vibration
can cause these molecules to become misaligned.

N S N S N N S
S
N
N S N
N S N
S
S
S

N S S
S N S
N

N N S
S N
S N

N S
S N S N S
S

N N S
N

Figure 21 Magnetic lines of force N S N S N S N S N S N S N S

N S N S N S N S N S N S N S

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES N S N S N S N S N S N S N S

Of all the materials on earth, only a few can be

B
magnetized. Of these, iron, cobalt, and nickel are
the most important. Iron exhibits a higher degree of
magnetism than any other material. Consequently, Figure 22 A. Magnetic molecules arranged in a
it is the most important material used for electrical random manner. B. Magnetic molecules arranged
purposes. Indeed, iron is more important to the field in an organized manner
Properties and Characteristics of Magnetism 35

Retentivity Soft iron or annealed steel allows lines of force

Hard steel is difficult to magnetize. The molecules to be easily distributed throughout the metal. Such
in hard steel offer more resistance to a change in material is a good conductor of magnetic lines and
their alignment than do the molecules in soft iron. A has high permeability. Air is assigned a permeability
stronger magnetizing force is required to make steel of 1.0. Iron and soft steel may have a permeability of
molecules swing around so that their axes are paral- 100 to 10,000 depending on the grade of iron or steel.
lel. Once in line, however, they are equally difficult This rating system indicates that magnetic lines can
to get out of line. Thus, hard steel has a high retentiv- pass through soft iron or steel considerably easier
ity—that is, it retains its magnetism well. than they can pass through air; indeed, 100 to 10,000
Soft iron is easy to magnetize because its times easier.
molecules easily swing into line. However, when Magnetic lines can also pass through a vacuum,
the magnetizing force is removed, the molecules but the difference in permeability between a vacuum
tend to lose their alignment. Thus, soft iron has low and air is very small. Moreover, magnetic lines can
retentivity. pass through electrical insulators as well as conduc-
tors like copper or aluminum. The permeabilities of
these materials are about the same as that of air. On
Permeability
the other hand, iron, cobalt, and nickel have high
Because the permeability of iron or steel is much permeability.
higher than that of air, these materials are attracted
to a magnet. Permeability, in this sense, is a measure Magnetic Flux
of the ability of a material to conduct magnetism. If a pane of glass is placed over a bar magnet and iron
When a piece of soft iron, for instance, is placed in filings are sprinkled over the glass, the filings arrange
the air near a magnet, the magnetic lines tend to pass themselves in an orderly fashion. (A bar magnet is
through the iron rather than through surrounding air a type of permanent magnet in that it is made of hard
(fig. 23). This phenomenon occurs because it is easier steel that tends to hold its magnetism for a long time.)
for the magnetic lines to pass through iron than to The arrangement of the iron filings, which becomes
pass through air. Magnetic lines always seek the path more apparent if the glass is gently tapped, shows
of least resistance as well as the shortest path. Put the lines of magnetic force—the flux—around the
another way, iron has greater permeability than air. magnet. The concept of lines of force, or flux, is the
As the lines pass through the iron bar, they magnetize best way to visualize the force around a magnet.
the bar so that its south pole is nearest the north pole The lines of force are denser at the ends of the
of the magnet. The closer the bar is moved toward bar (see fig. 21). These points at the ends of the bar
the magnet, the stronger it is magnetized, and the are the magnetic poles. The poles are the sites of the
greater is the attraction between it and the magnet. greatest attraction to other bits of iron. The space that
magnetic lines occupy is a magnetic field, and the
greater the number of lines in a given unit of space,
the greater is the attraction to the iron in that vicinity.
Magnetic flux, or the lines of force, behaves simi-
larly to several stretched rubber bands. Lines of force
possess three distinct properties, and these properties
S N
explain magnetic attraction and repulsion.
1. Magnetic lines constantly tend to decrease
N their length and consistently seek the path
SOFT of least resistance in much the same way
S IRON
as electrons that flow in the path of least
resistance. Magnetic lines can be visualized
as being in tension.
2. Magnetic lines never cross each other.
Lines going in the same direction have a
Figure 23 A piece of soft iron placed near a magnet
tendency to push away from each other.
36 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

The tendency to move away from other

lines is similar to the repulsive force of two
like charges.
3. Magnetic lines have direction and, as
charged particles, are either positive or N S N S
negative. They are assumed by most AIR GAP
authorities to emerge from the magnet’s
north pole and enter its south pole.
A
Attraction and Repulsion
AIR GAP
If a compass is held near the north pole of a magnet,
the south end of the compass needle revolves so that
the south pole of the compass points to the north S N N S
pole of the magnet (fig. 24). This phenomenon dem-
onstrates the first important rule of attraction: unlike
poles attract. If the north poles of two magnets are B
held together, they repel each other. Thus, the second
rule is that like poles repel. The third rule of magnetic
Figure 25 Reaction between two magnets
attraction and repulsion is that the force of attrac-
tion or repulsion varies directly with the product of
strength of the separate poles and inversely with the that the lines of magnetic force do not flow directly
square of the distance separating the magnetic poles. from one pole to the other as in the case where unlike
This rule can be shown in a written-out equation as— poles are placed near each other.
product of strength of two poles
Force = . (Eq. 18)
(distance between poles)2 TYPES OF MAGNETS
In figure 25A–B, two bar magnets are shown. Magnets may be classified according to how they
In 25A, the unlike poles of the magnets are near each were created, shaped, or formed. Included in this
other. Attraction occurs between the magnets because classification are temporary magnets and permanent
the lines of force are attempting to shorten their path magnets.
in the air gap between the magnets’ north and south
poles. In 25B, the like poles (the north poles in this Temporary Magnets
case) of the magnets are near each other. Repulsion It is possible to create artificial magnets by plac-
occurs between the magnets. That is, the lines of force ing certain materials in a magnetic field. Artificial
repel each other. Notice that the air gap is large and magnets may be classified as either temporary or

COMPASS NEEDLE

N S

S N S MAGNET N S N
S N
N S

N S N S

Figure 24 The position of a compass needle in relation to north and south poles of magnets
Properties and Characteristics of Magnetism 37

permanent magnets, depending on their ability to Shapes

retain their magnetic strength (their retentivity) after Permanent magnets are available in many shapes, but
the magnetizing force has been removed. For ex- the most common are the horseshoe, ring, and bar
ample, when soft iron or steel is placed in a magnetic (fig. 26). The closed ring magnet is interesting because
field, it becomes magnetized temporarily. When the virtually no magnetic effect is felt as long as the ring
soft iron bar is removed from the field, it loses most is complete. However, if a section of the ring is cut
of its magnetism. If the bar is placed in a strong field, out to make an open ring magnet, magnetic poles are
it becomes strongly magnetized; if it is placed in a established, and the ring magnet behaves similarly
weak field, it becomes weakly magnetized. In either to a horseshoe magnet.
case, however, the soft iron or steel loses most of
its magnetism when the magnetic field is removed.
Thus, soft iron and steel are temporary magnets.
When a soft iron bar is removed from a mag-
netic field, it does not, however, lose all its magne-
tism. The small amount it retains is residual magnetism.
The residual magnetism of iron objects affects the N S
accuracy of a compass. Residual magnetism accounts
HORSES HOE CLOSED RING
for the warning that cross-country hikers should not MAGNET MAGNET
take a bearing with a magnetic compass near a gun,
a wire fence, or a pipeline. Residual magnetism in
these objects attracts the compass needle and it gives
erroneous readings.
As mentioned earlier, the ability of a material N S
N S
to retain its magnetism once it is removed from the
magnetizing force is its retentivity. A bar of soft iron OPEN RING BAR MAGNET
MAGNET
or steel has high permeability because it easily con-
ducts magnetic lines. However, soft iron or steel has
low retentivity because it does not remain strongly Figure 26 Various shapes of magnets
magnetized when removed from the magnetizing
force. A magnet of this type is a temporary magnet.
Manufacture
Temporary magnets are used in motors, generators,
transformers, relays, and other electrical apparatus. Pouring molten alloy into the proper form is the
first step in making a permanent magnet. After the
Permanent Magnets material has cooled, the pole faces are ground flat.
A material that retains a large percentage of its mag- Because the alloys are very hard, they are difficult
netism once it is magnetized is a permanent magnet. to drill or cut. Therefore, most permanent magnets
Permanent magnets are made of very hard steel or have a rough finish. Although the material used to
steel with other metals alloyed with it. Although make magnets is very hard, it is also quite brittle.
this type of material is relatively hard to magnetize Brittleness means that permanent magnets can be
and has low permeability, it has high retentivity. broken relatively easily. After the magnet has been
Through the years, efforts have been made to pro- properly shaped and finished, it is then magnetized.
duce stronger permanent magnets—that is, magnets
Care
that have more lines of force per volume of material
used. By alloying steel with other metals (some of Permanent magnets lose their magnetism if they
which are not magnetic), powerful magnets have are heated to high temperatures. Therefore, they
been produced. One example is the alnico magnet. should not be subjected to even moderately high
It is made of an alloy of aluminum, nickel, cobalt, temperatures. Also, magnets should not be struck
and other elements, such as copper and titanium. with a hammer or dropped. Either form of abuse
It is interesting to note that aluminum, by itself, is upsets the alignment of the molecules in the magnet
not magnetic. and causes the magnet to lose strength.
38 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Storage to a battery for current flow (fig. 28A–B). Note that

When magnets are not in use, a soft iron bar should the magnetic lines of force flow in a circle around the
be placed between the poles. Such a bar is a keeper. conductor. In figure 28A, the lines flow in a clockwise
The keeper protects the magnet’s poles if the magnet direction. In reality, you cannot see the lines of force,
is dropped or accidentally struck by a hard object. but you can determine their direction of travel by
Similarly-shaped magnets should be stacked in the observing the direction in which the compass needle
attracting position—that is, the north pole of one points. It points in the direction the lines flow. Thus,
magnet should be attached to the opposite, or south, in figure 28A, the needle’s various positions around
pole of the other magnet (fig. 27). the conductor show that the lines of force flow in
a clockwise direction. On the other hand, in figure
28B, the lines of force flow counterclockwise, which
was achieved by reversing the polarity of the bat-
tery connections. Reversing the battery connections
changes the direction of current flow through the
conductor, which, in turn, changes the direction of
S the lines of force.
N S
N N

S LINES OF
FORCE
SOFT IRON
KEEPER
+

Figure 27 Proper storage of magnets BATTERY

CURRENT AND MAGNETIC FIELDS COMPASS NEEDLE

As mentioned earlier, a close relationship exists

between electricity and magnetic fields. Current DIRECTION OF CURRENT
produces a magnetic field and a magnetic field can
produce voltage. A

Oersted’s Discovery
In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted, a Danish scientist,
discovered the relationship between electric cur-
rent flow and magnetism. He accidentally held a –
compass near a current-carrying wire and noticed
that current flowing through the wire deflected the
compass needle from its normal position. He also +
noticed that the needle went back to its normal posi-
COMPASS NEEDLE
tion when current flow was stopped. This deflection
of a compass’s needle showed that the compass was
being influenced by a magnetic field other than that DIRECTION OF CURRENT
of the earth. It also showed that the magnetic field
was evidently coming from the current flow through B
the conductor.
To duplicate Oersted’s experiment, pass a
Figure 28 A and B. Effect of current flow on a
conductor vertically through a piece of cardboard compass
in a horizontal position, and connect the conductor
Properties and Characteristics of Magnetism 39

Current Strength and Magnetic Fields

The strength of the magnetic field varies with the
distance from the current-carrying conductor. If the
compass is placed close to the wire, the compass
needle responds quickly, indicating a strong mag-
netic field. The magnetic field is densest at the axis – +
of the wire and rapidly becomes less dense (weaker)
as distance from the wire increases. A
The strength of the magnetic field is also af-
fected by the strength of the current flowing through
the conductor. The stronger the current, the stronger
+
the magnetic field. Moving charges (electrons in mo-
– +
tion) set up the magnetic field. So, an increase in cur-
rent through the conductor causes a greater number
of electrons to move through the conductor and sets
B
up a greater number of magnetic lines.

Figure 29 A. Two parallel conductors carrying

Right-Hand Rule for Conductors current that flows in the same direction. B. Parallel
The relation between the direction of the magnetic conductors with current flowing in opposite directions.
lines of force around a conductor and the direction
of conventional current flow along the conductor in the same direction. Consequently, they collide
may be determined by using the right-hand rule for and cannot combine into one field. As the magnetic
conductors. If a conductor is grasped in the right hand lines pass, they push away from each other, thereby
with the thumb pointing in the direction of current pushing the wires apart.
flow—that is, away from the positive terminal of
the battery—the fingers point in the direction of the Conductors at Right Angles
magnetic lines. This direction is the same that the
When conductors carrying currents are placed at right
north pole of the compass would point if it were in
angles to each other, current flows around each leg of
the magnetic field.

Parallel Conductors and Magnetic Fields

When two parallel conductors carry currents in the
same direction, an attraction occurs between the fields
(fig. 29A). So, the conductors move toward each other.
The magnetic fields attract in the same manner that
unlike poles of two magnets attract. As shown at top
right in figure 29A, the magnetic lines of force rotating
around the wires travel in opposite directions. Where
the two magnetic fields overlap, the lines of force
merge into continuous lines that travel around both
wires. Since magnetic lines of force follow the path of
least resistance, the two fields tend to combine and
form a single field that encircles both wires.
Where two parallel conductors carry currents
in reverse directions (fig. 29B), the wires push apart.
The magnetic fields around the conductors repel just
Figure 30 Two conductors at right angles to each
as the like poles of magnets repel. As shown at bottom
other; current flow in each conductor tries to move
right in figure 29B, the lines of force circle the wires the conductors into a parallel position.
40 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

the conductor in opposite directions (fig. 30). In the up-

per right quadrant, current flow is counterclockwise. In
the lower left quadrant, flow is clockwise. Because the
flow in each quadrant is in the opposite direction, each
leg of the conductor repels the other. Consequently,
the conductors turn and become parallel to each other
so that the currents flow in the same direction in each
conductor. In general, current-carrying conductors
tend to move away from a strong field to a weak field.

COILS Figure 32 Magnetic field around a loosely-wound

If a conductor is coiled into a loop and current is sent coil
through it (fig. 31), the lines of force flow through
the loop’s center. Note, too, that lines of force circle
the top of the loop. If a compass is placed beside the
loop, the needle points toward the loop just as if the
two sides of the loop were the poles of a permanent
magnet. One side has a north pole while the other
side has a south pole.

Figure 33 Magnetic field around a tightly-wound

S N
coil

travel through the coil instead of around the entire

coil because the two sides of each loop carry current
in opposite directions (see figure 29B).
Figure 33 also shows that the magnetic field
Figure 31 Current flow in a loop; note north and
around a tightly-wound, current-carrying coil is the
south poles
same as the pattern of a permanent magnet. One end of
the coil is a north pole and the other end is a south pole.
Current Flow in Coils
If the wire is formed into several loops, a solenoid, or Right-Hand Rule for Coils
coil, is created. If the coil is loosely wound (fig. 32), If the direction of conventional current flow through
magnetic lines of force circle each loop of the coil a coil is known, the coil’s magnetic polarity can be
and join to travel through the coil’s center. If the coil determined using the right-hand rule for coils (fig. 34).
is tightly wound (fig. 33), the lines circle the top and If the coil is grasped in the right hand with the fingers
bottom of the whole coil instead of forming separate wrapped around it in the direction of the current flow,
magnetic fields around the several loops that make the thumb points toward the coil’s north pole.
up the coil. The loops are parallel conductors carrying Remember that the direction of current flow
current in the same direction (see fig. 29A). in the supply voltage is from positive to negative.
In the loosely-wound coil, the lines between Coils may be wound in a clockwise direction or
the turns go in opposite directions and try to cancel in a counterclockwise direction. The rule holds for
each other. To avoid canceling each other, the lines of both winding directions. The poles of a coil may be
force around the several loops combine into a single reversed by reversing the battery connections to the
field that encircles all loops of the coil. The lines
Properties and Characteristics of Magnetism 41

MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
Because magnetism is a convenient way to transform
electrical energy into mechanical energy, many elec-
trical devices depend on magnetism for their opera-
tion. Among such devices are motors, generators,
transformers, and magnetic switches. If an electrical
current is to flow, the current must have a suitable
circuit, or path, to flow in. Likewise, if magnetic lines
of force are to be used to their full advantage, the lines
must have suitable paths, or circuits.
Figure 34 Right-hand rule for coils
Length, Cross-Sectional Area,
and Permeability
coil, or by removing the turns of the coil and winding
In most electrical devices, iron cores provide the paths
them in the reverse direction.
for the magnetic circuits. (A magnetic circuit is the path
magnetic lines of force take in the electrical device in
Electromagnets
which a magnet is used.) When studying iron core
A magnet’s strength can be greatly increased if a
magnetic circuits, several points should be considered.
soft iron bar is placed inside a coil. Iron provides a
• The length of a magnetic circuit is abbrevi-
much better path for the magnetic lines than does
ated L. As a magnetic circuit’s length in-
air or other nonmagnetic materials. If a coil has iron
creases, it becomes more difficult to set up
inside of it, it is an electromagnet. Electromagnets are
lines of force in it.
used in magnetic switches, relays, scrap-iron lift-
• The cross-sectional area of the magnetic
ers, and other devices. Some electromagnets have a
circuit is abbreviated A. The larger the
powdered-iron core. Powdered-iron cores are made
cross-sectional area of a magnetic circuit is,
of iron that is ground to a fine dust, formed into the
the greater the number of lines that can be
proper shape, and held together by binding material.
set up in a given area of iron. Therefore, the
Cores larger the area, the greater are the number
of lines that can be set up.
The inside of the coil is its core whether a magnetic, or
• The permeability of the iron used in the mag-
other, material is in the coil. Coils with iron inserted
netic circuit is abbreviated µ, which is mu,
in them are iron-core coils. Coils without magnetic
the twelfth letter of the Greek alphabet. As
materials are air-core coils. Inserting an iron core into
mentioned previously, permeability is a mea-
a current-carrying coil does not upset the location of
sure of the relative ability of iron to conduct
north and south magnetic poles; instead, it greatly
magnetic lines as compared to the ability of air
increases the number of lines set up because more lines
to conduct lines. Permeability varies greatly,
encircle the entire coil. Incidentally, the right-hand rule
depending on the material. For example, each
for determining the magnetic polarity of a coil may be
grade of iron or steel has different permeabili-
applied to electromagnets without any modifications.
ties. Permeability also varies with the degree
Magnetic Field Strength to which the iron or steel is magnetized.

The strength of the coil’s magnetic field depends on

Similarity of Electric and Magnetic Circuits
several factors. They include—
The path that magnetic lines take, whether it is iron,
1. the number of turns of the coil,
steel, or air, is the magnetic circuit. Rowland’s laws,
2. the amount of current that flows through
which are laws that apply to magnetic circuits, are
the coil,
similar to those for electrical circuits. (Henry A.
3. the type of material in the core (the form
Rowland was an American physicist of the mid to
that the coil is wound on), and
late 1800s who studied magnetism.) One of Row-
4. the ratio of the coil’s length to its diameter.
42 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

land’s laws is similar to Ohm’s law. Because of this compares Rowland’s law in the magnetic circuit with
similarity, Rowland’s law is sometimes called Ohm’s Ohm’s law in the electrical circuit. Note that a coil
law for magnetic circuits. As you recall, Ohm’s law with current flowing through it creates the magnetic
for electrical circuits is I = E/R, where I = current, E = circuit, so Rowland’s law, φ = F/R, applies to it, while
voltage, and R = resistance. Rowland’s law is— Ohm’s law, I = E/R, applies to the electrical circuit.
F Thus, magnetic flux, ø, is equivalent to current, I;
φ = (Eq. 18)
R magnetomotive force, F, is equivalent to voltage, E;
where and reluctance, R, is equivalent to resistance, R.
φ = magnetic lines of force, or magnetic flux
F = magnetomotive force, ampere-turns Magnetomotive Force
R = reluctance.
In a magnetic circuit, F stands for the force that cre-
In an electric circuit, I stands for current, which,
ates magnetic lines of force: the magnetomotive force
remember, is the movement of holes or electrons
(mmf). It is analogous to electromotive force, or volt-
from atom to atom. In a magnetic circuit, φ, which
age. Magnetomotive force is the product of two factors:
is the Greek letter phi, stands for magnetic lines of
the current that flows in the coil and the number of
force, or flux. In electric circuits, the current actually
turns that the coil has. In equation form—
flows—that is, the holes or electrons move. In a mag-
netic circuit, however, the lines of force do not flow; F = IN (Eq. 19)
instead, they simply come into existence and go out where
of existence in much the same way as a mechanical F = magnetomotive force (mmf), ampere-
force. Figure 35 shows a schematic of a magnetic turns
circuit with a schematic of an electrical circuit and I = current, amperes
N = number of turns in coil.
Magnetomotive force is expressed in ampere-turns,
just as electrical force is expressed in volts. To find
the ampere-turns, the current is multiplied by the
Φ =
F number of turns in the coil.
R
Reluctance
In electrical circuits, resistance is the opposition to
current flow offered by the material of a conductor. In
magnetic circuits, reluctance describes the opposition
the core material offers to the establishment of mag-
MAGN ETI C
CIRCUIT netic lines within it. The letter R stands for reluctance,
and electrical engineers and others have proposed
E a unit for reluctance they call the rel. However, rel
I =
R
has not been completely accepted; so, often no unit
is used. Reluctance is usually expressed as so many
units of reluctance, which is a number.
E
R Just as length, cross-sectional area, and the
+
nature of its material controls the resistance of a
conductor, so does length, cross-sectional area, and
the nature of its material (permeability) determine the
EL ECTRICAL reluctance of a magnetic circuit. In equation form—
CIRCUIT L
R = (Eq. 20)
Aµ
Figure 35 Series circuits; magnetic circuit (top) where
with Rowland's law and electrical circuit (bottom) R = reluctance
with Ohm’s law L = length, in.
Properties and Characteristics of Magnetism 43

A = cross-sectional area, in.2

µ = permeability.
EEL
In electrical circuits, the value of a conductor T ST
100 CAS
in ohms does not change with varying amounts of ON ST
EEL
SILIC
current flowing through it if the temperature is held 90
constant. In magnetic circuits, however, the value of
reluctance (R) of a magnetic circuit does vary with the 80

FLUX DENSI TY—KILOLINES PER IN2 (B)

number of lines in the magnetic material. The perme-
70
ability of the core material changes with the degree of KNEE
magnetization. And, because permeability changes, 60
the reluctance also changes as shown by equation
20. Thus, calculating the performance of magnetic 50
KNEE ON
circuits is more difficult than similar calculations for T IR
CAS
40
electrical circuits.
30

Flux Density
20
The letter B stands for flux density, which is the num- KNEE
ber of lines of force in a square inch of a core’s cross- 10

sectional area. Flux density indicates the degree to

0
which the core material is magnetized. For example, 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

slightly magnetized steel has few lines per in.2, while MAGNETI ZING FORCE—AMP. TURNS PER IN.(F)

highly magnetized steel has thousands of lines per

in.2. To look at it another way, if 1 in.2 of core material Figure 36 Magnetizing force vs flux density for
is conducting thousands of flux lines, the core has three materials
high flux density.
If flux density is increased to a high level, a
point is reached where an increase in magnetomotive voltage, occurs along the length of a conductor that
force gives only a minimal increase in the number of is carrying current, a magnetomotive drop occurs
lines in the core. At this point, the magnetic circuit, or along the length of the magnetic circuit. The longer
core, is saturated. Figure 36 plots magnetizing force in the magnetic circuit, the greater is the magnetomotive
ampere-turns per in. versus flux density in thousands force required to magnetize the core to the desired
of lines (kilolines) per in.2 for three materials: cast iron, degree. Magnetizing force, or ampere-turns per inch,
cast steel, and silicon steel. The saturation point on is expressed mathematically by the equation—
the graph occurs where the curve ceases running IN
vertically and curves in a horizontal direction. (This
H = (Eq. 21)
L
point is the knee of the curve.) A magnetic core of where
cast steel, for example, has a saturation point of 10 H = magnetizing force
ampere-turns per inch and should not be operated I = current, amperes
above that point. Operation of magnetic circuits near N = number of turns per in.
or above the saturation point wastes electric power L = length of core, in.
and is therefore avoided in well-designed equipment.
Permeability
Magnetizing Force Permeability of a core material is a measure of the
The letter H stands for the magnetizing force. Mag- material’s ability to conduct magnetic lines of force.
netizing force involves magnetomotive force in Permeability is based on the conducting ability of
ampere-turns and the length of the magnetic circuit air; air is assigned a permeability of 1. The perme-
to be magnetized. Basically, magnetizing force is ability (µ) of a core material indicates how many
the ampere-turns per inch of the length of the core times better it is than air for conducting magnetic
to be magnetized. Just as a voltage drop, or loss of lines of force. Permeability not only varies with the
44 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

type of core material, but also with the degree of then converge and enter the center leg of the core at
magnetization—that is, permeability depends on the the south pole. Many electromagnets and relays are
number of flux lines per in.2 (B). The number of flux constructed with E-shaped cores.
lines, in turn, depends on the number of ampere- At the top of the drawing is a horizontal bar.
turns per in. (H). As the number of ampere-turns If this bar is free to move—it could be hinged at one
increases, which causes an increase in the number end—it is an armature. An armature is made of coils of
of flux lines, permeability decreases. Decreased wire placed around a metal core, in which electric cur-
permeability means that more electrical power is rent is induced. As it moves, the armature can produce
required to produce a given increase in the level of electricity as it does in a generator, or it can interact
magnetization of a core above the saturation point with a magnetic field to produce torque in a motor.
than is required to bring about the same increases The lower part of the figure shows a yoke. It is a
below the saturation point. Permeability can be yoke because it does not move—it is fixed. A yoke is
derived from the equation— a stationary part made of ferromagnetic material. A
0.313B yoke does not have windings; rather, it simply con-
µ = (Eq. 22)
H nects the magnetic core. Yokes are commonly used in
analog tape recorders where they form the recording
where
head. The head, yoke, is the part on the recorder that
µ = permeability
B = lines per in.2 magnetically affects the tape as it passes the head to
H = ampere-turns per in. record sounds on the tape.
0.313 = a constant (adjusts equation to the units
of measurement). Tractive Force
When a block of iron is placed near the poles of an
Parallel Magnetic Circuits electromagnet (fig. 38), it is attracted to the poles.
Figure 37 depicts an E-shaped core with two parallel However, in a typical electromagnet, an air space oc-
magnetic paths and an equivalent parallel electric curs between the poles of the magnet and the block
circuit. In the electric circuit to the right within the of iron. The magnetic lines of force (shown by a single
figure, note that current flow is counterclockwise in line in the figure) travel out of one of the poles of the
the left half of the circuit and clockwise in the right electromagnet, through the air space, through the
half. Flux line flow in the core is similar. That is, all block of iron, through the other air space, through the
flux lines are traveling in the center leg of the core. other pole of the magnet, and through the armature.
At the top of the center leg (the north pole) the lines The lines of force cause the armature to move, or
divide; half of the lines flow in the core’s left leg and rotate, which, as mentioned previously, can generate
the other half flow in the core’s right leg. The lines electricity or produce torque in a motor.
Because the flux lines are shortened in the air
space when the surfaces move closer together, a force
HORIZONTAL BAR-ARMATURE

IRON
BLOCK
AIR
SPACE

COIL

YOKE

PARALLE L EQUIVALENT MAGNETIC

MAGN ETI C E LECTRIC LINES OF
CIRCUI T C IRCUIT FORCE
ARMATURE

Figure 37 Magnetic parallel circuit and equivalent

parallel electric circuit Figure 38 Electromagnet
Properties and Characteristics of Magnetism 45

of attraction exists in this area. This force of attraction 7. What is a magnetic field?
is tractive force. The flux’s density in the air space 8. At what part of a magnet are the lines of force
and the area of the air space determine the strength at their densest?
of the tractive force. An equation is available to find 9. What are magnetic poles and where are they
the tractive force of an electromagnet— located on a magnet?
F = B2 × A × 1.39 × 10-8 (Eq. 23) 10. What pole are the lines of force assumed to
come out of?
where
F = force in pounds 11. What is permeability?
B = lines per in.2 12. What is retentiveness?
A = area in in.2 13. Give the rules of attraction and repulsion in
1.39 × 10-8 = a constant. magnets.
14. Explain what a temporary magnet is.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 15. What kind of material is a temporary magnet
1. Name some devices that depend on magne- made of?
tism for their operation. 16. What type of device uses temporary magnets?
2. What is magnetite? 17. What is residual magnetism?
3. What is lodestone? 18. If you wished to permanently magnetize a
4. Define magnet. metal, what kind of metal would you use?
5. Describe how to magnetize hard steel. 19. What can cause a permanent magnet to lose
6. Draw a diagram of the field around a bar its strength?
magnet. 20. Describe how a magnet should be stored
when it is not in use.
 Induction Principles and AC Generators 7
ALTERNATING CURRENT tery’s negative terminal never becomes positively
Alternating current (AC) is current that periodically charged. Likewise, the connecting wire that leads to
reverses its direction of flow in a circuit and constantly the positive terminal of the battery is positive.
changes its strength, or amplitude. One source of alter- The two most important sources of DC current
nating current is an AC generator, which is an alterna- are batteries and DC generators. Each has a positive
tor. The current occasionally reverses its direction of and a negative terminal, which are usually marked
flow in a circuit because the terminals of the alternator plus (+) for positive and minus (–) for negative.
are constantly reversing their polarity. That is, a ter-
minal of the AC generator is positive at one instant,
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
negative the next instant, then positive, then negative, Magnetic devices include such equipment as relays,
and so on. During the time that one terminal is positive, motors, and transformers. Because they are magnetic
the other terminal is negative. When the terminals of the devices, they are usually discussed in terms of their
alternator reverse their polarity, the direction of current magnetic fields. On the other hand, conventional
flow in the circuit also reverses, because conventional electrical devices, such as radio circuits and the like,
current always flows from positive to negative. are usually discussed in terms of their electric fields.
When current changes its direction of flow, the Further, just as magnetic devices have magnetic fields
strength, or amplitude, of the current also changes. and magnetic lines of force, conventional electrical
Current strength falls to zero at the instant the rever- devices have electric fields and electric lines of force.
sal in direction of flow occurs. This phenomenon is Electric lines of force exist whenever a difference in
similar to a person’s traveling due east and deciding potential occurs, such as around the terminals of a
to change direction. The person must come to a stop, battery, or around power lines.
at least momentarily, before he or she can travel due Moreover, if an atomic particle, such as an elec-
west. Similarly, the strength of alternating current tron or proton, is charged, electric lines of force are
changes from zero to a maximum in one direction, associated with it, too. If the particle is an electron, it
then falls to zero and rises to a maximum in the other is negatively charged. In this case, the lines go out of
direction, and returns to zero again. This action is the particle (fig. 39A). If the particle is a proton, it is
repeated as long as current is flowing. positively charged, and the lines go into the particle
(fig. 39B).
Particles with unlike charges—that is, one
DIRECT CURRENT has a positive charge and the other has a negative
Direct current (DC), on the other hand, flows in one charge—are attracted to each other. This fact leads to
direction; its strength, or amplitude, remains constant. the expression, “unlike charges attract.” Electric lines
When a circuit is connected to a battery, the current of force, just as magnetic lines of force, always tend
flows from the positive terminal of the battery through to travel the shortest route possible, and the shortest
the circuit to the negative terminal of the battery in one distance for the lines is between two unlike charges
direction. To reverse the current’s direction through (fig. 39C). Thus, they attract.
the circuit, the battery terminals must be reversed. On the other hand, when particles with like
Reversing the battery terminals is the only way to charges are brought together, they tend to repel—that
reverse the current’s direction through the circuit. is, “like charges repel.” Like charges repel because
The positive terminal of a battery remains positively the lines around the charges collide head on and
charged; it never becomes negative. Moreover, a bat- therefore oppose each other (fig. 39D).

47
48 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

must be moving to induce voltage in the conductor.

Voltage is induced only when motion occurs.
Forming the conductor into a coil increases the
induced voltage beyond that which is produced in a
straight-wire conductor. Voltage is increased in the
coil because voltage is induced in each loop, or turn,
of the coil. Since the turns are in series—they follow
A. Electric Field about B. Electric Field about one after the other—the voltages add up just as they
a Negatively- Charged a Positively- Charged add up in batteries that are in series. For example,
Particle Particle
suppose one turn of a coil has 0.1 volt induced across
+ – + it. If ten turns make up the coil, then a total of 1 volt
appears across the whole coil because 10 × 0.1 = 1.
BATTERY BATTERY BATTERY
The speed of the movement and the strength
– + – of the magnet also affect the value of the induced
voltage in the coil. Increased speed and increased
strength cause an increase in induced voltage. Put
another way, the induced voltage is directly propor-
tional to the number of lines that cut, or move across,
the coil per second of time.

– + + + Induced Voltage
Figure 40 is a six-part drawing that illustrates volt-
C. Unlike Charges D. Like Charges age being induced in a conductor. In this case, the
Attract Repel conductor is a straight wire. Figure 40A shows the
conductor—the wire— moving downward through
Figure 39 A-D. Electric fields and charges the magnetic field of a permanent horseshoe magnet.
This movement induces voltage in the conductor.
Figure 40B represents the conductor and the
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION magnetic lines of force as though an observer is at the
Up to now, this manual has mostly used a battery magnet’s north pole looking towards its south pole.
as an example of a voltage source. Indeed, batter- Consequently, the magnetic lines of force are moving
ies are an important source of voltage. However, away from the viewer and are shown as dots. (The
in many cases, they are too expensive and im- dots represent the tail end of arrows, which are used
practical to use as a voltage source. For example, to show lines of force.) For simplicity, only one free
it is well beyond the capabilities of batteries to electron is shown in the conductor. It is represented
deliver commercial electrical energy on a large by a minus sign (–) inside a small oval. As indicated
scale. Therefore, electric generators provide most by the arrow, the free electrons are moving to the left
commercial electricity. in the conductor.
A generator operates on the principle of elec- Figure 40C shows the free electron with mag-
tromagnetic induction. As you recall, induction occurs netic lines around it from the same view as in figure
when a conductor is placed near an electrically-ener- 40B (only one line is shown for clarity). The magnetic
gized body. (Direct contact is not required.) Induc- lines appear around the free electron because the
tion produces voltage in the conductor. Similarly, moving conductor moves the electrons and their
electro­magnetic induction produces voltage when a electric fields. When an electric field is in motion, a
conductor cuts across, or is cut by, a magnetic field. magnetic field occurs.
For example, voltage is induced in a coiled conduc- Figure 40D shows the electron moving to the
tor when the coil is passed in and out of a stationary left. This leftward motion occurs because electrons
magnet’s magnetic field. Or, moving the magnet move toward the weak side of the field. In this case,
past the coil can also induce voltage. Either the coil the magnetic lines go around the electron in a coun-
or the magnet can be moved, but one or the other
Induction Principles and AC Generators 49

GALVANOMETER
GALVANOMETER CONDUCT
CONDUCTOR
OR

CONDUCT
CONDUCTORS
ORS
MAGNETIC
MAGNETIC
MAGNETIC FIELD
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
FREE ELECTRONS
ELECTR
ONS

N S N S

B C

D E
PERMANENT
A MAGNET
MAGNET F

Figure 40 Inducing voltage by moving the conductor

terclockwise direction (as indicated in figure 40C). conductor and circuit are moved downward through
Counterclockwise movement tends to strengthen the field, the galvanometer detects the current in the
the field to the right of the electron and to weaken circuit, which is indicated by the galvanometer’s ar-
the field to the left of the electron. So, the electron row deflection to the right. Also, downward move-
moves in the direction of the weaker field, which is ment causes the charge on the left end of the wire
to the left in figure 40D. to be negative and the charge on the right end to be
Figure 40E shows several free electrons (indi- positive. However, if the wire is moved upward, the
cated by minus signs) that have moved to the left end charge on the left end of the conductor becomes posi-
of the wire. This collection of electrons represents tive, and the charge at the right end of the conductor
a negative charge. Since these free electrons have becomes negative. Upward movement also causes
moved from their normal positions in the wire, this the current flowing through the galvanometer to
leaves a deficiency of electrons (holes) at the right reverse direction. In this case, the galvanometer’s
end of the wire, which constitutes a positive charge. arrow deflects to the left.
The wire is now negatively charged at one end and
positively at the other. The charge represents a differ- Induced Current
ence in potential, or voltage. This voltage is induced Figure 41A–B shows a stationary coil and a magnet
voltage or induced emf. If a circuit were connected to being moved in and out of the coil. A galvanometer
each end of the wire, the voltage across the ends of the is connected to the coil to indicate current flow. As
wire would drive current through the circuit much the magnet is plunged downward into the coil (fig.
as a battery would. Such current is induced current. 41A), the moving magnetic field sets up electric fields
Figure 40F shows a simple circuit connected to in the turns of the coil. This electric field causes the
the ends of the conductor. A galvanometer is in the cir- free electrons to move down to the bottom end of the
cuit. A galvanometer is an instrument that detects or coil, placing a negative charge at the lower end of the
measures a small electric current by movements of a coil. The upper end of the coil is positively charged
magnetic needle or of a coil in a magnetic field. As the because electrons have moved away from this section
50 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

GALVANOMETER

+ COIL –

– +
N
MAGNET

A B

Figure 41 Inducing voltage by moving the magnet

of the coil, which leaves a lack of electrons to create Lenz’s Law

a positive charge. In 1834, Russian physicist Heinrich Lenz discovered
When the magnet is moved upward (fig. 41B), the directional relationships between induced mag-
the electric lines assume the opposite direction and netic fields, voltage, and current when a conductor
drive the free electrons to the upper end of the coil, is passed within the lines of force of a magnetic field.
making it negatively charged. The lower end is posi- Subsequently, he published Lenz’s law, which states that
tively charged. The meter pointer kicks to the right an induced electromotive force (induced voltage) gener-
when the magnet is plunged into the coil and kicks ates a current that induces a countermagnetic field that
to the left when the magnet is pulled out of the coil. opposes the magnetic field generating the current. Put
The reversal of the current direction through the another way, Lenz discovered that the voltage created
meter causes this effect. by electromagnetic induction must be of such a direc-
tion that the current flow and its resultant magnetic
Conservation of Energy field oppose the action that produces them.
According to the law of conservation of energy, energy
can neither be created nor destroyed. Therefore, the Simple Generators
voltage (electrical energy) produced by electromag- A generator is a machine that employs the prin-
netic induction must be produced at the expense of ciples of electromagnetic induction to convert
some other form of energy. In this case, mechanical mechanical energy into electrical energy. Since it
energy, which is the motion of the conductor or the is not practical to employ a machine that plunges a
magnet, is changed to electrical energy in the coil. magnet in and out of a coil, generators either have
The law of conservation of energy means that as a coil that rotates in a stationary magnetic field or
induction produces more electrical energy, more a magnet or an electromagnet that rotates within
mech­an­ical energy is required to push the magnet a stationary coil.
in and out of the coil.
Induction Principles and AC Generators 51

Rotating Coil minimum, as shown in figure 42B. At this instant,

Figure 42 shows two views of a one-turn coil sus- the coil sides are moving parallel to the flux instead
pended in a magnetic field. The coil is mounted on of cutting across it, and no voltage is induced in
a shaft so that it can be rotated. The rate at which the the coil.
coil rotates through the flux lines and the density of The voltage induced in the coil while it is rotat-
the flux lines cutting (or crossing) the coil determines ing in the magnetic field occurs because of the action
the coil’s induced voltage. of the conductor cutting the flux lines. Put another
When the coil is rotated in the magnetic field at way, the voltage induced in a coil occurs because of
a constant rate, the instantaneous voltage induced in the relative motion between the coil and the flux link-
the coil depends on the flux density of the magnetic ing it. The only parts of the coil that cut the magnetic
field at each point of measurement. At the instant field when the coil is rotated are sides ab and cd.
when the flux linkage is greatest, the induced voltage To rotate the coil continuously, the ends of the
is the greatest. (Flux linkage is the product of the coil must be connected to devices that do not twist
number of turns in the coil and the magnetic flux off as the coil rotates. Slip rings and brushes are used
passing through the coil.) for this purpose (fig. 43). Two copper rings, insulated
In the case of a one-turn coil, the flux linkage is from each other, are mounted on the shaft, and the
greatest when the coil is traveling through the point ends of the coil are connected to the rings. Thus, the
of maximum flux density (fig. 42A). At this instant, rings rotate as the coil rotates. The brushes are made
coil sides ab and cd are moving perpendicularly to of carbon and are mounted in a stationary position
the flux. At this point, the coil cuts the maximum so that they contact the rings. Conductors attached to
number of flux lines. At the instant during the coil’s the brushes carry electricity to a circuit. In the figure,
revolution when the flux linkage is at a minimum— a load resistor is shown. It is placed in many generator
that is, when the coil is passing through the point of circuits to absorb, or consume, electric power. Resis-
minimum flux density—the induced voltage is at a tors of the required value are often installed in such
circuits to ensure that the correct amount of power
flows into the circuit.

b d Flux Cutting Angles

N S

a c X

N S
Y

A ROTATING BRUSHES
R SLIP
COIL
RINGS
LOAD RESISTOR

b
Figure 43 Coil connected to a generator
a
N S
Figure 44 shows a single coil with sides X and Y
d rotating 360 degrees in the magnetic flux. The coil’s
position at various points in its rotation are labeled
c A through I. To the right and below each position,
a graph plots the induced voltage’s waveform at that
position. (The waveform is a pictorial representation
B of the voltage as the coil generates it.) The graphs
show the instantaneous voltage of side X as it rotates.
Figure 42 Inducing voltage in a rotating coil Also, as side X begins its rotation from its starting
 DIRE CTION OF COIL ROTATION

POSITION A,O˚

N S

POSITION, F 225˚
Y Y
+
–
X
N S
POSITION B, 45˚
X +
–
Y
N S

POSITION G, 270˚
+
– X

N S
Y
POSITION C, 90˚
+
Y –
N S
X
POSITION H, 315˚
+ X
–
N S
POSITION D, 135˚
Y
+
Y
–

N S

X POSITION I, 360˚
+ X
–
N S

POSITION E, 180˚
Y +
Y
–

N S

X +
–

Figure 44 Voltage waveforms produced by a rotating coil

Induction Principles and AC Generators 53

point (position A), it induces positive voltage. On falling of the voltage in the positive direction makes
the other hand, side Y is the opposite—that is, when up one alternation. Similarly, the rising and falling of
side X is positive by a certain amount, then side Y is the induced voltage in the negative direction as the
negative by the same amount. (For clarity, figure 44 coil rotates from 180 to 360 degrees also constitutes
only shows the waveform for side X.) one alternation. One positive alternation and one
At position A, or 0 degrees, side X is parallel to negative alternation is 1 cycle.
the lines of force. So, it does not cut across the lines; Thus, in the two-pole generator illustrated in
rather it moves along with them. Consequently, the figure 44, one complete revolution produces one
coil does not induce voltage during this period. As cycle. If the coil is rotated at a speed of 60 revolu-
side X rotates to the right, it begins to cut downward tions per minute (rpm), the generator produces 60
through the lines, and it induces a small voltage. At cycles per minute or 1 cycle per second. If the coil is
position B, side X has rotated 45 degrees, and positive rotated at a speed of 3,600 rpm, it produces 60 cycles
voltage has risen to 70 percent of the maximum posi- per second, or 60 hertz, because 3,600 ÷ 60 = 60. Named
tive voltage. Maximum positive voltage is reached at after a German physicist of the late nineteenth cen-
position C, where the coil has rotated to 90 degrees. tury, hertz means cycles per second. Its symbol is Hz.
Here, side X cuts the maximum number of lines per
degree of rotation. Frequency
Side X continues to cut downward through The number of cycles per second that alternating
the flux, but, as the angle increases, it cuts fewer current undergoes is its frequency. The frequency
flux lines per degree. At position D, or 135 degrees of the alternating current produced by a generator
from the starting point, the voltage has fallen to 70 depends on the coil’s rotating speed. If the coil turns
percent of the maximum positive voltage, which faster than 3,600 rpm, the frequency is higher than 60
occurred at position C. At position E, or 180 degrees hertz (Hz). Similarly, if the coil rotates slower than
from the starting point, side X again cuts no lines of 3,600 rpm, the frequency is lower than 60 Hz.
force because it moves with them. Here, the induced For rotating machines that produce frequency
voltage is zero. based on the number of magnetic poles and rpm, the
When side X begins to cut upward through the frequency can be calculated using the equation—
flux lines, the polarity changes to negative. At position
F, or 225 degrees, side X cuts upward through the f = PN (Eq. 24)
120
flux lines, and it induces 70 percent of the maximum where
negative voltage. At position G, or 270 degrees from f = frequency, Hz
the starting point, side X cuts the maximum number P = number of magnetic poles
of lines per degree of rotation, and it induces the maxi- N = rotational speed, rpm
mum negative voltage in the generator. At position H, 120 = constant.
side X still cuts upward, but it cuts a fewer number of For example, if a generator has two poles (P) and
lines, and negative voltage falls. At position I, side X rotates at 3,600 rpm (N), then—
has completed 360 degrees of rotation, or one revolu- 2 × 3,600
tion. Since it is moving with the flux lines at this posi-
f =
120
tion, no voltage is being induced. Side X is now ready 7,200
to start another revolution, and the whole process is f =
120
repeated as long as the coil is rotated through the flux. f = 60 Hz.
The standard frequency for commercial current
ALTERNATING CURRENT PROPERTIES in the United States is 60 Hz. Some countries use
Alternations and Cycles 50-Hz current, and others use frequencies as low as
25 Hz. In companies that generate their own power,
A coil rotating through a magnetic flux illustrates
generator operators must strive to maintain a con-
alternating current. On the waveform graph, you saw
stant speed of the engine that drives the generator. If
how positive voltage rises and falls as the coil rotates
engine speed varies, the frequency of the generated
from 0 to 180 degrees through the flux. This rising and
current also varies. While it may be difficult and
54 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

costly to maintain a precise frequency in relatively indicating negative voltage, during the last half of
small and isolated generator installations, changes the coil’s revolution.
in frequency create problems. For example, electric Often, however, three single-phase sources,
clocks in the U.S. run on 60-Hz alternating current. such as an AC generator, are connected together.
If the frequency is greater than 60 Hz, the clock will They are connected so that the output from each gen-
run fast; if the frequency is lower than 60 Hz, it will erator is electrically displaced—that is, while voltage
run slowly. Frequency changes also affect the speed output is decreasing in one generator, it is increasing
of induction motors. in another. Such displacement avoids generating elec-
Mechanical generators can be designed to pro- tricity with gaps in its output, which, as you recall,
duce any frequency up to about 20,000 Hz. Above occur twice in a cycle where the coil is parallel to the
20,000 Hz, special electronic generators called oscilla- flux. Displacing the output in three single-phase gen-
tors are employed. They can generate alternating cur- erators eliminates gaps and thus increases efficiency.
rents with frequencies as high as several billion Hz. Three-phase power can be transmitted efficiently and
is compatible with AC induction motors, transform-
Sine Waves ers, and generators.
Normally, three single-phase sources are elec-
The graphs in figure 44 show how the induced voltage
trically displaced from each other by 120 degrees (fig.
varies throughout the cycle. The produced voltages
45). That is, in the complete 360-degree rotation of the
make a curve on the graph that takes the shape of
coil, each is timed so that at the 120-degree rotation
a sine wave. (A sine wave is an undulating form—a
point of the first coil, where voltage is decreasing
wave—whose height, or amplitude, above and below
toward zero, the second coil is going upward and
a reference line varies as the sine of a linear function of
voltage is increasing. The third coil is timed to begin
time. A sine is a trigonometric function that has to do
rising at the point where the second coil is going
with right triangles. Specifically, the sine is a function
down at the 120-degree point in its travel. Meanwhile,
of the ratio of the side opposite a given acute angle
the first coil is producing increased negative voltage
to the hypotenuse.) You do not need to fully under-
(shown by the sine wave’s being below the zero line
stand what a sine wave is to understand a single-coil
on the graph). Connecting three single-phase sources
generator. It is enough to know that the shape of the
in this manner makes it three-phase voltage.
waveform, or curve, on the graphs is a sine wave. It
Characteristics of three-phase voltage in-
has an easily recognized characteristic shape.
clude—
Because the generator’s output voltage and
• the three voltages that basically have the
current waveform make a sine wave, the waveform
same magnitude (voltage).
is also sinusoidal, which simply means that it draws a
sine wave on a graph. Voltage and current waveforms • the frequency of each phase is identical.
of generators are sinusoidal because the generator
has a circular construction. Rotating, circular coils in
generators generally produce waveforms that appear +

as sine waves. PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C

Three-Phase AC
A generator with a single coil produces single-phase
voltage. In this case, a phase is one complete revolu- 0
tion of the coil in the magnetic field. In figure 44 at 120ϒ 120ϒ 120ϒ
position I, the sine wave on the graph illustrates
single-phase voltage. As long as the coil turns, this 360ϒ
single, complete wave is generated over and over.
That is, a single sine wave occurs, which curves
upward, indicating positive voltage, during the first
half of the coil’s revolution and curves downward,
Figure 45 Three-phase voltage
Induction Principles and AC Generators 55

• each voltage is phase-separated from the 8. Reluctance is analogous to what electrical

other by 120 electrical degrees. term?
9. Magnetomotive force can be likened to what
REVIEW QUESTIONS electrical term?
1. What sets up magnetic lines around a con- 10. What electrical term can magnetic flux be
ductor? likened to?
2. At what point are the flux lines denser 11. What three factors determine the reluctance
around a current-carrying wire? of a magnetic path or circuit?
3. What effect does reversing the direction of 12. What is a core?
current flow have on the direction of mag- 13. What is permeability? How does permeabil-
netic lines? ity vary?
4. If the current is increased through a conduc- 14. What is magnetizing force?
tor, how is the magnetic field affected? 15. What is flux density?
5. If parallel wires are carrying currents in op- 16. An alternator has three basic functional ele-
posite directions, do they attract or repel? ments; name them.
6. Describe the right-hand rule for conductors. 17. What is the frequency of an eight-pole alter-
7. Write Ohm’s law for electric circuits and the nator rotating at 900 rpm?
law that is commonly called Ohm’s law for 18. What is the phase separation between the
magnetic circuits (Rowland’s law). three-phase voltages?
 Electrical Components, Impedance, and Power
8
RESISTORS symbol for a resistor, which is used in schematics
Although several materials resist the flow of electric (drawings) of circuits. Also shown is the Greek letter
current, most circuits require a specific resistance Ω (omega), which stands for ohms. The resistor in
to operate properly. For example, electronic ampli- figure 46 is a 15-ohm, or 15-Ω, resistor.
fiers, control circuits, instrumentation loops, and
similar devices require resistors of a fixed value.
Wire-Wound Resistors
When electricity flowing in a circuit encounters a Wire-wound resistors consist of high-resistance wire
resistor, the resistor reduces the voltage to a specific wound on a ceramic spool or tube. Wire-wound
and required amount. Resistors provide the correct resistors give off a large amount of heat; so, they
operating voltage to a component or to another part are used in well-ventilated circuits. Manufacturers
of the circuit. In short, resistors create voltage drops often employ Nichrome wire in wire-wound resis-
where they are wired into the circuit. tors because of its high resistance. A wire-wound
Resistors are made from (1) a special wire, (2) resistor’s value in ohms depends on the length of
a mixture composed of conductive and nonconduc- the wire wound on the tube, the diameter of the
tive materials termed a composition, or (3) a thin wire, and the grade of Nichrome wire. Resistance
membrane, or skin, called film. Figure 46 shows a in wire-wound resistors is usually given as ohms per
wire-wound resistor, a composition resistor, and the mil-foot. Thus, the longer the wire and the heavier,
or thicker, its gauge, the higher is its resistance.
As mentioned earlier, wire-wound resistors
TERMINALS
give off heat and heat speeds up oxidation. Nichrome
wire not only has high resistance, but also it resists
oxidation. That is, Nichrome wire does not readily
combine with oxygen in the air and oxidize. Just
CERAMIC NICHROME as rust damages or destroys an iron or steel object,
TUBE WIRE
oxidation can damage or destroy the wire on a
WIRE-WOUND RESI STOR
wire-wound resistor. Therefore, iron wire is not
satisfactory for resistors because it rapidly oxidizes.
PIGTAIL LEADS Wire-wound resistors can handle large amounts
(TERMINALS)
of power and can be made to relatively close toler-
ances. They are rugged and reliable, they have
low temperature coefficients—that is, temperature
COMPOSITION RESISTOR
changes do not significantly affect their resistance—
and they are stable under most operating conditions.
15 Ω Also, low-resistance wire-wound resistors with close
tolerances are very economical to make.
On the other hand, wire-wound resistors are
SYMBOL FOR RESI STOR
not available in as wide a range of resistance values as
film and composition resistors. Also, for a given power
Figure 46 Two types of resistors and the symbol rating and resistance value, they are significantly
for a resistor larger than the other two. (A resistor’s power rating

57
58 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

is a measure of how much power, in watts, the resis- handle up to 2 watts of constant power without
tor can handle without failing or malfunctioning.) malfunctioning or failing. Composition resistors are
Although manufacturers can make high-resistance rugged and reliable when used properly. However,
wire-wound resistors, they are very expensive. some composition resistors suffer a loss of stability if
operated in conditions of high-moisture. Also, their
Composition Resistors resistance may vary an unacceptable amount if oper-
Composition resistors are the most common. They ating temperatures change rapidly and drastically.
are frequently used in electronic equipment. Com- Because of its relatively small size, color
position resistors are made of conductive and non- bands, rather than printing, on the body of a com-
conductive materials that are placed inside a ceramic position resistor indicate its ohmic value and its
tube, or shell. By varying the ratio of conductive and resistance tolerance (fig. 47). The tolerance of a resistor
nonconductive material and the physical size of the refers to the accuracy of its resistance value—that is,
materials used, manufacturers can produce resistors how close the resistor’s indicated resistance is to its
of practically any ohmic value. Indeed, composition actual value. For example, if the resistor’s tolerance
resistors of thousands or millions of ohms can be is 20 percent, the actual value of the resistance may
economically constructed. vary as much as plus or minus 20 percent from the
Composition resistors are small in size; conse- value indicated by the color code.
quently, they dissipate only small amounts of heat. Figure 47 shows that twelve color bands, plus
Manufacturers carefully select the materials from a lack of color, indicate resistance and tolerance.
which they make resistors to keep the temperature Bands A, B, and C indicate resistance, while band
coefficient (the amount resistance increases as tem- D indicates tolerance. For example, suppose a resis-
perature increases) small. tor with axial leads has bands of orange, white, red,
Composition resistors are available in a wide and gold. (Resistors with axial leads have wires, or
range of values and can be produced economically leads, that come out from the center of each end
in power ratings of up to 2 watts. That is, they can of the small cylinder that makes up the resistor’s

A B C D D C A B

AXIAL LEADS RADIAL LEADS

Band or Body A Band B Band or Dot C Band D

Color Digit Color Digit Color Multiplier Color Tolerance

Black 0 Black 0 Black 1 Silver 10%

Brown 1 Brown 1 Brown 10 Gold 5%
Red 2 Red 2 Red 100 No band 20%
Orange 3 Orange 3 Orange 1,000
Yellow 4 Yellow 4 Yellow 10,000
Green 5 Green 5 Green 100,000
Blue 6 Blue 6 Blue 1,000,000
Violet 7 Violet 7 Silver 0.01
Gray 8 Gray 8 Gold 0.1
White 9 White 9

Figure 47 Resistor color code

Electrical Components, Impedance, and Power 59

body.) From figure 47, you can find that band A, Publishers print many versions of preferred
which is orange, represents the first digit of 3, band values in tabular form. The table in this book
B, which is white, represents the second digit of 9, (Table 12) assigns the letter E followed by a one- or
and band C, which is red, indicates a multiplier of two-digit number to designate preferred values
100. So, in this example, 39 × 100 = 3,900, or 3,900 in resistors—for example, E3 and E12. Six series
ohms (Ω). Since band D is gold, the resistor’s toler- of preferred values are available: E3, E6, E12, E24,
ance is 5 percent. Five percent tolerance means that E48, and E96.
the resistor’s actual resistance is between 3,705 and The numbers after E, which are 3, 6, 12, 24, 48,
4,095 ohms. In other words, 3,900 × 0.05 (5 percent) = and 96, indicate the number of resistance values in
195; 3,900 – 195 = 3,705 ohms; and 3,900 + 195 = 4,095 each series. For example, the E12 series has 12 resis-
ohms. If a resistor’s tolerance is 20 percent, band D tance values and the E24 series has 24 resistance val-
is not present—that is, no fourth color band exists. ues. Each series has a tolerance specification—that
As another example, consider a 3.9-ohm resis- is, resistors in a particular series are manufactured
tor with a tolerance of 10 percent. It has four bands: to a certain tolerance. E12 resistors, for example,
orange, white, gold, and silver. Orange represents 3, have a 10 percent tolerance and E96 resistors have
white 9, gold a multiplier of 0.1 (thus, 39 × 0.1 = 3.9 a 1 percent tolerance. So, a 47-ohm, E12 resistor
ohms), and silver a tolerance of 10 percent. could vary as much as plus or minus (±) 4.7 ohms
A resistor with radial leads (see fig. 47) has es- and still fall within tolerance (47 × 0.1 or 10 percent
sentially the same color-coding, except that a dot, = 4.7). On the other hand, E96 resistors have only 1
rather than a band, represents the multiplier. Also, percent tolerance. So, a 280-ohm E96 resistor could
in the case of precision resistors, whose tolerance is vary only ±2.8 ohms.
below 5 percent—1 or 2 percent, for example—the The most popular series of resistors is the E12
resistance is usually printed on the resistor’s body. series with 10-percent tolerance values. As you can
see from table 12, the preferred resistance values in
Film Resistors the E12 series are 10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56,
Film resistors are similar to composition resistors be- 68, and 82. Each number represents a set of ten—a
cause they are about the same size for given values decade of—resistor values in ohms. For example,
of resistance and power rating and they have similar consider an E12 value of 47. This number means
stability characteristics, temperature behaviors, and that E12 resistors are available with a resistance
manufacturing tolerances. They can be obtained in value of (1) 4.7 ohms, (2) 47 ohms, (3) 470 ohms, (4)
precision grades—that is, the tolerances are tighter 4,700 ohms, (5) 47,000 ohms, (6) 470,000 ohms, (7)
than 5 percent—at a cost less than that of other types. 4,700,000 ohms, (8) 47,000,000 ohms, (9) 470,000,000
The resistance element in a film resistor may be a ohms, and (10) 4,700,000,000 ohms. Any of the resis-
carbon film, a metal film, or a metallic oxide film. tors in this decade—this group of ten—may vary ±10
percent from its designated resistance.
Preferred Resistance Values Incidentally, some tables of preferred resis-
tance values place a decimal point after the first
A set of preferred resistance values exists for any elec-
number in two-digit values and after the second
tronic circuit’s capacitors and resistors. (A capacitor
number in three-digit values. For example, such a
is a component that stores an electrical charge in
table of E12 resistor values would show values of 1.0,
a circuit and then returns the charge to the circuit
1.2, 1.5, and so on, instead of 10, 12, 15, and so on.
when certain electrical conditions occur. Capaci-
Similarly, a table of E48 values would show values
tors are discussed later in this section.) Preferred
of 10.0, 10.5, 11.0, and so on, instead of 100, 105,
values are standard values that manufacturers use
110, and so on. The values are the same whether or
to make resistors of various tolerances. Most circuits
not a decimal point appears. Some table publishers
can tolerate a 10 to 20 percent deviation from a
simply prefer to show the first and lowest resistance
resistor’s stated value without a significant loss in
value in the decade of values.
performance. Because such deviation does not affect
Notice that gaps in the decade of values for
performance, manufacturers can make large quanti-
resistors exist. For example, E12 resistors are not
ties of resistors at low prices that meet standards.
available in the decade of values between 39, 47, and
 TABLE 12
Preferred Values of Resistors

10 22 47

E3 Preferred Values (10 percent tolerance)

10 12 15
33 47 68

E6 Preferred Values (20 percent tolerance)

10 12 15
18 22 27
33 39 47
56 68 82

E12 Preferred Values (10 percent tolerance)

10 11 12 13 15 16
18 20 22 24 27 30
33 36 39 43 47 51
56 62 68 76 82 91

E24 Preferred Values (5 percent tolerance)

100 105 110 115 121 127 133 140

147 154 162 169 178 187 196 205
215 226 237 249 261 274 287 301
319 332 348 365 383 402 422 442
464 487 511 536 562 590 619 649
681 715 750 787 825 866 909 953

E48 Preferred Values (2 percent tolerance)

100 102 105 107 110 113 115 118

121 124 127 130 133 137 140 143
147 150 154 158 162 165 169 174
178 182 187 191 196 200 205 210
215 221 226 232 237 243 249 255
261 267 274 280 287 294 301 309
316 324 332 340 348 357 365 374
383 392 402 412 422 432 442 453
464 474 487 499 511 523 536 549
562 576 590 604 619 634 649 665
681 689 715 732 750 768 787 806
825 845 866 887 909 931 953 976

E96 Preferred Values (1 percent tolerance)

Electrical Components, Impedance, and Power 61

56. Thus, you can obtain, let’s say, a 470-ohm, E12 with prefixes that indicate thousands, millions,
resistor, but not a 420-ohm, E12 resistor. The reason and billions. For example, 47,000 ohms can also
is because of the tolerance to which E12 resistors are be written as 47 kilohms, which is abbreviated 47
made. For example, a 470-ohm, E12 resistor with 10 kohms, or 47 kΩ. This 10 × 10 = 1,000 and 47 × 1,000
percent tolerance could have a resistance as low as = 47,000. Similarly, 47,000,000 (47 million) ohms
423 ohms or as high as 517 ohms (470 – 47 = 423 and is easier to write as 47 megohms, which is abbrevi-
470 + 47 = 517). Therefore, no need exists for manu- ated 47 Mohms, or 47 MΩ. (This figure can also be
facturing E12 resistors closer to 470 than 390 ohms written as 47 × 106.) And 4,700,000,000 (4 billion,
on the low side or 560 ohms on the high side because 700 million) ohms is 4.7 gigohms, which is abbrevi-
E12 resistor tolerances are greater than the spacing ated 4.7 Gohms, or 4.7 GΩ. (This figure can also be
between values. For example, a 390-ohm E12 resistor written as 4.7 × 109.) In short, kilo stands for 1,000
could have a resistance as high as 468 ohms, which (thousand); mega stands for 1,000,000 (million);
is very close to 470 ohms (390 + 39 = 468). More­over, and giga stands for 1,000,000,000 (billion). Note
a 560-ohm resistor could have a resistance as low as that when these prefixes are used with “ohms,”
504 ohms (560 – 56 = 504). This resistance is very close the vowel “a” is dropped to avoid confusion. Thus,
to 514 ohms and is the value a 470-ohm, E12 resistor it is “kilohms” instead of kilo-ohms, “megohms”
would have if its tolerance were 10 percent high. instead of mega-ohms, and “gigohms” instead of
While most electronic equipment uses resistors giga-ohms. Table 13 provides a list of prefixes used
with the preferred standard values shown in table 12, with various units.
special devices may need resistors with tolerances
tighter than 1 percent. Such resistors cost more to pro- Power Ratings of Resistors
duce, of course, but precision equipment may require
When current passes through a resistor, heat is
them. One piece of equipment that requires resistors
produced. The resistor must be able to dissipate
with narrow tolerances is a programmable logic con-
this heat into the surrounding air. Generally, the
troller (PLC). A 250-ohm resistor with a tolerance of
larger the surface area of the resistor, the greater
only ±0.1 percent is used in certain PLC circuits to
the amount of heat it can give off to the surround-
provide compatibility with other components.
ing air. A resistor’s ability to dissipate heat is
expressed in terms of watts rather than in heat
High Resistance Values
units such as British thermal units (Btus). Watts is
Technicians and engineers often write high re- an electronic term that is appropriate for resis-
sistance values, such as 47,000 ohms and higher, tors, whereas a Btu is appropriate for objects that

TABLE 13
Prefixes for SI Units

Prefix Symbol Power Example Prefix Symbol Power Example

yotta Y 1024 deci d 10–1 decilitre (dL)

zetta Z 10 21
centi c 10 –2
centimetre (cm)
exa E 1018 milli m 10–3 milligram (mg)
peta P 1015 micro m 10–6 microgram (mg)
tera T 10 12
terawatt (TW) nano n 10 –9
nanosecond (ns)
giga G 10 9
gigawatt (GW) pico p 10 –15
picofarad (pF)
mega M 10 6
megahertz (MHz) femto f 10 –15
femtosecond (fs)
kilo k 10 3
kilometre (km) atto a 10 –18

hecto h 10 –2
zepto z 10–21
deka da 10–1 dekalitre (daL) yacto y 10–24
62 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

have nothing to do with electronics. In any case, R = resistance, ohms

the higher a resistor’s watts rating, the better is its V = voltage across resistor, volts.
ability to dissipate heat. As an example of using the power law equa-
Figure 48 shows the relative sizes of three tions, suppose a circuit requires a 3-ohm resistor
composition and two wire-wound resistors. Often, that has a 6-volt drop across it and current flow is
the larger the resistor, the higher is its power rat- 2 amperes. What wattage rating should the resistor
ing in watts. Usually, manufacturers do not print have? Using equation 25—
the wattage rating on resistors. What is more, P = VI
resistors may have the same wattage rating but be P = 6×2
of different sizes. Fortunately, the packaging or P = 12.
containers for the resistors usually specifies the Thus, a resistor with a 12-watt power rating is
wattage ratings. If not, the manufacturer should needed. If, however, a supplier only stocks resistors
be able to provide it. with power ratings of 10 watts and 20 watts, the resis-
tor with the next higher rating should be chosen—in
this case, the 20-watt resistor. The 20-watt resistor
COMPOSITION RESISTORS operates cooler and lasts longer.
Composition resistors are commonly manu-
factured with 0.1-, 0.25-, 0.5-, 1-, and 2-watt ratings.
Wire-wound resistors are generally employed when
a circuit requires wattage ratings greater than 2 watts.

Power Ratings of Series and Parallel Circuits

Wiring resistors in series or in parallel affects the
total amount of resistance created by the resistors.
2 WATTS 1 WATT ½ WATT
For example, wiring two 5,000-ohm resistors in series
creates 10,000 ohms of resistance. On the other hand,
WIRE-WOUND RESI STORS
wiring two 5,000-ohm resistors in parallel creates
2,500 ohms of resistance. Similarly, if 10,000 ohms
of resistance is required in a parallel circuit, it can
be achieved by wiring two 20,000-ohm resistors in
parallel. In short, wiring resistors in series adds their
10 WATTS 20 WATTS resistance while wiring resistors in parallel halves
their resistance.
Figure 48 Relative resistor sizes in various power Resistor power ratings, on the other hand,
ratings add together, whether the resistors are in series or
parallel. Therefore, the equivalent of a 10,000-ohm,
10-watt resistor may be made by placing two 5,000-
The circuit in which a resistor is used deter- ohm, 5-watt resistors in series or by placing two
mines the required wattage rating. The wattage dis- 20,000-ohm, 5-watt resistors in parallel (fig. 49). In
sipated by a resistor in a circuit can be determined both cases, the power rating in watts adds up, but
by one of three power law equations— the resistance is either doubled or halved depending
P = VI (Eq. 25) on whether the resistors are in series or in parallel.

P = I2R (Eq. 26) Resistors in AC Circuits

V 2
When resistors are used in AC circuits, they react
P = (Eq. 27)
R in much the same way as in DC circuits. Ohm’s law
where applies to the various electrical components when
P = power dissipated in resistor, watts root-mean-square (RMS) values are used to calculate
I = current through resistor, amperes
Electrical Components, Impedance, and Power 63

other circuit. Because a wire-wound resistor is coiled

5,000Ω 5 WATTS 5,000Ω 5 WATTS wire, it generates inductance.)
A significant relationship also exists between
resistance, current, and voltage in an AC circuit. If
These Two Resistors in Series are current and voltage are flowing in a circuit in which
Equivalent to a Single 10,000-ohm,
only resistors or resistive components exist, and the
10 -Watt Resistor
current and voltage are displayed as waveforms, the
20,000Ω 5 WATTS waveforms show complete harmony (fig. 50). Or, in
electronic terms, the current and voltage waveforms
20,000Ω 5 WATTS
do not show any phase shift. (Phase shift occurs when
the waveforms are not in harmony. The waveforms
move out of phase. For example, part of the current
These Two Resistors in P arallel are waveform may be on the positive side of the zero
Equivalent to a Single 10,000-ohm, line while part of the voltage waveform may be on
1 0-Watt Resistor
the negative side or vice versa.)

Figure 49 Series and parallel resistors

POTENTIOMETERS
A potentiometer is a variable resistor. Potentiometer
current, voltage drops, and power. An RMS value is
is formed from the words “potential” (voltage) and
the square root of the time average of the square of
“meter,” which means to payout, monitor, or change.
a quantity. RMS values are used to characterize the
Thus, a potentiometer is used to change, or vary, the
frequency response of certain devices.
potential—the voltage—in the circuit in which it is
AC voltage applied to a circuit that alternates
installed. For example, a potentiometer is often used
polarity in cycles does not affect the resistance of most
to increase or decrease the volume (loudness) on a ra-
resistors. Put another way, most resistors are insensi-
dio because it can increase or decrease the resistance
tive to the frequency of the AC voltage. However, AC
to the voltage flowing in the radio’s volume circuit.
voltage frequency can affect some wire-wound resis-
Potentiometers also control and adjust electronic and
tors. For example, supply frequencies considerably
control equipment. They can regulate the set points
higher than 50 or 60 Hz affect a wire-wound resistor’s
of instruments and they can control alarms.
resistance. Also, inductance in a wire-wound resistor
A potentiometer has three terminals: two are
may affect the resistor’s value. (Inductance is the
fixed and one is mechanically connected to a shaft.
property of an electric circuit or of two neighboring
Voltage enters the potentiometer through one of the
circuits wherein an electromotive force is generated
fixed terminals, goes to the terminal connected to the
in one circuit by a change of current in it or in the

CURRENT

VOLTAGE
+

Current in Phase, as in the Case of a

Resistor Connected to an AC Source

Figure 50 AC voltage and current relationship in resistive circuits

64 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

FIXED
TERMINALS

FIXED TERMINAL TO
TERMINALS MOVABLE CONTACT

WIRE-WOUND COMPOSITE
POTENTIOMETE R POTENTIOMETE R

Figure 51 Types of potentiometers

shaft, and travels to the rest of the circuit by exiting Potentiometers can also provide a variable re-
the other fixed terminal. When rotated, the shaft sistance function. When the variable terminal is used
moves the terminal’s contact to any point along the with only one fixed terminal, the resistance between
conducting material of the potentiometer. So, by ro- the two changes as the shaft is rotated. When used in
tating a potentiometer’s shaft, which is connected to this manner, the device is a rheostat. Figure 52 shows
the middle, adjustable terminal, fixed voltage is var- the schematic symbols for a potentiometer and a
ied and sent to additional components in the circuit. rheostat. Note that the rheostat has only one fixed
Two kinds of potentiometer are available: terminal, while the potentiometer has two.
wire-wound and composite (fig. 51). The material
used in the potentiometer is a conductor such as Potentiometer Resistance Ratings
composition material, Nichrome wire, or resistance Poten­tiometers are rated in terms of their resistance
films. Also, note the fixed terminals and terminal to and maximum power dissipation in watts. The resis-
the movable contact. tance value of a potentiometer is measured from one
fixed terminal to the other fixed terminal. The two
outside terminals are connected to the fixed connec-
tions of the resistive element. Then, an ohmmeter
is used to make the measurement. The ohmmeter
should always be connected to the outside, fixed
terminals of the potentiometer.
No color code indicates the value in ohms
POTENTIOMETER SYMBOL
of the potentiometer. Instead, the ohmic value is
stamped on the cover of the unit. Use caution when
reading the value because the number may have a
multiplier. For example, a 2,000-ohm potentiometer
may be stamped 2K or 2kΩ. The latter is a better des-
ignation because it agrees with the accepted symbols
RHEOSTAT SYMBOL
and prefixes of the International System of Units (SI),
which is a worldwide system of measurement units
Figure 52 Schematic symbols of a potentiometer based on the metric system. For either designation,
and a rheostat however, k or K is the symbol for kilo, which is a
Electrical Components, Impedance, and Power 65

multiplier of 1,000, or 103. The resistance of a 2k or Multiple Potentiometer Units

2kΩ potentiometer is 2,000 ohms or 2 kilohms (kΩ). Two or more potentiometers may be coupled together
The letter M may also follow a number as one unit (fig. 53). One shaft telescoped inside the
stamped on an electronic component. M stands other allows each potentiometer to be adjusted inde-
for mega, which multiplies the value by 1 million pendently. Further, an on-off switch may be mounted
(1,000,000, or 106). On a potentiometer, it designates on the back of the control and operated by the shaft
1 megohm (MΩ) when it is associated with a num- that controls one of the potentiometers. Such an ar-
ber stamped on a resistance component. Again, the rangement provides an on-off range control for the
proper designation is MΩ, because these symbols potentiometer.
are in agreement with accepted SI measurement
standards. Resistance Tapers
Bear in mind that the k or M that follows a
Some potentiometers are wound with two or more
resistance can indicate values less than 1,000 or 1
sizes of Nichrome wire. Multiple sizes of wire are
million. For example, if a potentiometer is marked 0.8
employed in circuits that require a greater or a lesser
k (0.8 kΩ), its resistance is 0.8 kilohms, or 800 ohms.
change in resistance per degree of rotation of the shaft.
In the same way, a potentiometer marked 0.2 M (or
Usually, the dissimilar resistance wire is connected to
0.2 MΩ) has a resistance of 0.2 megohms, or 200,000
one of the fixed terminals. If the potentiometer’s control
ohms (0.2 × 2,000,000 = 200,000). Potentiometers are
is uniformly wound, it has a linear taper. Linear taper
manufactured with resistance values ranging from a
gives the potentiometer proportionate control over
few ohms to 10 megohms (MΩ) and higher.
the resistance. For example, in a potentiometer with a
linear taper, turning the control knob one-quarter turn
Power Dissipation Ratings varies the resistance by one quarter, either up or down,
Potentiometers with composition elements usu- depending on the direction the control is rotated.
ally have a power dissipation rating of 1 or 2 watts. Other tapers are also available—for example,
These ratings are ample for most electronic equip- some controls may be wound with a logarithmic taper. (A
ment. If, however, a potentiometer must dissipate logarithm is the exponent to which a number is raised to
a substantial amount of wattage, then wire-wound produce a given number. For example, the logarithm of
potentiometers are used. Electrical control panels use 100 to the base 10 is 2 because 100 = 102.) A potentiom-
potentiometers rated at hundreds of watts, which eter with a logarithmic taper provides nonproportional
are much larger than those on electronic gear. The resistance control. That is, turning the control knob one-
wattage rating is stamped on the control near the quarter turn does not vary the resistance by one quarter;
resistance rating of the unit.

SHAFT 1

SWITCH SHAFT 2

TWO POTENTIOMETERS

Figure 53 Multiple-stacked potentiometers

66 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

rather, it may increase or decrease the resistance two- or plied to the primary winding (P) of the setup. At the
four-fold, depending on the control’s taper. moment the voltage is applied, a voltage is also in-
duced into the secondary winding (S). Voltmeter Vs’s
needle tips quickly to the right or left and then returns
INDUCTORS AND INDUCTANCE
to zero, which indicates induced voltage. Voltmeter
Certain electric circuits have inductance, particu-
Vp continues to read battery voltage until the switch
larly those made up of coils of wire. Inductance not
is opened. At the moment the switch is opened (fig.
only occurs in a single circuit, but also in nearby, or
54B), the needle in voltmeter Vs moves to indicate a
neighboring, circuits—circuits close to each other.
voltage opposite in polarity to that observed when
Inductance occurs when changes in current flow in
the switch was first closed. The needle in voltmeter
a circuit induces voltage in itself or in a neighboring
Vp also moves to indicate an opposite polarity. Then
circuit. In the case of a single circuit, the induced volt-
both meters quickly return to zero.
age is countervoltage—that is, the induced voltage’s
An inductive device opposes a change in current
polarity is opposite the voltage that is applied to the
flow. Put another way, when current flow through an
circuit. When variations in current flow occur in a
inductive device rises or falls, it induces a voltage that
primary circuit, the variations can induce voltage in
tends to oppose the change in current. The induced
a neighboring circuit.
voltage tries to maintain a steady value of current flow.
Figure 54 illustrates inductance and induced
The unit of inductance is the henry, named for
voltages in a circuit energized by a battery. Besides
Joseph Henry, a nineteenth century American scien-
a battery, the circuit has a switch, two voltmeters (Vs
tist who pioneered induction research. Traditionally,
and Vp ) and two windings, or coils (S and P). When
the symbol for inductance in henries is the capital
the switch is closed (fig. 54A), battery voltage is ap-
letter L, although the SI system prefers the capital
letter H to avoid confusion with the abbreviation for
litre, which is also L. (This manual uses H.)
Vs Vp
0 0
If current flowing through an inductance coil
changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second and a
countervoltage of 1 volt is generated, then the coil
SWITCH has an inductance of 1 henry (1 H). An equation for
determining inductance in a circuit is—
4π × 10-9 × µ × A × N2
H = (Eq. 29)
– + l
BATTERY where
S P H = inductance, henries
A 4π × 10-9 = a constant (arises from the mathemati-
cal derivation of the equation and
Vs Vp helps adjust for the use of particular
0 0 units of measurement)
µ = permeability of the core material
A = cross-sectional area of core, in.2
SWITCH N = number of turns in the coil
l = length of the core, in.
Unfortunately, the equation does not always
– +
hold true because the permeability of an iron core
BATTERY varies with flux density. Also, manufacturers of
S P inductance circuits rate their products for a specific
B amount of current flow. As the amount of current
flow changes, so does the inductance. Small induc-
tors used in radios are usually rated in millihenries.
A millihenry (mH) is one-thousandth of a henry, or
Figure 54 Inducing voltages in inductive circuits
10–3 henries.
Electrical Components, Impedance, and Power 67

High-frequency coils may have an air core. The

magnetic permeability of air is 1, or, in mathematical VOLTAGE
CURRENT
terms, is unity, which means that it has virtually no
permeability. Therefore, the coils retain a reason-
ably stable value of inductance over wide ranges of
current flow because flux density does not change
360ϒ
appreciably in coils with an air core. 0ϒ
90ϒ

Inductive Reactance
Inductive reactance is the retarding effect on the passage
of alternating current through a circuit because of in-
ductance. Put another way, inductive reactance occurs
in a circuit when inductance in the circuit impedes the Figure 56 Waveforms of current values and volt-
flow of AC electricity. Inductive reactance is important age values in an inductive AC circuit
to electronics because it affects the operation of motors
and transformers. The retarding effect of inductance
stated earlier, one effect is that the inductance retards,
is different from normal resistance. If the inductor (a
or impedes, the passage of AC current. Although this
coil of wire) has high inductance and low resistance,
resistance to current flow is similar to that caused by re-
figures 55 and 56 show what happens in an inductive
sistors, engineers and technicians call inductive resistance
circuit in the presence of varying current and voltage.
reactance. Like resistance, reactance is measured in ohms.
Figure 55 depicts a circuit with a battery, a
In a circuit with an inductive device, values of
switch, a voltmeter, an ammeter, and an inductor with
current lag behind values of voltage. That is, if the
an iron core. (An ammeter measures current flow in
circuit’s current and voltage are displayed as wave-
the circuit in amperes.) At the moment the switch is
forms, the current’s maximum value occurs after
closed, the voltmeter immediately indicates the battery
the voltage’s maximum value. Figure 56 shows the
voltage applied across the inductor, which is shown
waveforms of current and voltage in a circuit that
in figure 55 by the dotted arrow in the voltmeter. On
only has inductance and no ohmic resistance. In
the other hand, the ammeter indicates a significant
this case, the current lags behind the voltage by 90
delay before the current reaches its maximum value. In
degrees. That is, the voltage peaks 90 degrees earlier
figure 55, the dotted arrow indicates maximum value.
than the current, both positively and negatively. Note
It takes some time for the arrow to deflect all the way.
that when the voltage is at its maximum value, the
When inductors are placed in AC circuits, the volt-
current value is zero, and vice versa.
age’s frequency has a direct effect on the inductors. As
The unit of inductive reactance is the ohm,
and its symbol is XH. The X represents reactance,
and the subscript H (H) identifies it as inductive re-
AMPS
0
actance. Inductive reactance is an important aspect
of AC circuits because its retarding effect is far more
SWITCH
pronounced than ohmic resistance in such devices
as motors and transformers. The factors that affect
–
inductive reactance are given in the equation—
0

IRON CORE XH = 2πfH (Eq. 30)

INDUCTOR
+ where
BATTERY XH = inductive reactance, ohms
VOLTS
2π = a constant (arises from derivation of
the equation representing the number
of radians in a hertz; 2π radians = 360°)
Figure 55 The retarding effect of inductance in a f = frequency, Hz
circuit H = inductance, henries.
68 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

CAPACITORS AND CAPACITANCE 57). Figure 58 illustrates another method of capacitor

Capacitors are electrical devices capable of storing construction. In this case, sheets of mica separate thin
an electrical charge. (Capacitors are sometimes called copper plates.
condensers.) They behave differently in DC and AC Figure 59 shows a variable capacitor with movable
circuits. If a source of DC voltage is impressed across and fixed, or stationary, plates. Because the movable
the terminals of a capacitor, current flows in the cir- plates are attached to a shaft, turning the shaft rotates
cuit until the capacitor takes on a charge that makes the plates into or out of the stationary plates. (Fig. 59
it capable of delivering voltage equal to that of the shows the movable plates rotated into a position that
DC source. When used in AC circuits, the capacitor places them mostly outside of the stationary plates—
charges alternately with positive and negative charges that is, less than about one-fourth of the movable plate’s
and produces current flow in external circuits. The area meshes inside the stationary plates.) The movable
unit of capacitance is the farad, which is derived from and stationary plates mesh with each other but do not
Michael Faraday’s last name. Faraday was an English touch. As the movable plate is turned, it changes the
scientist who studied electricity in the 1800s. amount of area of the capacitor plates. In this case, ro-
tating the shaft clockwise moves more of the movable
Capacitor Construction plate’s area in between the stationary plates, which
increases the capacity of the capacitor. The dielectric or
Manufacturers make capacitors by separating two or
insulator in this case is air between the plates.
more metallic plates with a thin sheet of insulating
material, such as plastic, paper, or mica. This insula-
tor is called a dielectric. (A dielectric is a material that
is a nonconductor of electricity; it is an insulator.) In MOVABLE
PLATES
many cases, the plates are made of thin metal foil to
reduce the size, weight, and cost of the capacitor (fig.

ALUMINUM
PAPER FOIL
DIELECTRIC

STATIONARY
PLATES SHAFT

Figure 59 Variable capacitor

Figure 57 Coil-wrapped capacitor

Capacitor Insulators
As stated before, the insulating material between the
DIELECTRIC plates of a capacitor is a dielectric. The dielectric can
be made from a variety of materials, which includes
paper, mica, air, gases, oils, and chemicals. Capacitors
are classified according to their dielectric material
and to the material that surrounds the plates and
the dielectric. For example, a capacitor with paper
dielectric is a paper capacitor and a capacitor with mica
PARALLEL PLATES
dielectric is a mica capacitor. However, one paper type
is housed in a metal container, filled with oil, and
sealed. Although its dielectric is paper, the capacitor
Figure 58 Rectangular capacitor plates
is an oil-filled capacitor.
Electrical Components, Impedance, and Power 69

A perfect insulator or dielectric does not exist. Another important consideration is the behavior
Therefore, a small amount of current usually flows of capacitors in AC circuits. In AC circuits, voltage
between the plates of a capacitor when voltage is not only reverses direction, but also changes in value
applied. This current is leakage current and varies each time it changes direction. Moreover, the volt-
depending upon the quality of insulation used. age changes from positive and negative each time it
Likewise, conductors used for plates are not perfect changes direction, or goes through one cycle. Thus, if
either. So, they have a small amount of resistance, 240 volts, for example, is flowing in an AC circuit, this
which gives a capacitor some internal resistance. voltage momentarily increases, or peaks, every time
it reverses direction. (The peak may be either positive
Capacitor Charging and Discharging or negative volts.) This momentary voltage increase is
Figure 60 shows a circuit with a 10-volt battery as an termed peak voltage. In a 240-volt AC (VAC) circuit, the
electric energy source, two switches, and a capacitor peak is about 340 volts. So, if a capacitor is operating in
made up of two metal plates separated by an insu- a 240-VAC circuit, and its disconnect switch is opened
lator, or dielectric. The plates are labeled A and B. at the moment the voltage across the capacitor reaches
Before battery voltage is applied (fig. 60A), each plate its peak, the charge remaining on the capacitor is the
is electrically neutral, or uncharged. voltage’s peak value, or about 340 volts. This peak
When the switch is closed (fig. 60B), electrons flow value may be either positive or negative.
to plate A from the battery’s negative terminal. At the same After the voltage peaks, it gradually decreases
time, electrons flow from plate B to the positive terminal of to zero, then climbs until it peaks again. So, if the
the battery. In other words, plate A is negatively charged capacitor’s circuit switch is opened at a point other
and plate B is positively charged. The voltage, or potential than at peak voltage, the capacitor’s charge will be
difference, across the plates of the capacitor instantly rises whatever the value is when the switch is opened.
from 0 to full battery voltage. When the switch is opened Put another way, the voltage charge on a capacitor
(fig. 60C), the charge is trapped and remains on the capaci- in an AC circuit can be any value between zero and
tor. The charge remains for some time, but slowly drains its positive or negative peak value.
because of leakage in the dielectric. Figure 60D shows a charged capacitor with the
Keep in mind that, before the voltage drains, a battery switch open. A shorting switch is provided in
large capacitor can charge to a high voltage level— the circuit to discharge the capacitor. At the instant
high enough to injure or kill a person. Therefore, the shorting switch is closed, electrons rush out of
always take care when handling capacitors, even if the the negatively-charged plate, through the completed
circuit is not energized (unplugged) or even if the ca- short circuit, and on to the positively-charged plate.
pacitor has been completely removed from the circuit. This current flows until the positive and negative
Safety standards require that capacitors be properly charges on both plates are balanced. The capacitor
discharged, shorted, and grounded before any main- is then discharged and remains discharged until the
tenance work is performed on or around them. battery is connected to it again.

DIELECTRIC PLATES REMAIN

PLATES CHARGED WHEN SHORT-CIRCUITING
SWITCH IS SWITCH
NEGATIVELY POSITIVELY OPENED
PLATES CHARGED
ARE NOT A B A B CHARGED A B A B
CHARGED
SWITCH
SWITCH CLOSED
OPEN
CURRENT
– + – + – + – +
10V BATTERY 10V BATTERY 10V BATTERY 10V BATTERY

A B C D

Figure 60 Charging and discharging a capacitor

70 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Discharging a capacitor through a switch only the capacitor to its 90-percent level is determined by
illustrates the events that take place during discharge. plugging the values into equation 32. Thus, t = 2 ×
In reality, never discharge capacitors with a switch, 2,000 × 100 × 10–6, which solves to 4,000 × 100 × 10–6
screwdriver, or any low-resistance conductor because and 400,000 × 10–6. The answer is 0.4 seconds. There-
high currents may result. Discharged high currents fore, the time required to discharge the capacitor
can act as an electric welding torch, creating molten to its 90-percent level is 0.4 seconds. This discharge
metal that can spray onto a person and cause injury. time is quite fast.
In addition, equipment can be damaged. To extend the discharge time, a resistor with
The preferred way to discharge a charged ca- higher resistance and lower wattage can be used.
pacitor is to connect a resistor across the capacitor’s However, equation 32 establishes the basic require-
terminals. Discharging through a resistor releases the ment, which can be altered as needed—for example, a
capacitor’s energy in a controlled manner. Be sure 10-watt, 4,000-ohm resistor could be used to lengthen
to employ a resistor with adequate resistance and the discharge time. Also, bear in mind that safe op-
sufficient watts to safely discharge the capacitor. To erations require a wait of at least 5 minutes after the
determine the value of the resistor and its power rat- capacitor is discharged before touching it to remove
ing, use Ohm’s law and the power law. Also, you must it from the circuit.
consider the time required to discharge the capacitor.
A convenient way to determine the time required, the Capacity
resistance needed, and the power rating required to
Just as resistors are rated in terms of their ability to
discharge a capacitor is to use an equation. One equa-
oppose the flow of current, capacitors are rated ac-
tion gives the time required to discharge a capacitor to
cording to the amount of charge that results from a
its 63-percent level (meaning 37 percent of the charge
given voltage. Several factors affect the capacity of
remains in the capacitor). This equation is—
a capacitor.
t = RC (Eq. 31)
Area of Plates
where
t = discharge time, seconds The capacity of a capacitor varies directly with the area
R = discharge resistance, ohms of the plates used. A low-capacity capacitor has plates
C = capacitor value, farads. with a small area. A high-capacity capacitor has plates
with a large area. In a capacitor with only two plates,
To discharge a capacitor to its 90-percent level,
area, and thus capacity, is determined only where the
where only 10 percent of the charge remains in the
plates face each other. To achieve high capacity with
capacitor, R and C are doubled. The equation is—
a large plate area, many capacitors are constructed
t = 2RC. (Eq. 32) with thin metal foil, which is rolled between a paper
As an example of determining discharge time, dielectric (see fig. 57). Rolling it in this manner makes
assume a capacitor has a value of 100 microfarads (1 for a small capacitor with high capacity.
millionth of a farad) and its voltage charge level is
200 volts DC (VDC). To safely discharge the capaci- Distance between Plates
tor, assume that the maximum discharge current is As the distance between plates of a capacitor in-
0.1 ampere at the moment discharge begins. The creases, the capacity decreases. The closer the plates
resistance value is determined with the Ohm’s law are, the higher is the capacitor’s capacity. The thick-
equation, R = E/I. In this example, voltage, E = 200 volts ness of the dielectric between the plates determines
and current, I = 0.1 amps. Thus, R = 200/0.1, which works the distance between the plates. With a given plate
out to resistance R being 2,000 ohms. area, a thinner dielectric increases capacity because it
The peak power at the initial discharge point decreases the distance between the plates. However,
is determined with the power law equation, which the amount of voltage applied to the capacitor limits
is P = EI. In this case, E = 200 volts and I = 0.1 amps. the dielectric’s thinness. If the dielectric is too thin for
So, P = 200 × 0.1, which works out to 20 watts (P = 20 a given voltage, the voltage ruptures the dielectric
watts). With this information, the time to discharge and shorts out the capacitor. Once a hole is burned
in the dielectric, the capacitor is no longer useful.
Electrical Components, Impedance, and Power 71

Dielectric Materials TABLE 15

The kind of dielectric used in a capacitor also affects Dielectric Strengths
the capacity of a capacitor. Capacitors with the high-
Material Dielectric Strength,
est capacity use air for the dielectric; such capacitors volts/mil
are usually immersed in a nonconductive liquid such
as oil. Air is a standard dielectric—that is, all dielec- Air 76
tric materials are rated in reference to air. Bakelite 150 to 500
Air has a dielectric constant, K, of 1; mica, for ex-
Glass 760 to 3,800
ample, has a dielectric constant of 6. Thus, a capacitor
Paper 250 to 650
using mica as a dielectric has six times the capacity of
a capacitor using air as the dielectric, assuming that Mica 760 to 5,000
the plate areas and spacing between the plates is the Oil 100 to 500
same in both. Table 14 lists the dielectric constants Distilled Water 380
of several materials.

TABLE 14 uses µF. Also, be aware that manufacturers some-

Dielectric Constants times abbreviate microfarad as MFD and imprint it
on the body of the capacitor.) The Greek letter mu
Material Dielectric Constant
(µ) stands for the prefix “micro.” Micro before any
fundamental unit (farads in this case) means to mul-
Air 1.0
tiply the fundamental unit by one-millionth, which
Glass 9.0
is 0.000001, or 10–6.
Mica 6.0 Manufacturers usually rate low-capacity ca-
Paraffin Paper 3.5 pacitors in picofarads, which is abbreviated pF, or
Ethyl Alcohol 28.4 PFD. The prefix “pico” means that the fundamental
Oil (average) 3.0 unit is to be multiplied by one-trillionth, which is
Distilled Water 81.0 0.000000000001, or 10–12. (Incidentally, while capaci-
tors are not usually rated in nanofarads, the prefix
nano means that the fundamental unit is to be multi-
Besides constants, dielectric materials also plied by one-billionth, which is 0.000000001, or 10–9.)
have strengths. The dielectric strength of a material is To determine the capacity of a capacitor, use
based on its thickness and the amount of voltage that the following equation—
breaks down the material. Put another way, dielectric 2.25 × 10-7 × K × A
strength is the voltage per mil of thickness required to C = (Eq. 33)
d
break down the material. (A mil is 0.001 in.) Dielectric
where
strength is a measure of the material’s insulating C = capacity, µF
ability. On the other hand, dielectric constant is a K = dielectric constant of dielectric
measure of the material’s capacitive effect. Table 15 A = area of one of two equal-sized
lists the dielectric strength of several materials. plates forming the capacitor, in.2
d = distance between plates, in.
Determining Capacitance 2.25 × 10–7 = a constant.
Capacitors are rated in terms of their capacitance—that As an example of using equation 33, determine
is, their ability to store a charge. As previously men- the capacity of a capacitor made of two metal plates,
tioned, the unit of capacitance is the farad; however, each of which is 10 in. by 10 in., and that are separated
a capacitor of 1 farad is too large for practical use. by a 0.001-in. thick paraffin paper with a dielectric
Therefore, small units of capacitance are used, includ- constant of 3.
ing the microfarad, picofarad, and, rarely, the nanofarad. The solution—
High-capacity capacitors are rated in micro- 2.25 × 10-7 × 3 × 10 × 10
farads, which is abbreviated mF or µF. (This manual C =
0.001
72 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

2.25 × 10-7 × 3 × 10 × 10
=
0.001 0.01 MFD 200 V
2.25 × 10-7 × 3 × 100
= PAPER CAPACITOR
0.001
2.25 × 10-7 × 300
= 0.01 MFD 600 V
0.001
0.0000675 PAPER CAPACITOR
= (TWICE SIZE OF 0.01 MFD 200V)
0.001
C = 0.0675 µF, or 67,500 farads.
10 MFD 450 V

Capacitor Voltage Ratings ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR

Capacitors are rated not only in terms of their capac-
ity, but also in terms of the maximum voltage that
may be safely applied to them over long periods. Figure 61 Relative size and voltage ratings of
capacitors
This rating is the maximum working voltage rating.
Capacitors can be tested for short periods at higher
voltages than the working voltage. High-voltage ap- This thinness makes it possible to manufacture
plication for a short period is test voltage. Capacitors capacitors of relatively great capacity and of small
undergo such tests to ensure that they will perform size. They are also reasonable in cost, considering
well at working voltages. While working voltages for their high capacity.
capacitors is specified, test voltages are usually not. Figure 62 shows two types of electrolytic ca-
A capacitor’s voltage rating is determined by pacitors. One is a can type, which is installed in the
the strength of the dielectric used. If, for example, circuit in a vertical position on top of a device’s chas-
the voltage rating of a capacitor is low, the dielectric sis. (An electronic chassis is a metal frame that houses
may be thin and the plate area small to provide the the electrical components of a particular device.) The
required capacitance. capacitor’s negative terminals connect, or ground,
To construct a capacitor of higher voltage rat- to the chassis. In the other electrolytic capacitor in
ing, the thickness of the dielectric must be increased. figure 62, the dielectric film and plates are wound
To maintain a given capacity, the area of the plates inside a small cylinder and two leads for wiring the
must also be increased. Thus, a 0.01 µF capacitor capacitor into a circuit exit are provided. Advantages
rated at 200 volts is about half the size of a capacitor of electrolytic capacitors include low cost, small size,
of 0.01 µF capacity rated at 600 volts. The 600-volt and desirable voltage ratings.
capacitor has a thicker dielectric and a greater plate
area. Figure 61 shows three capacitors of different
sizes and voltage ratings. As is the case with most SYMBOLS
electrical components, the cost of a capacitor goes
up with increased voltage rating.
Notice that one of the capacitors in figure 61
is an electrolytic capacitor. Electrolytic capacitors use
an oxide film as the dielectric. (An oxide film is a thin
layer of material—a film—that is coated with metal- NEGATIVE TERMINALS
lic oxides.) Electrolytic capacitors are so called be- POSITIVE TERMINALS
cause an electrolyte (a chemical compound, which,
when molten or dissolved in certain solvents, usu-
POSITIVE

ally water, conducts electricity) separates their elec-

TIVE

16 MFD 450 V DC
NEGA

trodes. (An electrode is simply a conductor through

which electric current enters or leaves the capaci-
tor.) Oxide films not only have excellent voltage
breakdown characteristics, but also they are thin. Figure 62 Two types of electrolytic capacitors
Electrical Components, Impedance, and Power 73

Polarized Capacitors 1
Cseries = 1 + 1
Polarized capacitors are electrolytic capacitors that 50 50

are used only in DC circuits. Capacitors that use mica 1
=
or paper dielectrics—that is, those that do not have 0.02 + 0.02
electrolytic dielectrics—are nonpolarized and may
= 1
be employed in either AC or DC circuits. Polarized 0.04
electrolytic capacitors have terminals that are marked Cseries = 25 µF.
plus (+) and minus (–). The positive terminal must The voltage across each capacitor divides in
be connected to the positive polarity in a circuit or accordance with its voltage rating because the di-
component and the negative terminal connected to electric thickness of each capacitor is proportional to
the negative polarity in a circuit or component. its voltage rating. However, capacitors with similar
If the positive terminal of a polarized electro- voltage ratings usually have slightly different leak-
lytic capacitor is connected to the negative terminal age currents. With different leakage rates, the voltage
of a DC supply or circuit, leakage current becomes so does not divide in proportion to each capacitor’s
large that the capacitor appears to be shorted. If it is rating. Therefore, it is advisable to use capacitors
connected properly, the capacitor functions normally. whose voltage ratings are equal to the supply volt-
age. Doing so avoids problems created by unequal
Capacitors in Parallel and Series Circuits leakage currents.
When capacitors are connected in parallel in a circuit,
the resulting capacity is the sum of the capacitors. In Capacitor Color Codes
equation form, the statement is— If the capacitor’s container is big enough, manufac-
Cparallel = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4 + etc. (Eq. 34) turers print capacitor ratings on it. (See the bottom
drawing in figure 62, which shows a 16-µF capacitor
where with a voltage rating of 450 volts DC.) On the other
Cparallel = total capacitance in a parallel circuit, hand, color codes are employed on small capacitors.
µF They closely resemble resistor color codes (fig. 63).
C1, C2, etc. = capacitance of each capacitor in
Three codes may be encountered: military standards
parallel, µF.
(MIL), Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) standards,
For example, if two 50-µF capacitors are connected and an outdated American War Standards (AWS)
in parallel in a 120-volt DC circuit, the resulting specification. Another outdated code is the Radio
capacitance is 50 + 50 = 100 µF. Assume, in this case, Manufacturers Association (RMA) code, which evolved
that the voltage rating of each capacitor is the same into the EIA code. As you can see in figure 63, these
and is a minimum of 120 VDC. codes come into play with disk, standoff, button head,
When capacitors are connected together in and mica capacitors.
series in a circuit, the resulting, or total, capacitance Three colored dots or bars indicate the capac-
decreases. The relationship of series-connected ity of a color-coded capacitor. The first two colors
capacitors is shown by the equation— indicate the first two digits of the capacity and the
1 last color indicates the multiplier used to obtain the
Cseries = (Eq. 35)
1 + 1 + 1 + etc. total capacity. Location of the color dots denotes the
C1 C2 C3
type of capacitor. The value is in picofarads (pF) and
where the decimal point must be moved six places to the
Cseries = total capacitance in a series circuit, left to get a reading in µF. Usually, capacitors with
µF capacities greater than 1,000 pF are expressed in µF.
C1, C2, etc. = capacitance of each capacitor in
As an example of reading a capacitor’s color
series, µF.
code, assume the first color is red, the second color
For example, if two 50-µF capacitors are con- is orange, and the multiplier color is red. As you
nected in series and their combination is applied can determine by reading the chart in figure 63, the
across a 120-VDC supply, what is the resulting ca- capacity of the capacitor is 2,300 pF. Red indicates
pacitance and voltage ratings? 2, orange 3, and the red multiplier indicates 102, or
 CERAMIC CAPACITORS
TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIEN
T
TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT
COEFFICIEN
T 1ST SIGNIFICANT
2ND FIGURE
1ST SIGNIFICANT
1ST SIGNIFICANT 2ND FIGURE
2ND FIGURE

MULTIPLIER VOLTAGE
TOLERANCE BROWN 150
MULTIPLIER MULTIPLIER ORANGE 350
T OLERANCE TOLERANCE GREEN OR NONE 500

AXIAL-LEAD COLOR CODE FIVE-DOT COLOR CODE SIX-DOT COLOR CODE

FOR RADIAL LEADS FOR RADIAL LEADS
1ST SIGNIFICAN
T
2ND FIGUR
E
MULTIPLIER MULTIPLIER

TOLERANCE TEMPERATURE 1ST DIGIT 1ST SIGNIFICANT

COEFFICIENT 2ND
2ND DIGIT FIGURE
MULTIPLIER

TEMPERA
TURE 2ND SIGNIFICANT MULTIPLIER
COEFFICIEN
T 1ST FIGURE TOLERANCE TEMPERATURE TOLERANCE
COEFFICIENT

FIVE- AND THREE-DOT EIA STANDOFF BUTTON HEAD

COLOR CODE FOR DISKS

MICA CAPACITORS
WHITE, EIA
BLACK, MIL
SILVER, AWS PAPER
1ST
1ST SIGNIFICANT SIGNIFICANT
2ND FIGURE
2ND FIGURE
3RD

MULTIPLIER
MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE
TOLERANCE WORKING VOLTAGE
CLASSIFICATION

PRESENT SIX-DOT OLD RMA CODE

COLOR CODE

Significant Decimal Tolerance Voltage Coefficient

Color Figures Multipliers (%) Rating (PPM/°C)

Black 0 1 20 0
Brown 1 10 1 100 –30
Red 2 102 2 200 –80
Orange 3 103 3 300 –150
Yellow 4 104 4 400 –220
Green 5 105 5 500 –330
Blue 6 106 6 600 –470
Violet 7 107 7 700 –750
Gray 8 108 8 800 30
White 9 109 9 900 500
Gold 0.1 5 1,000
Silver 0.01 10 2,000
No color 20 500

Figure 63 Color code chart for capacitors

Electrical Components, Impedance, and Power 75

100. Thus, 23 × 100 = 2,300 pF. To change pF to µF,

move the decimal point to the left six places, which
SWITCH RESISTOR
yields 0.000023 µF.
Always read the colors from left to right. Some
molded mica capacitors have an arrow between the –

two rows of dots. To read this type, orient the ca-

10-VOLT BATTERY
pacitor so that the arrow points to the right. When
no arrow exists, but a brand name appears between
the row of color dots, orient the capacitor so that the CAPACITOR
brand name can be read properly. Then, read the
color dots from left to right. +
Molded tubular paper and molded ceramic
capacitors are the most common capacitors used in TO ELECTRONIC
electronic equipment. The capacity and voltage rat- CIRCUITS

ings are usually printed on them; however, many

manufacturers use a color code for these capacitors. Figure 64 Time delay using capacitors
Consequently, paper capacitors both with and with-
out color codes exist. The equation is—
The fourth color band on a molded paper T = RC (Eq. 36)
capacitor indicates the voltage. For example, if the
color is blue, which stands for 6, add two zeroes to where
obtain the voltage rating of 600 volts. Voltage ratings T = time to reach 63 percent of final value,
are in steps of 100 if the voltage is over 100 volts. The microseconds (1 microsecond = 1-mil-
lionth of a second)
voltage ratings in electronic equipment range from
R = resistance, ohms
about 10 volts to 1,000 volts. If the voltage rating is C = capacitance, µF.
over 1,000 volts, the voltage is stamped or printed on
For example, suppose a source of 10 volts is ap-
the capacitor. Reading capacitor values by the color
plied to a circuit that has a 1-million-ohm resistor in
code with confidence requires practice. Frequent
series with a 1 µF capacitor. How long does it take
reference to the code chart helps.
the capacitor to charge to 6.3 volts (63 percent of 10
Capacitor Time Delay in DC Circuits volts)? The solution—
A resistor in a circuit with a capacitor delays the time T = 1,000,000 × 1
it takes for the capacitor to achieve a full charge. The = 1,000,000 microseconds
time required to charge the capacitor depends on T = 1 second.
the value of the resistor in ohms and the value of the
Circuits and devices such as control circuits, thresh-
capacitor in µF. Figure 64 is a schematic of part of a
old-detecting circuits, and operational amplifiers, use
DC circuit. It has a 10-volt battery, a switch, a resistor,
capacitor time delay in their operation.
and a capacitor. Closing the switch causes the capaci-
tor to start charging up at a rate determined by the
Capacitors in AC Circuits
current supplied through the resistor. An equation is
available to determine the time it takes for the capaci- When a capacitor is in an AC circuit, current flows to
tor to be charged to 63 percent of the total voltage it the capacitor, but does not flow through it because
can store. (The 63 percent figure is derived from an of the insulator, or dielectric, between the plates.
advanced mathematical equation beyond the scope Nevertheless, it appears that current flows through
of this book. Suffice it to say that a 63 percent charge it. Actually, that which appears to be current is the
is representative of the behavior of capacitors and the charging and discharging that occurs in the capaci-
time required for them to achieve a charge.) In the tor during each half cycle of the AC voltage.
example shown in figure 64, total voltage is 10 volts The capacitor’s size—that is, its ability to store
because the battery supplies 10 volts to the circuit. small or large charges—influences the current’s
Therefore, 63 percent of its total capacity is 6.3 volts. magnitude. Therefore, the higher the capacitor’s
76 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

capacity—the higher its microfarad or farad rating— reactance is an important aspect of AC circuits be-
the greater is the amount of AC charging current. cause it causes current flow to precede voltage flow in
The frequency of the applied AC voltage also influences the circuit. Capacitive reactance is more pronounced
the magnitude of current. If the frequency of the alternat- than ohmic resistance, especially in electronic filters
ing current being applied to the capacitor is increased, and motor-starting capacitors. Capacitor reactance
the number of charges and discharges per second is in- can be determined with the equation—
creased. Consequently, more current flows in the circuit. 1
XC = (Eq. 37)
An ohmic value for a capacitor can be obtained 2πfC
by applying Ohm’s law, whereby applied voltage to where
a capacitor is divided by the current. Keep in mind, XC = inductive reactance, ohms
however, that this ohmic value is not resistive; in- 2π = a constant
stead, it is reactive. f = frequency, Hz
C = capacitance, farads.
Capacitive Reactance As an example, determine the reactance of a 100-µF
Capacitive reactance is the opposition to AC current capacitor if 60 Hz AC is applied to it. (Note that 100 µF
flow a capacitor causes in a circuit. This impedance, must be expressed in farads. To convert farads to µFs,
or reactance, is not the same as ohmic resistance or simply move the decimal point six places to the left. Or
the retarding effect of inductive reactance. Instead, simply multiply 100 by 10–6, which works out as 100 ×
capacitive reactance causes current flow to precede 106 = 10–4; 10–4 = 0.0001 farad. Also note that π = 3.14.)
1
voltage flow through the circuit. If the current and XC =
voltage flowing in an AC circuit with a capacitor are 2 × 3.14 × 60 × 0.0001
shown as waveforms (fig. 65), the current leads the 1
=
voltage by 90 degrees. This phenomenon is a phase 6.28 × 60 × 0.0001
shift because the capacitor changes, or shifts, the 1
=
phase of current and voltage as they flow in a circuit. 0.0377
(If they were in phase, current and voltage would XC = 26.5 ohms.
achieve maximum values at the same time.) Note that
when voltage is at a maximum, current is zero and AC Capacitor Applications
that when current is at a maximum, voltage is zero.
A single-phase motor uses the phase shifting char-
The unit of capacitive reactance is the ohm, and
acteristics of a capacitor. (A single-phase motor is
its symbol is XC. X represents reactance, and subscript
simply a motor that has only one source of alternating
C ( C ) identifies it as capacitive reactance. Capacitive
current to make it run.) Figure 66 is a schematic of

MAXIMUM VOLTAGE
MAXIMUM CURRENT

APPLIED VOLTAGE

0 0

CURRENT

THE CURRENT THROUGH

MAXIMUM CURRENT A CAPACITOR LEADS THE
APPLIED VOLTAGE BY 90ϒ
OR ¼ CYCLE
MAXIMUM VOLTAGE

Figure 65 Graph of current values and voltage values in a capacitive alternating current circuit
Electrical Components, Impedance, and Power 77

The impedance of a circuit cannot be determined sim-

CENTRIFUGAL SWITCH ply by adding the ohmic resistance and the reactance.
The current flowing through the ohmic resistance
is in phase with the voltage. (Being in phase means
that voltage and current values reach maximum and
STARTING
WINDING minimum values at the same instant.) As mentioned
before, a waveform of current and voltage in induc-
RUNNING
WINDING tive reactance shows current values lagging behind
voltage values by 90 degrees (see fig. 65). Stated
another way, in capacitive reactance, current values
ARMATURE lead voltage values by 90 degrees.
To determine the impedance of an electrical
circuit consisting of resistance (R), inductance (H),
and capacitance (C) components connected in series,
STARTING a mathematical procedure called vector addition is
CAPACITOR used. A vector is the representation of a quantity that
gives the quantity both magnitude and direction.
In the case of impedance, the vector describes the
magnitude and the angle of the phase shift. The resis-
tive component (R) is in phase with the current. The
120V AC
inductive component (H) lags behind the resistive
component by 90 degrees. The capacitive component
Figure 66 Single-phase AC induction motor (C) leads the resistive component by 90 degrees.
Figure 67 shows R, H, and C components as
a vector diagram from which impedance can be
a single-phase AC induction motor. A circle repre-
determined. The R component is resistance, the H
sents the motor’s armature. The figure also depicts
component is inductive reactance (labeled XH on
four windings (or coils), a centrifugal switch, and
the diagram), and the C component is capacitive
a starting capacitor. A 120-volt AC circuit provides
reactance (labeled XC on the diagram.)
electrical energy for the motor. To develop starting
The vector components can be added if
torque in the motor, a rotating magnetic field must be
they are in phase, which is the case with induc-
developed. To achieve this magnetic field, two out-
tive reactance (XH) and capacitive reactance (XC).
of-phase currents are applied to separate windings—
However, to add the resistive component (R) to the
one to the starting winding and one to the winding
connected to the capacitor. The capacitor creates the
out-of-phase current. The magnetic fields created
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE– XH
in each winding oppose each other and produce a
rotating magnetic field because they are out of phase.
The capacitor connected to one of the windings shifts
0 RESISTANCE–R
the current phase to achieve the magnetic fields. The
magnetic fields initiate starting torque. Once the mo-
tor achieves full speed, centrifugal force created by
the rotating motor causes the centrifugal switch to
disconnect the starting circuit.
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE– XC

IMPEDANCE
As stated earlier, impedance is the total retarding
effect on the current in a circuit. It is a combination
Figure 67 Vector diagram of an R, H, and C circuit
of resistive opposition and reactive opposition. Im- to determine impedance
pedance is measured in ohms, and its symbol is Z.
78 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

in a circuit, voltage and current are not in harmony

with each other—that is, they are out of phase.
When the voltage reaches a peak, the current is at
IMPEDANCE –Z zero and when the voltage is at zero, the current is
at its peak (see fig. 65). Voltage and current do not
XH – XC
work together as they do in a circuit only with resis-
tors where the current and voltage work together
RESISTANCE – R in phase.
When an AC generator or transformer deliv-
ers voltage and current to a load, the voltage and
current can be multiplied to determine power in the
form of volt-amperes. This form of power is referred
to as apparent power and for single-phase circuits,
the equation is:
Figure 68 Combining R, H, C vectors into imped-
ance P = VI (Eq. 39)
where
P = power, volt-amperes
reactive components, the Pythagorean theorem is used. V = voltage
Pythagoras was an ancient Greek mathematician I = current.
who discovered that in a right triangle, the square of
The only difference between equation 39 and power
the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of
equation 11 (see page 14) is that equation 39 gives
the squares of the lengths of the other two sides. Put
power in terms of volt-amperes instead of watts. Put
another way, the hypotenuse is the square root of the
another way, when current flows through a resistor,
sum of the squares of the other two sides. Figure 68
the product of voltage and current are in phase and
shows R, H, and C vectors combined to form a right
produces power in watts. The apparent power in a
triangle from which impedance, Z, can be deter-
resistor is the same as watts, so therefore, in a resistor,
mined. Resistance, R, forms one leg of the triangle, the
P = volt-amperes = watts.
H and C vectors, expressed as XH – XC, form another
When current flows through an inductor, an
leg, and impedance, Z, forms the hypotenuse. Using
out-of-phase condition exists between current and
the Pythagorean theorem, total impedance, Z, (the
voltage. Therefore, the product of voltage and cur-
hypotenuse) in an R, H, and C circuit is—
rent represents reactive power, which is expressed in
Z = R2 + (XL – XC)2 (Eq. 38) terms of volt-ampere reactive, or VAR, for short. No real
power is consumed in VAR, which is why reactive
where
power is sometimes called wattless power. VAR in an
Z = total circuit impedance, ohms
inductive circuit is abbreviated VARH or VARL. (This
R = resistance of circuit, ohms
manual uses H as the symbol for induction, instead
XH = inductive reactance, ohms
of L, to avoid confusion with the SI symbol for litre.)
XC = capacitive reactance, ohms.
When current flows into a capacitor, the prod-
uct of voltage and current represents reactive power
POWER because an out-of-phase condition exists between
Up to now, power has been discussed in conjunction current and voltage, much like that in an inductor.
with a DC circuit where the current and voltage do Thus, VAR also exists in capacitor circuits and is ab-
not vary with time and whose frequency is zero. In breviated as VARC.
this case, power (P) is in watts and is the product of Apparent power represents the total power in a
voltage (V) times current (I), or P = VI. circuit and is the vector sum of the true power in watts
When alternating current is applied to a cir- plus the reactive power. While true power produces
cuit containing resistors, inductors, and capacitors, heat in a component, VAR does not. VAR circulates
power takes on a broader meaning. When storage between the supply and the components or between
components such as capacitors and inductors are reactive components.
Electrical Components, Impedance, and Power 79

A measure of the amount of real power—the

power in watts—being delivered to a circuit as com-
pared to its total, or apparent, power is referred to Y

as the power factor. Power factor is a ratio with values

VARH –INDUCTIVE
between 0 and 1.0, and the equation is—
W
Pf = VA (Eq. 40)
where WATTS
Pf = power factor X
W = watts
VA = volt-amperes.
A way to visualize power is to use power triangles.
These triangles are derived from vectors. The vectors VARC–CAPACITIVE

display the types of power on a graph. For example,

figure 69A shows a vector diagram of VAR and watts.
The vectors are on a graph with an x and y axis. In-
A. Basic Vector Diagram
ductive VAR (VARH) and capacitive VAR (VARC) are of VAR and Watts
on the y axis, each going in opposite directions. Real
power in watts is on the x axis. Figure 69B is a power
triangle derived by combining the vectors. It is a right
ER
triangle where real power in watts forms one leg of W
PO
the triangle, VARH minus VARC forms another leg, and T
EN
AR VARH –VARC
apparent power (VA) forms the hypotenuse. PP
–A
From the vector diagram and power triangle, VA

several relationships between the types of power can WATTS-REAL POWER

be described.
1. Total reactive power is the difference be-
tween inductive VAR (VARH) and capaci-
tive VAR (VARC) since their vectors are in
phase, but in opposite directions. Stated
mathematically, total reactive power = B. Combining Vectors into
VARH – VARC. Power Triangle
2. Total real power, in watts, is shown on the x
axis of the vector diagram and as one leg of Figure 69 Vector representation of Watts and VAR
the power triangle. Also, from equation 40,
it can be determined that total real power
is the product of volt-amperes (VA) times where
the power factor (Pf); or, total real power VA = total power, volt-amperes
= VA × Pf. Incidentally, real power can be W = real power, watts
measured with a wattmeter.
VARH = inductive VAR
3. Total, or apparent, power in volt-amperes VARC = capacitive VAR.
(VA) is the vector sum of reactive power
In systems where a great deal of power is
(VARH and VARC) and real power. Total
involved, power units are often expressed in units
power (VA) is represented by the hypot-
of 1,000 times the base unit and are thus prefixed
enuse of the power triangle. The equation
with kilo. In these cases, the power units are kilovars
for determining total VA power uses the
(kVAR), which equals 1,000 VARs; kilowatts (kW),
Pythagorean theorem and is—
which equals 1,000 watts; and kilovolt-amperes
VA = W2 + (VARH – VARC)2 (Eq. 41) (kVA), which equals 1,000 volt-amperes.
80 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

REVIEW QUESTIONS 5. Does current lead or lag the voltage in an

inductive circuit?
1. What are two important sources of direct-
current electricity? 6. Does current lead or lag the voltage in a
capacitive circuit?
2. What is the law of attraction and repulsion
7. Is impedance determined by algebraic addi-
for electric charges?
tion of resistance, inductive reactance, and
3. What kind of lines of force exist around the capacitive reactance? Explain.
terminals of a battery if the battery is not 8. A transformer is delivering 1,000 kVA to a
connected to a circuit? load whose power factor is 0.8. What is the
4. How can voltage be induced in a wire? real power component of this load in kW?
 Electromagnetic Equipment
9
TRANSFORMERS size, or gauge. The larger the conductor, the less is
When a transformer is installed in a circuit, electricity its resistance and the lower is the heat loss through
of a given voltage and current flows into the trans- it. Another factor concerns the power law, which is
former. The transformer then converts, or transforms, P = VI, where power in watts (P) is equal to voltage
the voltage and current to a higher or lower value. The (V) in volts times current (I) in amperes.
higher or lower values then flow to the remainder of Let’s say, for example, that 880 watts of power
the circuit in which the transformer is installed. For is to be transmitted. From the power law, note that
example, if 110 volts enters a transformer, the trans- any combination of volts and amperes that produces
former can change it to, let’s say, 1,110 volts before a product of 880 watts is possible. For example—
the voltage flows elsewhere in the circuit. In this case, 1. 110 volts × 8 amperes = 880 watts.
input to the transformer is 110 volts, while output is 2. 220 volts × 4 amperes = 880 watts.
1,110 volts. On the other hand, 110 volts may flow into 3. 440 volts × 2 amperes = 880 watts.
a transformer and the transformer can change it to 11 4. 880 volts × 1 ampere = 880 watts.
volts of output. Similarly, a transformer can change an In this case, the most desirable condition for
input current of 1 ampere to 5 amperes and vice versa. transmitting the power is 880 volts and 1 ampere,
Transformers are essential in power distribution because low amperage causes less heat loss in the
systems. Power distribution systems deliver electric conductor. The most efficient way to transmit alter-
power from a source of generation to a place of nating current is at high voltage and low amperage.
utilization. Without transformers, electric power Figure 70 illustrates the use of transformers
cannot easily be transmitted over great distances. between a generating station at a dam and the elec-
The electrical generation and transmission system tric motor on an oilwell pumping unit. The power
of Hoover Dam in the western United States is a leaves the dam at high voltage and low amperage
good example of how transformers are used in a
power distribution system. The generators at the
foot of the dam produce alternating current at 13,000
volts. Transformers step up this voltage to 287,500
volts for transmission through wires to Los Angeles,
California, which is 200 miles (320 kilometres) away.
In Los Angeles, additional transformers all over the
city step it down to 440, 220, and 110 volts for use in
ELECTRIC
industry, homes, and offices. MOTOR
The reason for stepping voltage up and down
TRANSFORMERS
to transmit it long distances is explained by the
behavior of electricity when it travels through a con-
ductor. When current passes through a conductor,
TRANSFORMERS
such as a wire, some electrical energy is converted to
heat, which is a loss of electrical energy. The amount TRANSFORMERS
of energy lost is proportional to the square of the
number of amperes of current. That is, the higher
Figure 70 Use of transformers in a distribution
the amperage of the current, the greater is the energy
system
loss. The amount lost also depends on the conductor’s

81
82 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

and efficiently flows through the power lines. Step- pays off because voltages as high as 750,000 volts
down transformers near the oilwell’s location lower (750 kilovolts) are currently being transmitted. Soon,
the voltage to the amount the pump motor requires. voltages of 1,000,000 volts (1 megavolt) and higher
Similarly, in virtually every city, step-down trans- will be transmitted.
formers are placed at many points to provide the
required voltage to homes and businesses. In rural Principle of Transformer Operation
areas, almost every farm has a step-down transformer
The key word in transformer operation is induction.
on a power line pole near the farmhouse.
When current flows through a conductor, a magnetic
field occurs around the conductor. If a second conduc-
Stage Transformation tor is placed near the magnetic field of the first and if
Stepping up voltage to high values and then stepping the magnetic field changes direction, induction occurs.
it down near the point of use may require several Induction produces voltage in the second conductor.
stages of transformation. Electric transmission com- Three elements in induction are (1) a conductor, (2)
panies use trans­formers extensively when transmit- a magnetic field, and (3) a relative change in motion
ting alternating current because line loss—the loss of between the conductor and the magnetic field.
electrical energy that occurs when electricity flows When a wire carries alternating current, the
through a line, or conductor—is unacceptably high at magnetic field changes because of the pulsating or
relatively low voltage and high amperage. Yet, homes alternating nature of the current. In a circuit carrying
and businesses require relatively low voltages. Step- 60-Hz alternating current, current rises from zero to
ping up the voltage with transformers permit power a peak and back to zero 120 times per second. Conse-
companies to use smaller conductors in transmission quently, the magnetic lines of force surrounding the
lines and smaller components of every kind. Then, conductor also change 120 times per second. If another
they use transformers to step down the voltage where conductor is placed near the alternating magnetic lines
required. The resulting savings in construction costs of force surrounding the conductor, the magnetic lines
more than offsets the cost of transformers. induce voltage in the second conductor.
However, the number of volts that may be Figure 71 shows a primary circuit through
transmitted is limited. At very high voltages, trans- which alternating current is flowing. AC flow creates
mission lines develop a corona effect. That is, the air a magnetic field in the primary circuit, or the primary,
surrounding a high-voltage conductor becomes ion- for short. A secondary circuit—a secondary—is placed
ized—loses electrons—and begins to conduct current. near the primary’s magnetic field to induce alternat-
(The corona effect can be seen at night as a bluish light ing current in the secondary. The two conductors are
given off by the conductor.) Also, high voltages cause insulated from each other. The induced current has
transformers to heat up, which causes energy loss. the same frequency—for example, 60 Hz—as the
Because trans­former heating causes an efficiency loss, primary current.
manufacturers constantly conduct research aimed at In figure 72, an iron ring provides a path for the
producing more efficient transformers. This research magnetic lines of force, which improves induction.

PRIMARY SECONDARY

AC SOURCE LOAD

Figure 71 Induction of current in a secondary circuit

Electromagnetic Equipment 83

PRIMARY CIRCUIT SECONDARY CIRCUIT

AC SOURCE LOAD
IRON RING

Figure 72 An iron ring provides a path for magnetic lines.

Forming the conductors into coils achieves further

improvement (fig. 73). The coils intensify the mag-
netic field. Thus, coils, or windings, are employed
in transformers.

Eddy Currents
The current flowing in the primary coil induces
magnetic lines of force in the coil’s core. These in-
duced lines of force, in turn, induce currents that
follow circular paths around the lines of force in the
conductors as well as in the core. These currents are
eddy currents. If the core is solid metal, eddy currents
occur in a large part of the metal, and the resistance of Figure 74 Laminated transformer core
the metal causes energy to be lost as the metal heats
up. If, however, the core is made up of thin plates
tion of a core reduces eddy currents. Figure 75 shows
of metal with insulating material between them, the
a core with the primary and secondary windings in
eddy currents cannot cross the insulation. The insula-
place. The dotted lines with arrowheads indicate the
tion confines the eddy currents to the thin plate and
induced voltage.
minimizes core heating.
Figure 74 shows a transformer core made of
several thin sheets of silicon steel separated by insula-
tors. (Silicon steel is steel that contains not only iron
and carbon, but also from 0.5 to 4.5 percent silicon.
The silicon in the steel makes it malleable, which al-
lows manufacturers to make the thin, flat plates that
are ideal for transformers.) The laminated construc-
PRIMARY SECONDARY

PRIMARY SECONDARY

Figure 73 Using coils to intensify the magnetic field Figure 75 Core with coils in place
84 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

1,000 TURNS 100 TURNS

100 TURNS 10 TURNS

1,000 × 10 ×
ES = 110 ES = 110
110 VAC 100 110 VAC 100
= 1,100 × VOLTS = 11 VOLTS

PRIMARY SECONDARY

SECONDARY PRIMARY

A. Step-Up Transformer B. Step-Down Transformer

Figure 76 Examples of transformer windings

Step-Up and Step-Down Transformers Figure 76B shows a primary with 100 turns and
a secondary with 10 turns. (Again, the schematic only
Figure 76 is a schematic of a step-up transformer and
represents the number of turns and not the actual
a step-down transformer. Notice that the primary and
number.) In this case, the voltage induced in the
secondary windings differ from each other. That is, the
secondary is one-tenth of the voltage applied to the
number of turns in the primary coils is different from
primary. Applying equation 41 shows that—
the number of turns in the secondary coils. Figure 76A
shows a step-up transformer. The primary winding Es = 10 × 110
100
has 100 turns and the secondary has 1,000 turns. (The
schematic does not show the actual number of turns; = 1.0 × 110
instead, it merely represents the actual number.) In the Es = 11 volts.
step-up transformer shown in figure 76A, the voltage A transformer is a step-down transformer when few-
induced in the secondary is ten times greater than the er turns exist in the secondary than in the primary.
voltage applied to the primary. Consequently, the sec- The ratio of the number of turns in the primary
ondary voltage is 1,100 volts. So, this transformer is a coil to the number of turns in the secondary coil—that
step-up transformer because it increases, or steps up, is, the turns ratio of the transformer—determines the
the voltage from 110 to 1,100 volts. A transformer with voltage output of the secondary in relation to the
more turns in the secondary coil than in the primary primary supply voltage.
coil is a step-up transformer.
Figure 76A also shows a solved equation for Variable Voltage Ratios
this relationship. The unsolved equation is— Transformers are available that allow an operator
P to change the step-up or step-down voltage ratio in
Es = P s × Vs (Eq. 41)
p
a transformer by changing the turns ratio in trans-
where formers. Taps are placed at various points on the
Es = step-up or step-down voltage, volts windings. An operator can manipulate the taps to
Ps = number of windings in the secondary coil increase or decrease the number of turns. Figure 77
Pp = number of windings in the primary coil is a schematic of a variable voltage transformer. Black
Vs = supply AC voltage, volts.
dots on the schematic represent the taps. An operator
Plugging in the values shown in figure 76A works can change from one tap to another by changing the
out to— line connection to the taps or by bringing the tap con-
1,000
Es = × 110 nections to a multiple-contact switch. Figure 77 also
100
shows that a transformer’s secondary windings may
= 10 ×110 be in two or more sections. (The secondary winding
Es = 1,100 volts.
Electromagnetic Equipment 85

Ip

Is
TAPS

Ep Es

SECONDARY

PRIMARY
EpIp = EsIs
Figure 77 Variable voltage transformers
Figure 78 Current and voltage relationship

in figure 77 is in two sections.) A secondary with sec-

tions allows the voltage from one or more sections as Ep and current as Ip. Similarly, it labels secondary
to be hooked up in series or in parallel as needed. voltage as Es and secondary current as Is. Figure 78
also shows the equation—
Current in Primary and Secondary
Ep × Ip = Es × Is (Eq. 42)
Current flows in the secondary when the second-
ary circuit is connected to a load. For a step-up where
transformer, current in the secondary is lower than Ep = primary voltage, volts
Ip = primary current, amperes
current in the primary—the opposite of how a
Es = secondary voltage, volts
step-up transformer affects voltage. Current in the
Is = secondary current, amperes.
secondary is lower than current in the primary by
Equation 42 holds true for both step-up and step-
the inverse ratio of the voltage. For example, in a
down transformers. (Bear in mind, too, that the equa-
step-up transformer with a five-to-one ratio, if cur-
tion disregards transformer inefficiency.)
rent flowing in the primary winding is 5 amperes,
then the current in the secondary is 1 ampere. On
Counter EMF in the Primary
the other hand, voltage in the secondary is five times
the primary voltage. The ohmic resistance of a transformer’s winding is usu-
Bear in mind that transformer efficiency is not ally comparatively small in relation to voltage applied
100 percent—that is, the voltage and amperage in a to the windings. Because the primary is connected
five-to-one step-up transformer, for example, will directly across the line, a short circuit would occur if cer-
not be an exact five-to-one ratio. Actual voltage and tain factors did not limit primary current. One limiting
amperage will be a little lower. However, for pur- factor is the voltage induced in the primary winding.
poses of explanation, consider a transformer to be This voltage in the primary opposes and therefore limits
100-percent efficient. the incoming line voltage. Consequently, the induced
An important relationship to remember about voltage in the primary is called back, or, counter emf.
step-up and step-down transformers concerns power. Counter emf limits the current that flows in the primary
Although transformers change the values of voltage winding. Indeed, counter emf is almost equal to the line
and current, they do not change power. The product voltage. Current from the primary source sets up the
of the current and voltage in a transformer’s primary magnetic flux that produces the induced voltage. As a
circuit is equal to the product of the current and result, enough magnetic flux exists to induce a counter
voltage in the secondary circuit. Put another way, emf equal to the line voltage, less the loss caused by
the apparent power (in volt-amperes, or VA) is the the resistance in the primary circuit’s leakage reactance.
same in the primary and secondary. The step-down (Leakage reactance is the impeding of current flow
transformer in figure 78 labels voltage in the primary caused by leakage current from the primary winding.)
86 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

In summary, the counter emf induced in the current is the electric current induced in the core by
primary windings of the transformer is opposite in the same magnetic flux that induces voltage in the
direction and almost equal in magnitude to the line metal conductors of the windings. Eddy currents in
voltage impressed on the primary. This counter emf the core are undesirable because they take energy
prevents the incoming line current from overloading from the circuit and produce no usable current.
the primary and burning it out. These eddy currents cause heat in the core where
In a transformer, enough current flow always they flow, and increase the load in the primary and
exists to set up the counter emf. When the transform- secondary windings. Hysteresis losses are losses
er is not loaded—when it is in a no-load condition— in power caused by the lagging of changes in the
counter emf is the majority of the current flowing and core’s magnetic field as the transformer’s magnetic
is termed exciting current. The exciting current may field varies.
be as much as 40 percent of the full-load current in
small transformers, such as those used in a doorbell Transformer Rating and Terminal Identification
ringer. In distribution transformers, it may range
Transformers used in electrical circuits are rated
from 5 to 7 percent, and in large power transformers
according to the primary maximum capacity—that is,
it usually is not more than 1 or 2 percent.
the product of the maximum volts and maximum
Exciting current is made up of two parts. One
amperes in the primary. Volts times amperes is ap-
part is in phase with impressed voltage and supplies
parent power expressed as volt-amperes (VA). Small
the losses in the core. (Impressed voltage is simply
transformers are usually rated in terms of VA. Large
the voltage that is applied to the circuit in which the
transformers, on the other hand, are often rated in
transformer is installed.) The other part of the exciting
terms of kilovolt-amperes, or kVA. Kilovolt-amperes
current is 90 degrees out of phase with the impressed
is an expression of volts times amperes divided by
voltage and supplies the magnetizing current. The
1,000. For example, 5,000 volt-amperes (VA) are also
magnetizing current is the part of the current that
5 kilovolt-amperes (5kVA).
actually produces the magnetic lines of force (the
Figure 79 shows the schematics of two trans-
flux) in the primary.
formers. The schematics are electrical versions—that
Keep in mind that a transformer does not
is, the manner in which they are drawn indicates that
generate electrical power; it simply transfers elec-
the transformers are used in an electrical system rath-
trical power from one coil to another by magnetic
er than in an electronic device such as an amplifier.
induction. A transformer is, therefore, a device that
In any case, both transformers have one primary
transfers power from its primary circuit to its second-
and two secondary windings. The letters H1 and H2
ary circuit. Transformers are classified as step-up or
identify the primary winding in each transformer.
step-down only in relation to their effect on voltage.
The letters X1, X2, X3, and X4 identify the secondaries.
Each transformer’s terminal is also labeled. Figure
Transformer Power Losses
79A shows the transformer’s secondaries connected
When current flows in electrical equipment, some
in series. Figure 79B shows the transformer’s second-
electrical energy is always lost. The losses in large
aries connected in parallel.
transformers are usually small and are expressed
as a percentage of the full-load rating. Losses may
Electronic Equipment Transformers
be classified as load losses and no-load losses. A trans-
former is loaded when electric power is drawn from Transformers that supply power in electronic equip-
it. Thus, a load loss is the loss in power that occurs as ment generally have capacities ranging from a few
power is drawn from the transformer. No-load losses watts or VA to several hundred watts or VA. These
occur in the primary, secondary, and core of the transformers usually have several secondary wind-
transformer and do not depend on the transformer’s ings. One of the secondary windings is a step-up
being loaded. No-load losses are classified as primary winding, which usually transforms 120 volts to
losses, secondary losses, and core losses. about 500 volts. The other secondary windings are
A no-load core loss is made up of eddy-current step-down windings. They step down the voltage
loss and hysteresis loss. Eddy current losses occur in to values such as 5, 6.3, and 12.6 volts. Transform-
the iron core of the transformer. Recall that an eddy ers used in electronic equipment are not rated by
Electromagnetic Equipment 87

BLACK RED
110-VOLT LINE
250 V

RED/WHITE
500 VAT 50
250 V MILLIAMPERES
PRIMARY TERMINAL
RED
H1 H2
YELLOW
5.0 VAT 2AMPS

GREEN
X4 X3 X2 X1
BLACK 6.3 VAT 2AMPS

220 V

A. Secondaries Connected
in Series
120 VAC

110-VOLT LINE
Figure 80 Identification of transformer terminals
(electronic)
PRIMARY

H1 H2 Power Transformers
Most electronic devices use 120-volt alternating
current for their source of power in the U.S. Many
circuits also use transistors. A transistor is a small
X4 X3 X2 X1
semiconducting device that is used as an amplifier,
TERMINAL
detector, or a switch. An amplifier increases the
size (magnitude) of an electrical quantity such as
110-VOLT LINE
a signal. A detector is the equipment in a receiver
B. Secondaries Connected that recovers, or demodulates, a signal. (A receiver
in Parallel accepts radio waves and translates, or demodu-
lates, them into intelligible forms such as sounds
Figure 79 Identification of transformer terminals and pictures.)
(electrical) Transistors and other electronic devices also
require direct current for operation, so devices called
rectifiers convert alternating current to direct current.
maximum primary VA; instead, they are rated by
Transistors also require that only certain parts, or
the maximum voltage and current ratings of the
segments, of the current be sent to them. So, filters in
secondary windings.
the circuit allow the desired segments of the electric
For instance, the small transformer shown in
current to flow and, at the same time, reduce, or at-
figure 80 is used in electronic equipment and its
tenuate, undesirable segments.
schematic is drawn accordingly. The transformer has
In any case, a transformer is used to obtain the
three secondaries. One is a high-voltage secondary
proper voltage for operation. Such a transformer is
and is rated 500 volts at 50 milliamperes—that is,
a power transformer. The power transformer, capaci-
its output is 500 volts at 50 milliamperes. Another
tor, and filtering elements are grouped together and
secondary has low-voltage output and is rated 5
called the power supply. The power transformer in
volts at 2 amperes. The final secondary also has low
electronic equipment can often be recognized by its
voltage output and is rated 6.3 volts at 2 amperes.
size, because it is usually larger than other transform-
The transformer leads are covered with insulation
ers that may be found in the equipment.
of different colors to identify them.
88 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Power transformers may have several second- volts (V) at 50 milliamperes (mA). Notice that several
ary windings, with each winding rated in terms of leads come out of the bottom. The two on the right are
its voltage and current output. Power transformers the input leads that are connected to a 120-volt AC sup-
for transistor and other solid-state circuits typically ply. The leads on the left come out of the transformer’s
have one or two secondary windings of relatively secondary and are covered by insulation of different
low-voltage and low-current capability ranging from colors. The schematic at the bottom of figure 81 shows
about 100 milliamperes to several amperes. Transistor the secondaries, the voltage and ampere ratings of each
circuits use voltages that range from 4 to 24 volts and secondary, and the color of the leads.
currents from a few milliamperes to several amperes. If a transformer has rigid metallic terminals,
instead of color-coded wire leads, the manufacturer
Transformer Leads usually stamps the voltage rating on the insulation
If a power transformer uses flexible wire for its con- near the terminals. Sometimes the terminals are sim-
necting leads, the insulating cover on the leads is ply numbered. In this case, use the manufacturer’s in-
usually of different colors. Figure 81 shows a typical struction sheet that comes with the new transformer
power transformer and a schematic diagram of the to determine the ratings.
transformer. The drawing of the actual transformer Regardless of the type of transformer, keep all
at top has a high-voltage secondary that provides 250 the data and instruction sheets furnished by the manu-
facturer. This material provides information on the
maximum voltage, the insulation between windings,
and the insulation between the windings and the core.

Audio Transformers
Audio transformers are transformers that operate at
frequencies that cover the range of audio frequencies.
They bring together, or couple, circuits that carry audio
frequencies. The range of audio frequencies is 30 to
15,000 Hz—that is, this range assumes that the aver-
age human ear can perceive sounds as low as 30 Hz
and as high as 15,000 Hz. By way of contrast, note that
power transformers operate on only one frequency: 60
Hz. Audio transformers, on the other hand, respond
to any frequency within the audio range.
HIGH-VOLTAGE SECONDARY, Audio transformers used as output transform-
RATED 250 V AT 50 MA ers are usually rated in watts of power delivered at
RED the secondary and in impedances that the primary
and secondary windings are connected to. (Recall
250 V

RED/WHITE that impedance is the resistance to current flow in

500 V

BLACK an AC circuit.) A typical set of values for an audio

250 V

system’s output transformer is 10 watts output into

RED
an impedance of 8 ohms and a primary winding
120 VAC

matching a source that has 4,000 ohms impedance.

YELLOW
5 VAT 2AMPS Transistors used as audio amplifiers usually
BLACK
have low-impedance outputs. Transformers are not
normally used between the amplifier and the loud-
GREEN
6.3 VAT 2AMPS
speaker because the transistor’s output can be de-
signed to match the low impedance of the loudspeaker
TRANSFORMER SCHEMATIC without use of the transformer. On the other hand,
transformers are frequently used in solid-state circuits
Figure 81 Power transformer to couple one stage of amplification to another.
Electromagnetic Equipment 89

FILTER CHOKE COILS (An electron tube is an almost obsolete electronic

A filter choke coil is not a transformer, but it resembles device in which electrons move through a vacuum
one and it operates on the principle of inductance, or gaseous medium within an airtight glass, or other
just as a transformer does. A filter choke has a single material, container. It is also called a radio tube; a
winding on a laminated iron core. Because it has only tube; or, in Great Britain, a valve. Today, transistors
two leads or terminals, it is easily distinguished from have virtually replaced tubes.)
a transformer. Filter chokes are rated according to Filter chokes are not commonly used today
their inductance, measured in henries (H), and their because of their cost and comparatively heavy con-
current-carrying capabilities. struction. However, some silicon-controlled rectifiers
Figure 82 shows three filter choke coils. They (SCRs) may use large filter chokes to reduce the ripple
are commonly and erroneously called transformers; on the DC bus before being used by an inverter. A
in reality, they are filter chokes. Figure 82 also shows silicon-controlled rectifier is a solid-state device that
a schematic of the audio output transformer, which is changes AC to DC. Ripple is the AC component in
a special type of filter choke. (See the previous section the output of a DC power supply, which arises in the
on audio transformers.) Note that it only has two input power supply because of incomplete filtering or from
leads; the secondary winding, however, has five taps. a direct current generator. A bus is an assembly of
Also note the single straight line between the primary electrical conductors that collect current from several
and secondary windings. This single line indicates that sources and distribute it to feeder lines so that it will
it is actually a single winding—that is, the primary and be available where needed. An inverter is an electronic
secondary arise from the same winding. Compare the device that converts DC to AC. So, a filter choke re-
schematic in figure 82 with the schematic in figure 81. duces or eliminates undesirable alternating current
The schematic in figure 81 shows two straight lines components in a direct current circuit before it flows to
between the windings, which indicate that the primary an inverter where it is converted to alternating current.
and secondary are separate windings. Modern power supplies for solid-state circuits
Once very popular, filter chokes were placed in eliminate the need for filter chokes. Today’s power
the power supply of circuits that used electron tubes. supplies provide excellent filtering of rectified al-
ternating current with capacitors, resistors, and
transistors connected as regulators.

INDUCTION MOTORS
Induction motors are the most popular electric motor
in the world today. An induction motor is an alter-
nating-current motor in which the primary winding
on a part (usually the stator) is connected to a source
FIL TER CHOKE of power, and the secondary winding (usually on the
TRANSFORMER
rotor) carries current induced by the magnetic field
of the primary winding. The stator is the stationary
PRIMARY
part of the motor, and it contains parts of the mag-
netic circuit and associated windings. The rotor is
the rotating part of the motor. Industry employs a
considerable number of induction motors; moreover,
TAPPED
many home appliances also use them. Reasons for
SECONDARY the popularity of induction motors include—
AUDIO OUTPUT RADIO FREQUENCY
TRANSFORMER 1. They operate with alternating current, ei-
TRANSFORMER
ther single phase or polyphase. AC is widely
available through the U.S. and the world.
Figure 82 A filter choke, two types of transform-
2. They do not use brush-commutator or
ers, and a schematic diagram for the audio output
transformer brush-slip ring systems. Because brushes
90 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

wear out, eliminating them from a motor

reduces maintenance costs.
3. They operate at a constant speed. Constant SHORTING
END RINGS
speed operation keeps their construction
simple.
4. They are efficient.
5. With polyphase induction motors, the
bearings that support the rotor are the only
parts that wear.
6. They cost less than brush-commutator COPPER
motors. BARS
7. They are safer in areas where flammable
gases or liquids exist. Because they do not Figure 84 Squirrel-cage rotor
use brushes, no electrical arcing occurs,
which can be an ignition source in flam­
mable atmospheres. magnetic lines of force, or flux, cut across the copper
In an induction motor, the stator coils and the bars of the cage, currents flow in the cage. Because
alternating current set up a rotating magnetic field in the iron core is laminated, eddy currents that would
the stator’s core. The rotating magnetic field of the sta- otherwise flow in an unlaminated iron core are mini-
tor induces currents into the rotor. The rotor’s induced mized. Thus, practically all the current that flows in
currents set up magnetic fields that are attracted to the rotor flows in the copper bars of the squirrel cage.
the rotating magnetic field in the stator and cause the
rotor to turn (fig. 83). Rotor Action
As the squirrel-cage rotor rotates within the stator,
Rotor Construction the flux in the stator’s core passes through the rotor
In the rotor of an induction motor, copper bars are and the embedded copper bars. The flux induces
embedded in the rotor’s laminated iron core (fig. 84; currents in the rotor bars. The induced current in
the laminated iron core is removed to better reveal the the bars produces a magnetic field whose polarity
bars). A shorting ring at each end of the rotor shorts is opposite that of the stator field. The result is an
the bars together—that is, the rings conduct electric- attractive magnetic force that exerts torque (turning
ity so that it can flow between the bars. Because the force) on the rotor.
structure resembles a squirrel’s exercise cage, rotors The instant that current is connected to the stator
of this type are called squirrel-cage rotors. When the coils, the magnetic field of the two-pole stator begins
to rotate at a constant speed of 60 revolutions a second
(3,600 rpm). The induced current and resulting mag-
ROTOR netic field on the rotor creates a starting torque and
STATOR
WINDINGS the rotor begins to turn, trying to catch up with the
attractive magnetic poles on the rotating stator field.
The rotor in an induction motor never quite
BEARING
reaches the speed of the stator’s rotating field, which is
desirable. If the rotor did turn at the same speed as the
rotating field, the rotor bars would move at the same
SHAFT
speed as the rotating field’s flux lines. The result would
be no relative velocity between the stator and the rotor,
and the flux lines could not cut the bars of the rotor.
JUNCTION Consequently, no current would be induced in the ro-
BOX WINDING
LEADS
tor cage, no torque would be developed, and the rotor
would stop turning. The rotor must, therefore, run
Figure 83 AC squirrel-cage induction motor at a speed slightly less than the rotating stator field.
Electromagnetic Equipment 91

The maximum speed of a two-pole induction mo-

tor operating on 60-Hz current is 3,600 revolutions per
minute. An induction motor’s maximum speed is called
its synchronous speed. The actual rotating speed of an in-
duction motor whose synchronous speed is 3,600 rpm is
about 3,450 rpm. This rating is with the rated horsepower
load applied to the motor. The difference between the
synchronous speed and the actual speed of the motor
under full load conditions is the slip of the motor.

Squirrel-Cage Motors
Polyphase motors are used only with AC power
supplies of the particular frequency and number of
phases for which they are designed. The polyphase
AC power supply most commonly used in the United Figure 86 Stator core of an induction motor
States is a three-phase 60-Hz system. However, a
number of three-phase, 50 Hz, motors are also in use,
for the motor and is the supporting frame for the
especially outside the U.S.
stator core and coils, or windings. The stator core
Three basic types of three-phase AC motors
of a squirrel-cage induction motor is laminated. An
are available: squirrel-cage induction, wound-rotor
insulator separates thin sheets of die-punched steel.
induction, and synchronous. However, wound-rotor
The laminations are stacked under pressure to insure
motors are seldom used. Of the various types of elec-
a permanently tight core (fig. 86). Figure 87 shows the
tric motors, the squirrel-cage induction AC motor is
coils (windings) being placed through die-punched
the most popular. Because of their popularity, this
slots in the stator core.
manual discusses only squirrel-cage motors.

Construction
A squirrel-cage motor is simple in construction,
rugged, reliable, and its speed is practically con-
stant—regardless of load—within its normal working
range. The stator, or field, of a squirrel-cage induction
motor is composed of a yoke, a core, and the primary
windings (fig. 85). The stator’s yoke forms the cover

CORE

YOKE
CORE
WINDINGS SLOTS

WINDING

Figure 87 Partially-wound stator for a squirrel-

Figure 85 A squirrel-cage induction motor’s stator cage motor
92 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

No electrical connection exists to the rotor

winding. Voltage and current are induced in its con-
BEARINGS
ductors by electromagnetic action, hence the name
induction motor.

Rotating Field
Because the power supply to the motor is three-phase
AC, during each half cycle, the voltage builds up to a
SHAFT
maximum value in one polarity—first in one phase,
FAN then in the second, and finally in the third. Then it
BLADES CORE
begins repeating. The currents that these voltages
END RING END RING
cause to flow in the primary-phase windings build
up in the same order, and the flux produced by the
Figure 88 A typical squirrel-cage rotor, or arma- currents fluctuate in the same manner. Because of the
ture way the primary winding pole groups are arranged
and connected, the combined field that is produced
The rotor, or armature, of a squirrel-cage in- has the effect of a constant maximum value that
duction motor consists of a shaft, a core, and a sec- rotates around the stator core.
ondary, or cage, winding (fig. 88). The core consists This rotating field effect can be compared to the
of thin, slotted, and laminated steel sheets that are effect produced by a round electric sign where the
mounted directly on the shaft or are supported by light bulbs are lighted momentarily and then turned
a spider mounted on the shaft. (A spider is simply a off, one after another, in succession, around the edge
structure on the shaft that supports the core. It has of the sign. The light rotates around the sign in the
a hub, spokes, and a rim.) The secondary winding same way that the magnetic fields rotate around the
conductors are usually made of copper, brass, or stator. Figures 89 and 90 show two complete cycles of
aluminum, and are wound through rotor slots. The three-phase voltage and the condition in the armature
winding is short-circuited by end rings or resistance at specific intervals during the cycles.
rings. In figure 88, the end rings are the light-colored
Torque Development
metal pieces from which the fan blades protrude.
With the rotor at a standstill, the revolving lines of
Connections force cut the rotor conductors, which induce voltage
in the rotor conductors. Since the rotor conductors
The primary winding in the stator (see fig. 87) is con-
are short-circuited through the end rings, the in-
nected to a power supply by leads that run to a conduit
duced voltage causes current to flow in the conduc-
box. (Conduit is tubing made of flexible metal or other
tors. This induced current in the rotor conductors
flexible material through which the insulated leads run.)
situated in the rotating field is at least partially in
The coils in the primary winding are arranged to produce
phase with the rotating field. Therefore, this induced
several magnetic poles that are distributed around the
current reacts with the rotating field and exerts force
core. The poles are formed by the way the individual slot
on the conductor in the same direction as the field is
coils of the stator winding are grouped and connected.
rotating. The sum of the forces on the rotor conduc-
They are not easily distinguished. The stator winding
tors multiplied by the radius of the rotor produces
usually appears to be a continuous, uniform series of
torque in the rotor. If the rotor is free to turn, it
coils all around the stator’s core (see fig. 85).
rotates in the same direction as the rotating field.
In a three-phase induction motor, the primary
winding is wound and connected so that three sepa- Single-Phase Effect
rate phase windings exist, with each containing the
A three-phase motor supplied with only single-phase
number of groups of coils required to produce the
power cannot develop starting torque. The stator
magnetic poles. These phase windings are placed
windings produce only a pulsating field instead of
in the stator core so that the magnetic fields they
a rotating field that enables it to develop starting
produce are 120 electrical degrees apart.
torque.
 1 2 3

4 5 6 7

9 10 11

THESE DIAGRAMS SHOW HOW A REVOLVING MAGNETIC FIELD IS PRODUCED. AT INSTANT 0, THE CURRENT ENTERING THE
MOTOR ON LINE 1 DIVIDES EQUALLY AND LEAVES THE MOTOR ON LINES 2 AND 3. AT INSTANT 1, THE CURRENT ENTERING ON
LINE 1 LEAVES ON LINE 3; THERE IS ZERO CURRENT IN LINE 2. AT INSTANT 2, THE CURRENT IN LINE 1 IS SMALL: IT JOINS WITH
LINE 2 CURRENT AND LEAVES ON LINE 3.

Figure 89 Revolving magnetic fields in the stator of a three-phase induction motor

+
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 0

THIS DIAGRAM COVERS TWO CYCLES.

Figure 90 Three-phase currents in the armature of an induction motor

94 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Nevertheless, if a single-phase condition of Slip

a three-phase power supply occurs while a three- As the rotor begins to turn and comes up to speed, the
phase induction motor is running at rated speed, the rotor conductors, which are turning in the same direc-
motor will continue to run as a single-phase motor. tion as the rotating field, cut the revolving field flux
However, the torque capabilities of the motor will be less and less frequently and at lower and lower speeds.
drastically reduced, and it may stall. If it continues to This action causes less and less current to be induced
run, some parts of its winding probably will become in the rotor conductors. If the rotor could come up to
overheated and may burn out if it is carrying a load. synchronous speed or to the speed of the rotating field,
Therefore, a three-phase motor should be provided no current would be induced in the rotor conductors,
with protective relays to prevent it from operating and no torque would be developed. For this reason, an
when a single-phase condition occurs. induction motor does not quite attain its synchronous
speed even at no load, and, as the load is increased,
Direction of Rotation
its speed further drops below its synchronous speed.
The direction of the force on the rotor conductor This difference between synchronous speed and speed
depends on the instantaneous direction of flow of under load is called slip and is usually expressed in
rotor current produced by one phase and the instan- percent of synchronous speed.
taneous direction of field of the other two phases as For example, a six-pole, 1,200-rpm, synchro-
determined by the direction of the phase rotation of nous-speed induction motor with a full-load speed
the power supply. Therefore, reversing the phase of 1,140 rpm has 5-percent slip at full load because 5
connection of the power supply to the motor can percent of 1,200 rpm is 1,140 rpm (1,200 × 0.05 = 60
reverse the direction of rotation of a polyphase induc- and 1,200 – 60 = 1,140).
tion motor. Simply interchanging any two of the three
power-supply leads can reverse the motor’s direction.
Torque Characteristics
Synchronous Speed Induction motors exhibit two important torque char-
The speed of the rotating field set up by the primary acteristics. One is the maximum torque the motor
winding depends on the frequency of the power develops as load is increased, starting from full speed
supply and the number of poles per phase that the at no load until the motor begins to stall. This char-
primary winding is designed to produce. (Motors acteristic is called breakdown, or pullout, torque and is
are commonly referred to by the number of poles defined as the greatest torque under which an electric
per phase—for example, a six-pole motor produces motor can operate without sharply losing speed. The
six poles per phase.) The speed of the rotating field, motor’s design—particularly its field strength and
which is called the synchronous speed of the motor, leakage reactance—determines its pullout torque.
is determined by the equation— The air gap, or clearance, between the rotor’s core and
120 × f the stator’s core affect the field strength and leakage
Ss = (Eq. 43) reactance. The greater the air gap, the less is the value
pn
where, of pullout torque. Therefore, manufacturers make an
Ss = motor’s synchronous speed, rpm induction motor’s air gap as small as possible. The
120 = a constant (for conversion to rpm) resistance of the motor’s winding does not apprecia-
f = frequency of the supply voltage, Hz bly affect the value of the pullout torque; however,
pn = number of stator poles per phase. it does determine the speed at which it occurs. The
greater the resistance, the greater is the slip and the
As an example of using equation 43, determine
lower is the speed at which pullout torque occurs.
the synchronous speed of a six-pole, 60-Hz mo-
The second torque consideration of induction
tor. Thus,
motors is the starting, or breakaway, torque. The value
120 × 60
Ss = 6
of starting torque, like pullout torque, is determined
by field strength and leakage reactance. However, the
7,200
= 6 resistance of the rotor’s winding also affects starting
torque. The rotor’s winding resistance determines
Ss = 1,200 rpm.
Electromagnetic Equipment 95

how close to starting condition that pullout torque signs and has a table of minimum values of pullout
occurs. Therefore, the greater the rotor winding and starting torque for each classification. These are
resistance, the greater the starting torque up to the the maximum values for motor application purposes.
point at which pullout torque occurs. Motor-torque values specified by NEMA are given
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association in Table 16. Motors of recent manufacture carry their
(NEMA) classifies squirrel-cage induction motor de- NEMA design classification on the nameplate. Figure

TABLE 16
NEMA Specified Motor Torque Values
(Percentage of Full-Load Torque)

NEMA Design A & B C D

No. of poles 4 6 8 4 6 8 4, 6, or 8
Horsepower Starting (Breakaway) Torques

1 275 175 150 275
1 265 175 150 275
2 250 175 150 275
3 250 175 150 250 225 275
5 185 160 130 250 250 225 275
7 175 150 125 250 225 200 275
10 175 150 125 250 225 200 275
15 165 140 125 225 200 200 275
20–75 150 135 125 200 200 200 275

Pull-Up (Accelerating) Torques

1 193 123 105
1 185 123 105
2 175 123 105
3 175 123 105 175 157
5 130 112 100 175 175 157
7 123 105 100 175 157 140
10 123 105 100 175 157 140
15 115 100 100 157 140 140
20–75 105 100 100 140 140 140

Pullout (Breakdown) Torques

1 300 275 250
1 300 275 250
2 275 250 225
3 275 250 225 225 200
5 225 225 225 200 200 200
7 215 215 215 190 190 190
10 200 200 200 190 190 190
15 200 200 200 190 190 190
20–75 200 200 200 190 190 190

96 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

100
90
80
70
60
50
A&B C D A&B C D A&B C D
40
30
20
10
0
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300

A. 5-HP Motor B. 10-HP Motor C. 15-HP Motor

Figure 91 Speed-torque specifications for NEMA designs A, B, C, and D 6-pole motors

91 shows torque characteristics for three typical oilwell across a line with full voltage. This heavy draw of
pumping motors. Torque is plotted on the horizontal current is termed inrush current. Inrush current oc-
axis and speed in rpm on the vertical axis. curs only until the motor accelerates to full speed.
Changes in power-supply voltage greatly af- It usually decreases gradually as the motor’s speed
fect the pullout and starting torque capabilities of increases and then drops sharply when the motor
induction motors. The torque varies directly with reaches full speed. The magnitude of the inrush
the square of the voltage. For example, a 10-percent current depends only on electrical factors and not
drop in voltage reduces the maximum starting or on the mechanical load on the motor. Put another
pullout torque to 81 percent of the torque a motor way, the mechanical load on the motor does not af-
could develop at its rated voltage. fect the amount of inrush current. The duration of
the inrush current depends on the time it takes the
Efficiency motor to accelerate. And, the time it takes for the
Squirrel-cage induction motors are generally quite motor to accelerate depends on the mechanical load
efficient when compared to other types of electric on the motor.
motors and to most engines. Motors of average size
and speed have efficiencies varying from zero at no
load to about 75 percent at ½ load, 85 percent at full POWER FACTOR
load, and 80 percent at 1¼ load. Motors designed The power factor, as applied to an electric motor
with higher full-load slip have slightly lower full- or other inductive circuit, is a measure of in-phase
load efficiency. amperes compared with out-of-phase, or reactive,
amperes. In-phase amperes do useful work. Reac-
Starting and Inrush Current tive amperes magnetize the motor. The motor takes
When full-rated voltage is applied to the stator wind- current from a power line to build up a magnetic
ing of a polyphase induction motor at standstill, a field. However, as the current begins to decline and
revolving field is set up instantly around the air gap, the magnetic field begins to collapse, an induced
and the rotor slip is 100 percent. The revolving field countervoltage, or back emf, in the motor drives
cuts the rotor conductors rapidly, inducing high current back into the power line. That is, when a
voltage in them. The rotor’s winding resistance and motor is magnetized, the motor takes current from
reactance are the only factors that limit the current the line and then drives it back into the line. The net
that flows in the rotor conductors as a result of this power taken from the line is zero; a wattmeter will
voltage. The heavy current in the rotor conductors not record this reactive power.
causes a large current to be drawn by the stator wind- Reactive power must be considered in a motor’s
ing because of transformer action. operation because reactive current loads and heats
When starting, squirrel-cage induction motors the power line and transformers just as useful in-
draw from five to ten times their full-load current phase current does. Reactive current causes voltage
Electromagnetic Equipment 97

drops along the power line. It heats the line according generally moderately good at higher percentage
to Watt’s law and the following power equation— loads and poor at no load or light loads. For motors
of average size and speed, the power factor is from 10
P = I2R (Eq. 44)
to 20 percent at no load, about 60 percent at ½ load,
where about 75 percent at full load, and about 80 percent
P = power, watts at 1¼ load. The power factor during starting is very
I = current, amperes poor, usually averaging about 20 percent. Motors
R = reactance, ohms. designed with higher torques have a slightly lower
A wattmeter can record this power loss. full-load power factor.
Reactive power also affects the transformer
bank. For example, suppose a transformer’s second- Calculating the Power Factor
ary is rated for 100 amperes and is supplying 100 The power factor can be calculated for a large distri-
amperes. In this case, the transformer is fully loaded. bution system or for an individual motor by making
However, it could be that only 50 of the 100 total several simple measurements. In the calculations
amperes are doing useful work. In such a case, the that follow, the values are obtained from a running,
other 50 amperes are reactive. If the reactive power is unloaded, single-phase induction motor having a
not taken into account, an unknowledgeable person rating of ¼ horsepower. A wattmeter, a voltmeter,
might install oversized transformers for a particular and an ammeter are used to take the measurements.
horsepower load and use oversized power-line con- Figure 92 is a schematic of the meters in a 120-volt
ductors. It is important to know that oversizing and AC circuit with the ¼-horsepower motor. The true
its increased costs can be avoided by improving the power in the motor circuit is read by the wattmeter,
power factor. while the product of the readings of the voltmeter and
The power factor is expressed as a decimal frac- ammeter is the apparent power in the circuit. In other
tion ranging from zero to unity, or one. A power fac- words, apparent power is obtained by multiplying
tor of 0.9 is quite good, while a power factor of 0.5 is the voltage by the amperage. The answer is apparent
too low to be acceptable for power circuits. The higher power in volt-amperes (VA). For example, 120 volts
the power factor, the better it is for power circuits. × 4.5 amperes = 540 VA.
The power factor of squirrel-cage motors is

WATTMETER AMMETER
150 WATTS 4.5 AMPERES

INCOMING
AC VOLTAGE VOLTMETER ¼ HP
120 VAC 120 VAC AC MOTOR

Figure 92 Connections for determining the power factor of an induction motor circuit
98 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

In simple terms, the power factor is the quotient ratios of the pairs of the sides of a right triangle. (A
obtained by dividing the real, or true, power in watts function is a mathematical rule between two sets that
by the apparent power. The equation is— assigns to each member of the first set exactly one
pt member of the second.)
pf = (Eq. 45)
pa With trigonometric functions in mind, let’s
where discuss the earlier example where a motor in a 120-
pf = power factor, volt amperes volt, 4.5-ampere AC circuit, develops 150 watts of true
pt = true power, watts power, and 540 VA of apparent power. To find the
pa = apparent power. power factor, the first step is to use equation 45. Thus,
A right triangle (fig. 93) shows the relationship pf = 150 watts
between volts, amperes, VA, volt-ampere reactive 540 VA
(VAR), and watts. As an example, one leg of the tri- pf = 0.2777.
angle in figure 93 represents 150 watts, the other leg This result must be converted to find the angle by
represents 519 VAR, and the hypotenuse represents which current lags behind voltage. To find the angle,
540 VA. Shortly, you will see how the value for VAR refer to Table 17, which lists trigonometric functions
is determined, but first, some basic trigonometry for sine, cosine, tangent, and cotangent. (The functions
must be discussed. secant and cosecant are not included because they are
For example, the power factor can also be not needed in power calculations.) Then, because the
defined as the cosine of the angle by which the cur- power factor is the cosine of the angle by which current
rent either lags or leads the voltage in an AC circuit. lags behind voltage, find the closest value in the cosine
A cosine is a trigonometric function. A cosine is one column of Table 17 to find the angle. In this case, 0.2756
of six trigonometric functions that express rela- in the table is closest to 0.2777. So, the angle with a cosine
tionships in a right triangle. Specifically, in a right of 0.2777 is 74 degrees. That is the angle by which the
triangle, the cosine is the ratio of the length of the current lags behind the voltage in this example.
side adjacent to an acute angle to the length of the The reactive power, or VAR, side of the triangle
hypotenuse. A trigonometric function is a function is calculated by using the equation—
(such as the sine, cosine, secant, cosecant, tangent,
VAR = VA × sinA (Eq. 46)
and cotangent) of an arc or angle expressed as the
where
VAR = volt-ampere reactive
VA = volt-amperes
sinA = sine of angle A.
As an example, assume that angle A is 74 degrees
(see fig. 93), true power is 150 watts, and apparent
power (VA) is 540 watts. From table 15, the sine of a
74-degree angle is 0.9613. Plugging these values into
VA
540

equation 46 results in—

S=

VAR = 540 × sin 74

MP

519 VAR

= 540 × 0.9613
.5 A

VAR = 519.
×4
LTS

Incidentally, the power factor of 0.2777 in the

VO

example is poor. However, because the example in-

120

duction motor is running without a load, it exhibits

a poor power factor. Indeed, any induction motor
74° 90° running without a load has a poor power factor. On
150 WATTS the other hand, large induction motors operating
under full load have power factors of about 0.8, which
is quite good. Be aware, however, that small motors
Figure 93 Power triangle for the circuit in figure 92 have inherently low power factors.
 TABLE 17
Trigonometric Functions

Angle, ° Sine Cosine Tangent Cotangent Angle, ° Sine Cosine Tangent Cotangent

0 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 Infinity 45 0.7071 0.7071 1.000 1.0000

1 0.0175 0.9998 0.0175 57.29 46 0.7193 0.6947 1.036 0.9657
2 0.0349 0.9994 0.0349 28.636 47 0.7193 0.6829 1.072 0.9326
3 0.0523 0.9986 0.0524 19.081 48 0.7431 0.6691 1.111 0.9004
4 0.0698 0.9976 0.0699 14.301 49 0.7547 0.6561 1.150 0.8693

5 0.0872 0.9962 0.0875 11.430 50 0.7660 0.6428 1.192 0.8391

6 0.1045 0.9945 0.1051 9.514 51 0.7772 0.6293 1.235 0.8098
7 0.1219 0.9926 0.1228 8.144 52 0.7880 0.6157 1.280 0.7813
8 0.1392 0.9903 0.1405 7.115 53 0.7986 0.6018 1.327 0.7536
9 0.1564 0.9877 0.1584 6.314 54 0.8090 0.5878 1.376 0.77265

10 0.1737 0.9848 0.1763 5.671 55 0.8192 0.5736 1.428 0.7002

11 0.1908 0.9816 0.1944 5.145 56 0.8290 0.5592 1.483 0.6745
12 0.2079 0.9782 0.2126 4.705 57 0.8387 0.5446 1.540 0.6494
13 0.2250 0.9744 0.2309 4.332 58 0.8481 0.5299 1.600 0.6249
14 0.2419 0.9703 0.2493 4.011 59 0.8572 0.5150 1.664 0.6009

15 0.2588 0.9659 0.2680 3.732 60 0.8660 0.5000 1.732 0.5774
16 0.2756 0.9613 0.2868 3.487 61 0.8746 0.4848 1.804 0.5543
17 0.2924 0.9563 0.3057 3.271 62 0.8830 0.4695 1.881 0.5317
18 0.3090 0.9511 0.3249 3.078 63 0.8910 0.4540 1.963 0.5095
19 0.3256 0.9455 0.3443 2.904 64 0.8988 0.4384 2.050 0.4877

20 0.3420 0.9397 0.3640 2.748 65 0.9063 0.4226 2.145 0.4663

21 0.3584 0.9336 0.3839 2.605 66 0.9136 0.4067 2.246 0.4452
22 0.3746 0.9272 0.4040 2.475 67 0.9205 0.3907 2.356 0.4245
23 0.3907 0.9205 0.4245 2.356 68 0.9272 0.3746 2.475 0.4040
24 0.4067 0.9136 0.4452 2.246 69 0.96 0.3584 2.605 0.3839

25 0.4226 0.9063 0.4663 2.145 70 0.9397 0.3420 2.748 0.3640

26 0.4384 0.8988 0.4877 2.050 71 0.9455 0.3256 2.904 0.3443
27 0.4540 0.8910 0.5095 1.963 72 0.9511 0.3090 3.078 0.3249
28 0.4695 0.8830 0.5317 1.881 73 0.9563 0.2924 3.271 0.3057
29 0.4848 0.8746 0.5543 1.804 74 0.9613 0.2756 3.487 0.2868

30 0.5000 0.8660 0.5774 1.732 75 0.9659 0.2588 3.732 0.2680
31 0.5150 0.8572 0.6009 1.664 76 0.9703 0.2419 4.011 0.2493
32 0.5299 0.8481 0.6249 1.600 77 0.9744 0.2250 4.332 0.2309
33 0.5299 0.8481 0.6249 1.600 77 0.9744 0.2250 4.332 0.2309
34 0.5592 0.8290 0.6745 1.483 79 0.9816 0.1908 5.145 0.1944

35 0.5736 0.8192 0.7002 1.428 80 0.9848 0.1737 5.671 0.1763

36 0.5878 0.8090 0.7265 1.376 81 0.9877 0.1564 6.314 0.1584
37 0.6018 0.7986 0.7536 1.327 82 0.9903 0.1392 7.115 0.1405
38 0.6157 0.7880 0.7813 1.280 83 0.9926 0.1219 8.144 0.1228
39 0.6293 0.7772 0.8098 1.235 84 0.9945 0.1045 9.514 0.1051

40 0.6428 0.7660 0.8391 1.192 85 0.9962 0.0872 11.430 0.0875

41 0.6561 0.7547 0.8693 1.150 86 0.9976 0.0698 14.301 0.0699
42 0.6691 0.7431 0.9004 1.111 87 0.9986 0.0523 19.081 0.0524
43 0.6820 0.734 0.9325 1.072 88 0.9994 0.0349 28.636 0.0349
44 0.6947 0.7193 0.9657 1.036 89 0.9999 0.0175 57.290 0.0175

90 1.0000 0.0000 Infinity 0.0000

100 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Effect of Load on Power Factor

As just stated, as mechanical load is applied to
an induction motor, the power factor improves.
Improvement continues even to the point where
overload occurs. As an example, suppose a brake is
applied to the motor setup in figure 92, and the load
is increased until the wattmeter reads 500 watts. The

VA
ammeter reading rises to 6 amperes, and, of course,

0
72
voltage remains the same. The power factor has

VAR = 519
6
0×
now changed according to power factor equation

12
=
45. Thus—

VA
500
pf =
120 × 6

= 500 46°
720
pf = 0.694. 500 WATTS

The power factor of 0.694 corresponds to a cosine of

46 degrees. So, with this information, a right triangle
with an acute angle of 46 degrees can represent the Figure 94 Power factor improvement with an
conditions in the example (fig. 93), where VA = 720 increased load on the motor shown in figure 92
(because 120 × 6 = 720), VAR = 519, and true power
= 500 watts.
SOLENOIDS
Correcting the Power Factor with Capacitors Basically, a solenoid is a coil of wire wrapped
around a tube through which a rod of iron can
When a capacitor is connected across an AC line, a
travel. A spring mechanism usually holds the rod
current flows. This current is reactive current, just as
in position at one end of the coil. Current at the
the magnetizing current flowing in a motor is reactive.
rated voltage is passed through the coil of wire to
The difference between the two reactive currents is that
establish a magnetic field that moves the rod to the
the reactive current in a motor lags behind the applied
opposite end of the tube.
voltage while the reactive current in the capacitor
Solenoid valves are needle or orifice valves that
leads the voltage. When inductors and capacitors are
allow the flow of liquid or gases when the needle or
in the same circuit, their reactance tends to neutralize
orifice is in one position but do not allow flow when
one another. This neutralizing tendency can be used
in the other position. The needle or orifice is attached
to correct for low power factors in inductive circuits.
to the rod so that when current passes through the
A properly sized capacitor connected across an
coil, the valve is in the flow position. When the cur-
induction motor improves the power factor. Moreover,
rent stops, a spring moves the valve to the no-flow
this improvement is reflected throughout the entire
position. Opposite action is also possible.
circuit. Thus, installing a capacitor can prevent large
The solenoid valve shown in figure 95 is a
reactive currents that could cause power losses in trans-
type of relay that activates pneumatic or hydraulic
former banks and in the conductors of the power line.
systems. In this case, the spring keeps the valve
Capacitors used for power-factor correction
closed under normal operating conditions. When
are not rated in microfarads (the usual way) but
the coil is energized, the magnetic core attached to
are rated in kilovolt-amperes, reactive (kVAR) at a
the inner valve is pulled upward, thus opening the
specified voltage. For example, a capacitor rated at
valve. When the current to the coil is interrupted,
0.519 kVAR exactly corrects the power factor to unity
the valve returns to its normal, closed position. The
(1.0) in figure 94. Because of the cost of capacitors,
opening or closing of the valve can perform many
however, power factors are not normally corrected
different functions, such as bringing the level of the
to better than 0.91.
liquid in a vessel under control.
Electromagnetic Equipment 101

MAGNETIC CORE

WIRE COIL
MAGNETIC CORE

SPRING

Figure 95 Solenoid valve

ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS Figure 96 Single-pole, single-throw (SPST) relay

An electromechanical relay is probably the most widely
used application of the solenoid principle. The iron
6. What are two conditions that tend to limit the
rod of the solenoid is mechanically attached to an arm
maximum voltage that can be transmitted?
that bridges a set of contacts. When current is passed
7. What is a single word that best describes
through the solenoid, this arm either breaks the con-
transformer action?
tact bridge, as a switch does, or breaks one contact
and bridges another set, using a double-throw switch.
8. A step-down transformer has a turn ratio
of ten to one. If 120 volts are applied to the
More than one arm may be attached to the rod, as in
primary, what is the secondary voltage?
the case of multiple-pole relays. Many variations of
relays are available in which the number of poles, coil 9. If the current in the secondary of the trans-
ratings, contact ratings, switching speed, and so forth
former in question 8 is 10 amperes, what is
the primary current?
differ. Figure 96 is a simple sketch of a single-pole,
single-throw (SPST) relay. Figure 97 is a schematic of
a double-pole, double-throw (DPDT) relay.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. A practical generator can produce voltage by
having a coil rotate in a stationary magnetic
field. What other arrangement can be used
to allow the generator to produce voltage?
2. What components of a generator are used to
make connections to the rotating coils?
3. In a two-pole generator, a complete revolution
of the coil produces one cycle. How many revo-
lutions per minute produce a 60-Hz current?
4. What is the name of the waveform produced
by commercial 60-Hz generators?
5. Why is it desirable to transmit electricity at
Figure 97 Double-pole, double-throw (DPDT) relay
high voltage and low current?
102 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

10. Large transformers are rated according to voltage is applied, how much current does
primary maximum capacity. What is the a motor draw?
symbol usually used to designate the rating? 14. Write the equation for the power factor, using
11. The primary and secondary windings of true power and apparent power.
large distribution transformers are identified
15. How does a poor power factor cause a loss
by the use of the letters H and X. How are the
in a transmission (power) line?
windings of power transformers in electronic
equipment identified? 16. What electrical component can be used to
12. A squirrel-cage rotor is used in what kind of improve the power factor of an induction-
electric motor? motor circuit?
13. Applying full line voltage to most induction 17. Name two principal applications of the so-
motors starts them. At the moment this line lenoid.
 10
Semiconductors and Applications

In the years since their invention in the late 1940s by Four electrons in the outer ring, or shell, orbit the
physicists at Bell Laboratories, transistors and similar nucleus of a silicon atom. Electrons in the outer ring of
semiconductor components have virtually replaced an atom are valence electrons. Valence electrons in one
vacuum tubes and other conventional devices in atom are available to combine with valence electrons
electronic equipment. Terms such as vacuum tube, thy- of other atoms. When valence electrons of atoms
ratron, triode, and the like are virtually unheard today. combine, they form a new substance. For example,
Semiconductors, which include diodes, transis- when the valence electrons of silicon combine with the
tors, and light-emitting diodes (LEDs), among many valence electrons of oxygen, silicon dioxide (SiO2) is
other such components, offer several advantages formed, which is one of the most common substances
over vacuum tubes. Semiconductors are small, light- on earth in that it is the main component of sand.
weight, rugged, and efficient. What is more, they Besides valance electrons in one atom of one ele-
require no warm-up time and can operate under ment combining with the valance electrons of a differ-
severe environmental conditions. ent atom, the valence electrons can also combine with
the valence electrons of the same atom. When valence
BASIC SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY electrons of one element combine with the valence
Semiconductors are solid-state devices that depend electrons of the same element, they form electron-pair
on the flow of electric charges in a solid for their bonds. An electron-pair bond is the combining of at-
operation. A semiconductor’s resistance to current oms (the bonding) in which each atom of a bond pair
flow is less than the resistance of insulators, or non- contributes one electron to form a pair of electrons.
conductors. However, a semiconductor’s resistance Silicon has a crystal structure. That is, silicon
is greater than a conductor’s. Stated another way, is a homogenous solid whose atoms are arranged
the conductivity of a semiconductor is higher than a in a regularly repeating pattern. When a substance
nonconductor but is lower than a conductor. occurs in such a pattern, it is a crystal or has a
The conductivity of a material depends on the crystalline structure. The four valence electrons of
number of free electrons contained in its atomic struc- silicon are tightly bound in its crystalline structure
ture. For example, a conductor such as copper has by electron-pair bonds. This type of structure is
1.64 × 1024 free electrons per cubic centimetre, while called a lattice. (A lattice, in this sense, is the regular
an insulator such as rubber has only three or four free geometrical arrangement of points or objects over
electrons per cubic inch. Interestingly, the most com- an area in space.) In a lattice, the four electrons of
mon materials used to make semiconductors—silicon each atom form electron-pair bonds with one valence
and germanium—are nonconductors in their pure
states. They have no free electrons and become semi-
++ ++ ++
conductors only after manufacturers add impurities. ++ ++ ++

ATOMS
Semiconductor Materials
++ ++ ++ ELECTRON-PAIR
Manufacturers make most semiconductors from ++ ++ ++ BONDS

silicon. They rarely use germanium, except in special

applications, because germanium cannot operate at ++ ++ ++
++ ++ ++
high temperatures. Silicon, on the other hand, can
operate at high temperatures.
Figure 98 Lattice structure of semiconductor
crystals
103
104 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

electron from each of the four adjacent atoms (fig. 98).

Because all of the valence electrons combine to form FREE HOLE
(ELECTRON VACANCY)
electron-pair bonds, no free electrons are in the crys-
++ ++ ++
tal, which means that its conductivity is low. IMPURITY ++ ++ ++
ATOM
Manufacturers increase the conductivity of a
semiconductor material, such as silicon, by adding
++ + ++
impurities. The impurities have a different number ++ ++
+
++
of valence electrons so that when the electron-pair
bonds form, a few electrons are left over. Only a small
amount of impurities is required to give silicon the ++ ++ ++
++ ++ ++
needed conductivity.
Two types of semiconductor structures are re-
quired for semiconductor devices. The two structures Figure 100 Lattice structure of p-type material
are made with different types of impurities. One
structure is called n-type; the other is called p-type. The element whose chemical symbol is Ga.) In this case,
n-type, which is short for negative type, possesses a only three complete electron-pair bonds can be formed
negative charge because free electrons exist in it. The because the impurity atom has only three electrons
p-type, or positive type, possesses a positive charge available for pairing. The lack of a fourth electron cre-
because it has too few electrons. This condition cre- ates a vacancy, or free hole, in the lattice structure. This
ates positive charges called free holes. free hole causes the structure to have a positive charge.
Manufacturers form an n-type structure (fig. 99)
by adding an impurity, such as arsenic, which has five Current Carriers
valence electrons. (Arsenic is a chemical element that
Free electrons and free holes serve as current carri-
occurs as a brittle, steel-gray hexagonal mineral.) Each
ers in semiconductors. That free electrons, which are
impurity atom displaces an atom in the lattice structure.
negative charges, conduct current is a basic concept
The valence electrons in the impurity form electron-pair
of electricity. However, that free holes, which are
bonds with valence electrons of the four adjacent atoms.
positive charges, conduct current is a relatively new
Because the semiconductor material atom has four
concept. Current flow that depends on free holes oc-
valence electrons and the impurity atom has five, only
curs only in semiconductor devices and is opposite
four electron-pair bonds are formed. Thus, one excess,
in direction to that of free electron flow.
or free, electron is available. The existence of this free
As stated previously, free holes are formed in
electron causes the structure to have a negative charge.
p-type semiconductor material because the impurity
The p-type structure (fig. 100) is obtained by
atom that displaces a semiconductor atom has only
adding an impurity such as gallium that has only three
three valence electrons available for forming electron-
valence electrons. (Gallium is a silvery-white metallic
pair bonds. When these electrons form pairs with the
electrons of the surrounding semiconductor atoms, not
enough are available to go around. The semiconductor
FREE (EXCESS) ELECTRON atom has four valence electrons, so the fourth electron
++ ++ ++
is left without an electron to pair with. This action forms
IMPURITY
ATOM ++ ++ ++ a hole-electron pair, and this hole, or vacancy, means the
atomic structure of the crystal is unbalanced.
The hole in the lattice exerts a pull on surrounding
++ ++ ++
++ +++ ++ electron pairs and causes an electron to break its bond
and move to fill the hole. When this movement occurs, a
hole is created in the electron pair that the electron broke
++ ++ ++
++ ++ ++ away from. In effect, the hole moves from its original
position to the position that was occupied by the elec-
tron that broke away and filled the original hole. This
Figure 99 Lattice structure of n-type material action is repeated over and over as shown in figure 101.
Semiconductors and Applications 105

HOLE
HOLE

HOLE

A B C

HOLE

HOLE PATH OF
HOLE

D E F

Figure 101 Movement of free holes through semiconductor crystal

Each time an electron breaks away and fills the from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.
hole, a new hole is created in its place. In figure 101A, Applied voltage causes free holes to flow from the
the free hole is on the upper left side of the crystal lattice. positive terminal to the negative terminal.
An electron has broken its bond and is moving to fill the Figure 102 is a schematic of an n-type crystal, in
hole. In figure 101B, a new hole occurs where the electron which free electrons carry current, and to which DC
was. This action occurs again and again until the hole is in
the lower right side of the lattice (fig. 101E). Bear in mind,
however, that the hole itself does not move. Instead, a
new hole is created each time an electron breaks its bond.
Nevertheless, the effect is the same as if the free hole had
moved along the path shown in figure 101F.
Free electrons move through an n-type semi-
conductor crystal in the same manner as free holes
except that a free electron displaces another electron
–
from a nearby electron pair. No holes are created
because an excess of electrons is available. Each time +
an electron is displaced by a free electron, it, in turn,
becomes a free electron and moves to displace an
electron from another pair. MOVEMENT
OF FREE
Free electrons and holes move randomly in a ELECTRONS
crystal to which no voltage is applied. They haphaz-
ardly displace other electrons and exchange positions.
But, when voltage is applied, it causes free electrons
and holes to move in a relatively straight line. Applied
voltage causes free electrons to flow across the crystal Figure 102 Electron flow in n-type crystal
106 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

voltage is applied. Voltage makes the free electrons flow of electrons from the negative to the positive of the
move from the negative terminal toward the positive power supply. However, as semiconductors became
terminal. Each electron displaces an electron from prominent, physicists had to change the way to visu-
an electron pair and the displaced electron becomes alize current flow. Today, industry has accepted the
a free electron, which, in turn, displaces an electron concept that current flows from the positive terminal to
from another pair. With voltage applied, the free elec- the negative terminal of the supply. Flow from positive
trons displace others in the direction of the positive to negative is the direction of hole flow, and not electron
terminal. In this way, the free electrons move across flow. In short, conventional current flow is now thought
the crystal from the negative to the positive terminal. of as hole, or positive-to-negative, flow, rather than
Figure 103 is a schematic of a p-type crystal, in electron, or negative-to-positive, flow. (When symbols
which free holes carry current, and to which voltage are used to depict semiconductors, arrows depict the
is applied. The flow of free holes within the crystal is direction of this conventional current flow.)
opposite that of electron flow. The holes move toward Because of the modern concept of conventional
the negative terminal; however, electrons flow toward current flow, technicians and engineers no longer
the positive terminal. When a hole reaches the nega- consider the negative terminal of a power supply as
tive terminal, an electron from the DC supply terminal the hot terminal. Instead, they consider the positive
cancels the hole. Simultaneously, an electron from one terminal to be the hot terminal. Further, they think
of the bonds enters the positive terminal and the new of the negative terminal as being connected to earth,
hole moves toward the negative terminal. or ground, which is zero potential. (Zero potential is
the actual potential of the surface of the earth taken
as a point of reference.) Moreover, throughout this
manual, current means conventional current flow
from positive to negative of the DC power supply.

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
A diode is a device that has two electrodes—a cathode
and an anode. A diode passes current in one direc-
– tion—from anode to cathode—and blocks current
flow in the opposite direction.
+
Manufacturers make semiconductor diodes
by placing n-type and p-type materials together to
MOVEMENT form a junction. When the materials are joined, an
OF FREE
HOLES interaction occurs between the free holes of the p-type
material and the free electrons of the n-type material
near the junction (fig. 104). This interaction enables
semiconductor devices to function.

Figure 103 Hole flow in p-type crystal

P-N JUNCTION
P-TYPE N-TYPE

Current Flow
Hole flow from the positive to the negative terminal
has the same effect as electron flow in the opposite
direction. An n-type or a p-type material conducts – +
HOLES ELECTRONS
current in both directions—that is, regardless of which SPACE-CHARGE
way the DC supply is connected, current will flow. REGION
It is interesting to note that the concept of hole
flow began only when semiconductors were developed. Figure 104 Interaction of free electrons and holes
Prior to then, current flow was thought to be only the at a p-n junction
Semiconductors and Applications 107

The free holes of the p-type material attract a

few electrons from the n-type material across the junc- P-TYPE N-TYPE
tion. After a few electrons have crossed the junction
and filled holes in the p-type material, a space-charge
region is set up at the junction. Next to the junction,
the n-type material becomes slightly positive, and
the p-type material becomes slightly negative. When
the space charge has been established, the junction CURRENT
FLOW
is stabilized. No more electrons can flow across the + —

junction because they are now repelled by the slight

negative charge in the p-type material.
This space charge acts as an energy barrier, Figure 106 Forward bias of a p-n junction
or potential hill. If current is to flow across this po-
tential hill, external voltage must be applied to the
bias and prevents current from flowing through the
semiconductors. (This voltage must be about 0.4 to
junction. Reverse bias in a p-n junction attracts free
0.7 volts for silicon semiconductors.) The potential
electrons from the n-type material toward the nega-
hill preserves the differences between the two types
tive terminal. Free holes in the p-type are attracted
of material. It prevents a total interaction between
away from the junction and toward the positive
the holes in the p-type and the free electrons in the
terminal. This action causes the free electrons and
n-type. Total interaction would neutralize the charge
holes to bunch up toward the ends of the crystal.
in the two types and make the diode useless.
This bunching up of free electrons and holes leaves
As stated before, current can flow in both di-
a depleted area at the junction that offers high resis-
rections through a piece of semiconductor material
tance to current flow. Any current that may flow is
provided the semiconductor is not joined to form a
small and is sometimes referred to as leakage current.
p-n junction with the opposite type of material. Cur-
Figure 106 shows a forward biased p-n junction.
rent, however, cannot flow in both directions across
Here the polarities are matched; the negative supply
a p-n junction. When external voltage is applied,
terminal is connected to the n-type material and the
current can flow from the p-type material to the n-
positive terminal is connected to the p-type material.
type; however, it cannot flow from the n-type to the
Free electrons in the n-type are attracted across the
p-type. This characteristic enables a p-n junction to
junction toward the positive terminal while holes in
be used as a diode—that is, it blocks current flow in
the p-type are attracted across the junction toward the
one direction, but allows current flow in another.
negative terminal. A forward-biased p-n junction of-
Figure 105 shows a p-n junction that has the
fers low resistance and current flows freely across it.
positive terminal of a battery connected to the n-type
Figure 107 shows two symbols used in circuit
material and the negative terminal connected to the
diagrams for a semiconductor diode. The connection
p-type material. This reversal of polarities is reverse

P-TYPE N-TYPE

ANODE P N CATHODE

NO CURRENT
FLOW ANODE CATHODE
– +

Figure 105 Effect of reverse bias on a p-n junction Figure 107 Symbols for diodes
108 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

made to the p-type material is called the anode and suddenly increases the number of carriers in this
the connection to the n-type is called the cathode. region. This breakdown is typically several hundred
The direction of current flow is from the anode to the to several thousand volts, depending on the semicon-
cathode, which is indicated by the bottom drawing ductor’s construction, and is not destructive. Indeed,
in figure 107. Notice that the symbol for the anode Zener breakdown allows diodes to be employed as
is a large arrow whose head points in the direction voltage regulators, as you will learn later in this sec-
of current flow. tion. (Zener breakdown is named for the American
When the anode (p-type connection) is negative physicist Clarence M. Zener, who first proposed the
with respect to the cathode (n-connection), current phenomenon.)
flow cannot occur. When the anode is positive with Bipolar is a descriptive term applied to devices
respect to the cathode, current is permitted to flow constructed of p-n materials. It means that the device
without restriction except for the junction voltage of has two poles or polarities. Diodes, transistors, SCRs,
0.4 to 0.7 volts. and similar devices feature bipolar construction.
Figure 108 depicts a graph with a curve that A diode operates somewhat like a check valve
shows the response of a diode to both forward and (fig. 109). A disc-shaped flap in the check valve fits
reverse voltage. The horizontal axis of the graph is
labeled –V and +V, which indicates negative and
positive voltage. The graph’s vertical axis is labeled CHECK VALVE LIQUID
FLOW
–I and +I, which indicates negative and positive cur- FLAP SWINGS
rent. In the forward-biased region, where voltage and UP TO ALLOW
FLUID FLOW
current are positive, the diode conducts freely with
a forward voltage drop of about 0.7 volts under full
conduction. When biased in the reverse direction,
where voltage and current are negative, no current FLAP SWINGS DOWN
NO LIQUID
flows (except leakage current) until reverse, or Zener, FLOW TO PREVENT LIQUID
FROM FLOWING IN THE
breakdown occurs. Zener breakdown occurs when the OPPOSITE DIRECTION
electric field across the space-charge region becomes
high enough to produce a form of field emission that Figure 109 Check valve analogy of a diode

+I

FORWARD-BIASED REGION

–V +V
0 0.7

REVERSE BREAKDOWN
ZENER REGION
–I
REVERSE-BIASED REGION

Figure 108 Forward-reverse characteristics of a diode

Semiconductors and Applications 109

inside a pipe carrying fluid. The valve’s flapper A diode’s peak reverse, or inverse, voltage is the
swings up when liquid flows in one direction, but primary consideration when applying a diode in
when the fluid tries to flow in the opposite direc- an AC or DC circuit. This peak reverse, or inverse,
tion, the flapper swings down to prevent fluid flow. voltage is the maximum voltage that might appear
Similarly, in a diode, when forward-biased voltage across the diode in the reverse direction at any
is applied in one direction, current flows; however, instant. Theoretically, it can be as high as twice the
when reverse-biased voltage is applied in the op- peak voltage that appears at the input to a filter
posite direction, current flow is blocked. section or it can be exposed to voltage transients in
Diodes are used in a variety of applications and other parts of the circuit. In general, once the peak
DC or AC can be used depending on the desired re- reverse voltage has been determined for normal
sult. For example, diodes are used in logic circuits as operation, most technicians select a diode that has
steering diodes, which guide logic-level voltages from a peak voltage rating that is twice the normal value.
one point to another. Diodes can be used as blocking Diodes are also rated in terms of their average
diodes to restrict current from flowing in an undesir- current rating. This rating is the average of the maxi-
able direction. In AC circuits, diodes can be used to mum and minimum current expected in a circuit
convert AC to pulsating DC by only allowing the and can be read on a DC ammeter. However, in some
positive voltage waveform to pass while restricting DC circuits, the current may intermittently fluctuate
the negative portion of the AC (or vice versa). Cir- (irregularly go up and down). These fluctuations are
cuits using diodes to convert AC to DC are normally called discontinuous DC current pulses. These pulses
referred to as rectifier circuits and the diodes used in create heat. Enough heat may be created to overheat
the diode beyond its temperature rating. Thus, it is
important to check with the diode manufacturer in
cases where discontinuous pulses may occur in a
circuit to ensure that the selected diode is suitable.
The current surge rating of a diode is a measure
of the diode’s ability to continue to operate properly
when an occasional and momentary current pulse is
applied to the circuit. An application where current
may surge is in a power supply that uses diodes
as rectifiers and uses a capacitor to filter the input
current. During the initial charging of the capacitor,
a surge current passes through the diodes into the
capacitor. This surge can be 10 to 15 times higher
than the average current. Testing and analysis of
such a circuit is needed to assure that the surge cur-
rent is not beyond the rating of the diode.
Permissible operating temperature is a rating
of the ability of a diode to dissipate heat while it
operates. Heat results as current passes through
the diode’s connection to, or junction with, the
Figure 110 Power rectifier
circuit. About 0.7 volts occur at the diode junction
when current passes through it. Multiplying current
such circuits are commonly called rectifiers (fig. 110). times diode junction voltage determines the wattage
produced during operation. The wattage takes the
Diode Ratings form of heat and the heat must be removed through
Users should carefully review a diode’s rating before conduction, convection, or forced cooling to main-
installing it in a circuit. A diode’s primary ratings tain the diode temperature within its rating.
include its voltage, current, surge, and temperature A diode can be as small as an integrated circuit
characteristics. chip or as large as a 5-in. hockey puck. The greater
the current rating is, the larger the diode. In gen-
110 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

eral, a diode’s voltage rating does not affect its size,

300
except in high-voltage applications.
FORWARD
CHARACTERISTIC
TYPICAL
Diode Protection

IF (mA)
(ALL TYPES) 200

Diodes must be protected from current surges.

Protection can be achieved in several ways. One is 100
a brute-force approach, whereby a diode is selected
REVERSE
whose current surge rating is well over the maximum VOLTAGE (VOLTS)
surge expected in the circuit. Another way to protect IZK IR at VR IZT 0.5 1.0 1.5
diodes from current surges is to insert current-limit- VF (VOLTS)
ing resistors in series with the diode. The resistors can
either be left in permanently or a time-delay contact
can be used to short them out. REVERSE
Besides current surges, voltage surges can also CHARACTERISTIC

adversely affect diode operation. Protection against IZM

voltage surges requires voltage suppression devices
such as metallic oxide varistors (MOVs), thyrectors, or
Figure 111 Zener diode characteristic
similar voltage-limiting devices. MOVs and thyrec-
tors are solid-state devices that absorb voltage spikes
a diode that produces DC voltage when subjected
above a certain level. By absorbing the spikes, the
to sunlight. These are photovoltaic diodes or PVDs.
devices restrict the voltage from being applied to the
As you can guess, PVDs are often used to produce
diodes. Another way in which to protect diodes from
electricity in solar cells.
voltage surges is to install capacitors in parallel with
Also, manufacturers can produce other special
the diodes. Such an installation allows the capacitors
diodes such as tunnel diodes and Schottky diodes. A tun-
to absorb fast-rising voltage surges.
nel diode is a diode with a special impurity that causes
the diode to have negative resistance at low voltages
Special Diodes in the forward bias direction and a short circuit in
Earlier, this manual discussed Zener breakdown, the reverse bias direction. Tunnel diodes are used as
which, remember, occurs in diodes when the electric oscillators and as microwave amplifiers. (They are
field across the space-charge region becomes high also known as Esaki tunnel diodes after the Japanese
enough to produce a form of field emission that sud- physicist, Leo Esaki, who discovered the tunnel effect.)
denly increases the number of carriers in this region A Schottky diode is one formed by contact
(see fig. 108). Through proper construction to take between a semiconductor layer and a metal coating.
advantage of the voltage breakdown region, a diode It is used as a special rectifier. Electrons or holes are
can be used as a voltage regulator. (A voltage regula- emitted from the area where the semiconductor and
tor maintains a given voltage within required limits metal coating contact each other and move to the
in spite of variations in voltage or load.) The reason metal coating. It provides very fast switching speeds.
such a diode can be used is because the voltage that They are named after Walter Schottky, a German
occurs during breakdown is relatively constant and physicist whose research in solid-state physics and
its output is therefore relatively constant. Diodes electronics yielded many effects and devices that
using voltage breakdown as a voltage regulator are now bear his name.
Zener diodes (fig. 111).
Manufacturers can modify diodes to produce BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS
other useful components. For example, by adding
In solid-state electronics, a junction is a region of
certain impurities to the p-n materials to change
transition between two semiconducting regions in
their atomic structure, they can produce light emit-
a semiconducting device where the p and n materi-
ting diodes (LEDs). When energized with current,
als come into contact. A junction transistor, then, is
LEDs produce visible light. Also, they can add spe-
a transistor in which emitter and collector barriers
cial impurities to the basic p-n structure and make
Semiconductors and Applications 111

COLLECTOR
EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR

N P N

BASE

EMITTER

A. Crystal Arrangement B. Circuit Symbol

Figure 112 Npn transistor

are formed between the semiconductor regions of actually commingle the p-n materials in a space of
opposite conductivity (the region where the p and n about 0.001 in. (0.025 mm).
materials come into contact). Manufacturers can con- An npn transistor has three terminals: the collector,
struct junction transistors using bipolar technology emitter, and base (fig. 112B). The base is the control termi-
in much the same way as they make diodes. nal and receives current from an external source into its
Keep in mind that a transistor is a resistor in region. The collector is the transistor’s output terminal and
transition when placed in an operating circuit. That it is connected to positive voltage from a supply through
is, the resistance of the transistor changes from high a resistor. Base and collector currents are combined in
levels to low levels as current levels flowing through the emitter region and it serves as the outlet for the total
it change. One function of a transistor is to amplify current in the transistor. An arrow on the symbol for the
control current to its output terminal. To accomplish emitter shows the direction of current flow.
this function, two combinations of connecting the p-n With the emitter connected to a negative source
materials together are available. of voltage, the emitter gives off, or emits, electrons
that the collector, which is connected to the positive
NPN Transistors voltage source, gathers, or collects. The current de-
One type is an npn transistor (fig. 112). To form it, livered from the base’s control terminal determines
manufacturers place n-type material on each side of the amount of electrons being transferred from the
a p-type material (fig. 112A). While this sandwiched emitter to the collector. Therefore, base current con-
construction is shown for clarity, manufacturers trols the current in a transistor.

COLLECTOR
EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR

P N P

BASE

EMITTER

A. Crystal Arrangement B. Circuit Symbol

Figure 113 Pnp transistor

112 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

PNP Transistors of a battery is connected to the lead on the p-type

Another type of junction transistor is a pnp transistor semiconductor and the negative terminal of the battery
(fig. 113). It is formed by placing p-type material on is connected to the lead on the n-type semiconductor.
each side of n-type material (fig. 113A). Again, this Reverse bias is a condition in which no current flows in
sandwiched construction is shown for clarity. Actual- the semiconductors because the negative terminal of a
ly, most transistors are constructed with commingled battery is connected to the lead of the p-type material
p-n materials and are about 0.001-in. (0.025-mm) thick. and the positive terminal of the battery is connected
Like an npn transistor, a pnp transistor also has to the lead of the n-type material.
three terminals: the collector, emitter, and base (fig. In an npn transistor, the emitter-base junc-
113B). The base is the control terminal and delivers tion is forward biased (fig. 114)—that is, the base
current to an external source out of the base region. is positive (fig. 114A). The collector-base junction is
The collector is the output terminal and is connected reverse bias—that is, the base is negative (fig. 114B).
to negative voltage through a resistor. The emitter is To achieve this biasing, the positive terminal of the
connected to a positive source of current. Emitter cur- supply voltage is connected to the collector and the
rent combines base and collector currents. An arrow on negative terminal of the supply voltage is connected
the emitter symbol shows the direction of current flow. to the emitter (fig. 114C).
With the emitter connected to a positive source Figure 115A–C shows pnp transistor biasing.
of voltage, the collector, which is connected to a The positive terminal of the supply voltage is con-
negative voltage source, gathers, or collects, electrons nected to the emitter while the negative terminal of
that the emitter gives off, or emits. The current deliv- the supply is connected to the collector.
ered from the base control terminal determines the Biasing ensures that current from the base
amount of electrons transferred from the emitter to and collector are always combined in the emitter,
the collector. Therefore, base circuit current controls regardless of current direction. This phenomenon
current in a pnp transistor. is true in both npn and pnp transistors. While each
type has different performance characteristics and are
used in different circuit applications, both perform
Transistor Biasing
amplification in much the same way.
Recall that bias is DC voltage applied to a transistor’s
control electrode to establish the desired operating
Operation of NPN Transistors
values. So, voltage biasing of a transistor is important
for proper operation. Also recall that forward bias is Recall that a potential hill is an energy barrier created
the condition that occurs when the positive terminal by the semiconductor’s space-charge region (see fig.

EMITTER COLLECT OR

N P N N P N N P N

BASE

– + – + – + – +

A. Forward Bias on B. Reverse Bias on C. Total Biasing

Emitter-Base Collector-Base
Junction Junction

Figure 114 Npn transistor biasing

Semiconductors and Applications 113

EMITTER COLLECTOR

P N P P N P P N P

BASE

+ – + – + – + –

A. Forward Bias on B. Reverse Bias on C. Total Biasing

Emitter-Base Collector-Base
Junction Junction

Figure 115 Pnp transistor biasing

104). Potential hills occur when no external voltage emitter-base junction, electrons leave the negative
is applied to a transistor. The potential hills are es- terminal of the supply voltage and enter the emit-
tablished along each junction. The electrons in the ter section. They diffuse across the junction and fill
n-type region interact with the holes in the p-type holes in the p-type base section. Each time an elec-
region in the same way that they interact in a junc- tron leaves the negative supply voltage terminal, a
tion diode. That is, a few electrons in both n-type replacement electron must enter the positive battery
regions of an npn transistor are attracted by holes terminal. The electrons that enter the positive termi-
in the p-type region. The electrons diffuse across nal in this case must come from the base section. As
the two junctions and fill holes in the p-type region. they leave the p-type base section, holes are created
The p-type region becomes slightly negative along in the base. These holes move toward the emitter-
with each junction because of the extra electrons base junction and combine with electrons that come
that were acquired from the n-type regions. The across the junction from the emitter.
n-type regions become slightly positive along with When voltage is applied only across the
the junctions because holes now exist where the emitter-base junction, electrons from the base sec-
electrons had been in the n-type regions. tion replace all electrons that leave the negative
As shown in figure 114 of npn biasing, the supply terminal and enter the emitter. No current
emitter-base junction of an npn transistor is biased in flows across the collector-base junction. No current
the forward, or low-resistance, direction. Electrons flows across the collector-base junction even when
flow freely from the emitter across the emitter-base voltage is also applied across the collector-base
junction and into the base when external voltage junction (as shown in fig. 114C). The collector-base
is applied. The collector-base junction is reverse junction is reverse biased and therefore presents
biased in the high-resistance direction. The high high resistance to electron flow. Since the forward-
resistance presented by the reverse-biased junction biased emitter-base junction presents a very low
prevents any usable current from flowing across resistance to electron flow, while the collector-base
the junction. (Current would also flow across the junction presents a very high resistance, it would
collector-base junction if the base region were not seem that almost all the electrons would return to
made extremely thin.) the supply directly from the base section. This situ-
To understand the operation of the npn tran- ation would occur if the base section were thick. If
sistor, first visualize the transistor as having voltage the base section were thick, no usable current could
applied across the emitter-base junction (shown flow between the base and collector and the transis-
in fig. 114A). With the voltage applied across the tor could not function as an amplifier.
114 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

The base section, however, is extremely thin. direction as npn junctions. That is, the emitter-base
As pointed out before, the base of a typical transis- junction is biased in the forward, or low-resistance,
tor is only 0.001-in. (0.025-mm) thick. Because it is direction. The collector-base junction is biased in the
so thin, the p-type base section has comparatively reverse, or high-resistance, direction.
few free holes. Of the great number of electrons that Because of the different internal structure of
enter the base section from the emitter, only a few pnp transistors, the polarities of the biasing voltages
are able to combine with holes in the base. Conse- must be opposite those used to bias npn transistors.
quently, almost all of the electrons travel across the To forward bias the emitter-base junction of a pnp
collector-base junction and enter the collector. transistor, the positive supply voltage must be con-
Once an electron enters the collector, it is strongly nected to the emitter and the negative terminal to
attracted to the positive connection on the collector. Be- the base. To reverse bias the collector-base junction,
cause of its positive charge (with respect to the emitter), the negative supply voltage must be connected to
the base attracts electrons from the emitter. Most of the the collector and the positive terminal to the base.
electrons escape into the collector because the base has The base must be made negative with respect to the
so few holes available and because of the much greater emitter and positive with respect to the collector.
positive charge on the collector (with respect to the base). When external voltage is applied across the
The collector has a greater positive charge than emitter-base junction of a pnp transistor, the posi-
the base because the bias voltages have different lev- tive terminal of the supply drives the holes (positive
els. For example, the voltage from emitter to base is carriers) in the p-type emitter section toward the
typically 1.5 volts. From the base to collector to base, base. At the same time, the negative supply volt-
voltage is 4.5 volts. Therefore, the voltage between the age drives electrons from the n-type base section
emitter and collector is 6 volts. Because of the higher toward the emitter. Each time an electron from the
voltage, electrons leaving the emitter are much more base combines with a hole in the emitter, a new
strongly attracted to the collector than to the base. hole is created and the new hole travels toward the
Only about 5 percent of the electrons leaving base. Also at the same time, negative supply voltage
the emitter combine with holes in the base. On the drives another electron into the base, and an electron
other hand, about 95 percent of the electrons pass leaves the emitter and enters the positive terminal.
through the base and into the collector. Though the With the collector-base junction also biased
number of electrons leaving the emitter is determined (shown in figure 115C), most of the holes from the
entirely by the emitter-base voltage, the collector is emitter section pass through the base section and
the element that receives almost all of the electrons. enter the collector. Only about 10 percent of the
The current that flows through the collector is im- holes combine with electrons in the base because the
portant because it flows through the output circuit. extremely thin base has comparatively few electrons
A transistor amplifies a signal because the and because there is a much larger potential differ-
emitter-collector current (the current in the output ence between the emitter and collector. Thus, about
circuit) can be controlled and varied by changing the 90 percent of the holes enter the collector section.
emitter-base voltage. A small change in emitter-base Once in the collector, a strong negative force in
voltage produces a large change in emitter-collector the collector attracts the holes toward the col-lector’s
current. This small emitter-base voltage change terminal. When a hole reaches the collector’s termi-
produces a large emitter-collector current change nal, an electron from the supply terminal combines
because the base current, or number of electrons with the hole. This action neutralizes the hole at the
combining with holes in the base, is quite small. edge of the collector section; so, the holes do not
travel outside of the transistor.
Operation of PNP Transistors At the same time that an electron leaves the nega-
Pnp transistors operate very much like npn tran- tive terminal of the collector supply on its way to neutral-
sistors. The basic difference is that the holes carry ize a hole in the collector, a replacement electron leaves
current in pnp transistors while free electrons carry the emitter. The replacement electron travels through
current in npn transistors. Figure 115 shows that the the emitter connection, through the emitter battery, and
junctions of a pnp transistor are biased in the same enters the positive terminal of the collector supply.
Semiconductors and Applications 115

Because the emitter-base current is small in com- = 100 × 0.2

parison to the emitter-collector current, a pnp transis- VG = 20 volts.
tor functions as an amplifier in the same way that an
npn transistor does. A small change in emitter-base Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistors
voltage produces a large change in collector current,
A special transistor is the insulated-gate bipolar transis-
and collector current is supplied to the output circuit.
tor (IGBT) (fig. 116). An IGBT combines low forward
voltage drop, gate-controlled turnoff, and high switching
Transistor Gain
speed. Forward voltage is voltage that the transistor
Because the current required in the base region is small carries in a forward, rather than a reverse, direction.
compared to that in the collector circuit, significant A gate in a transistor switches a signal going to it on
control can be achieved with a transistor. For example, or off. Because of the manner in which they oper-
when an npn transistor is operating in a circuit, only ate, IGBTs are used in high-power converters and
a small amount of current is required in the base to in inverters. (A converter changes DC to AC or AC
change the collector current a significant amount. A to DC. An inverter changes DC to AC.) Large motor
typical transistor whose current gain is 100 means that drives that require inverters and power converters
1 milliampere of current is required in the base to use IGBTs to perform the conversion.
change the collector current by 100 milliamperes. The
equation for determining current gain is—
IC
hFE = (Eq. 47)
IB
where
hFE = transistor current gain, unitless ratio
IC = collector current, milliamperes or am-
peres
IB = base current, milliamperes or amperes.
Typically, manufacturers specify transistor current
gain on the specification sheet accompanying the
transistor. In most cases, transistor current gain values
range from 50 to 500.
When transistors are used in circuits with resis-
tors, voltage gain occurs—that is, the transistors increase
the voltage in the circuit. Multiplying the change in base
current with its base resistance and multiplying the Figure 116 IGBT power transistor
change in collector current with its collector resistance
can determine voltage gain. The equation is—
RC Thyristors, Silicon-Controlled
VG = hFE (Eq. 48) Rectifiers, Triacs
RB
Another product using bipolar technology is a solid-
where
state switch that is referred to as a thyristor. These
VG = circuit voltage gain, volts
devices are used to switch current to high levels from
hFE = transistor current gain, unitless ratio
a low-level control signal in AC and DC circuits.
RC = collector resistance, ohms
Thyristors that conduct current only in one direc-
RB = base resistance, ohms.
tion are called silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs).
For example, if a transistor circuit has a base Thyristors that conduct current in both directions are
resistor of 10 kohms and a collector resistor of 2 called triacs. Thyristors arose from diode-rectifiers
kohms with a transistor whose current gain is 100, that allow current flow only in one direction while
the voltage gain is— blocking voltage in the opposite direction. Thyristors
2,000
VG = 100 × add another feature in that they control current in a
10,000
forward direction.
116 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

gate p-material through the p-n junction connected

to the cathode, and returns to the gate current supply
ANODE CATHODE
source, the SCR switches to a conducting condition.
P N P N This action occurs because the gate current through
the gate’s p-n junction causes an increase in current
from the anode to the cathode. The result is analogous
GATE to an avalanche of hole flow that is initiated with
A. SCR Construction initial gate current. Once the current level from the
anode to cathode reaches a level referred to as the
holding current, the gate current can be removed and
ANODE CATHODE the SCR remains in conduction because its current
passes through the p-n gate junction. (Holding cur-
rent is the minimum amount of current required to
hold the SCR in a conductive state.)
GATE
To turn the SCR off, and cease conduction,
B. SCR Symbol the anode-cathode current must be reduced below
holding current level. To reduce current, the anode-
cathode voltage polarity is reversed, which sweeps
Figure 117 SCR construction and terminals
out the holes in the SCR. Polarity remains reversed
until the current drops below holding current level.
When sufficient current drop occurs, the SCR ceases
Silicon-Controlled Rectifier
to conduct and resumes its blocking state.
The most popular thyristor is the silicon-controlled
Figure 119A plots a curve of voltage (V) and
rectifier (SCR). Figure 117A shows that an SCR
current (I) characteristics of an SCR. Figure 119B is the
consists of four bipolar elements—two type p ma-
schematic symbol of an SCR. In figure 119A, reverse
terials in junction with two type n materials, which
are alternately connected. It has three terminals: an
anode, a cathode, and a gate. Figure 117B shows the
Y
symbol for an SCR that is used in schematics. Figure IF
118 shows several power SCRs, which are used in
VF
high-powered circuits to rectify AC to DC.
IRBO
The SCR works on the principle that when the IHOO VBOO
anode is forward biased with a positive voltage with
VR
respect to the cathode, it blocks current flow. How- VF X
ever, if current is applied to the gate terminal while VRM (nonrep) IFBO
VFBOM (rep)
the anode is forward biased and current flows into the IR
VRM (rep)

CATHODE

GATE

ANODE

Figure 119 SCR characteristics p-n junction field-

Figure 118 Power SCRs effect transistor
Semiconductors and Applications 117

bias voltage (VR) and forward bias voltage (VF) form heating controls, lamp dimmers, and small, variable-
the x axis of the graph. Forward current (IF) and re- speed motor drives.
verse current (IR) form the y axis. The curve shows the
small values of leakage current that exist for forward
FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
and reverse bias before heavy conduction occurs.
Another transistor is a field-effect transistor (FET). It
IRBO represents reverse-bias leakage, and it remains
operates in a significantly different way from bipolar
a fairly uniform small value until the peak reverse
npn and pnp transistors. An FET is so called because
voltage (VRM) is exceeded. (VRM may be repetitive, or
current flow through it is controlled by an electric
rep, and nonrepetitive, or nonrep.) Reverse current
field rather than by an electric current. Electric cur-
increases drastically for higher values of reverse bias.
rent controls npn and pnp transistors.
For forward bias, leakage current is small before
Figure 120 is a simplified drawing of a junction-
heavy conduction. This leakage current is abbreviated
type field-effect transistor, or JFET for short. It is called a
as IFBO, which is short for forward blocking current.
junction type (JFET) because the two types of materi-
IHOO stands for holding current (the minimum amount
als, n and p, form junctions where they contact one
of current required to maintain the SCR in a closed,
another. Another type of FET, an insulated gate-type,
or conducting, state after it is energized). As forward
is called a MOSFET for metallic-oxide-semiconductor
bias increases, the forward breakover point is reached
field-effect transistor.
at VBOO. Beyond this point, the voltage across the
Figure 120 also shows the names that solid-
anode-cathode elements drops to a small value (VF),
state scientists have assigned to FET elements. Gate
and the current of conduction increases rapidly for
is another name for the transistor base. Source is
any additional forward bias. In this state of heavy
equivalent to the emitter. Drain resembles the func-
conduction, the SCR is triggered, or in the on state.
A popular application for SCRs is in AC circuits tion of the collector. Current in an FET normally
where they convert AC to variable voltage DC. When flows from source to drain and is therefore a unipolar
connected in a single device or in a multiple SCR transistor, and not a bipolar transistor. Note that
bridge circuit, the SCR’s forward-biased voltages are current in an FET can flow in either direction; in a
synchronized with AC line frequency and the gate bipolar transistor, it can flow only in one direction.
current signals are applied at appropriate timing in- When a source of voltage is connected be-
tervals. Selecting the timing intervals allows SCRs to tween source and drain, current flows through the
conduct over small intervals or at intervals that cover n-type material from source to drain. The amount
the complete half-cycle for full conduction for each of current depends on several factors, including
SCR. Consequently, variable DC output is available the voltage and the density of doping in the n-type
from zero to maximum voltage in an infinite series of
steps. When the AC voltage completes its half cycle, the
polarity across the SCR is reversed, which turns it off.
GATE S
Special SCRs are available that can be turned off G
with reverse gate current; thus, they do not depend G

on AC voltage for commutation (current reversal).

N-CHANNEL SYMBOL
These devices are gate-turnoff silicon-controlled SOURCE

rectifiers, or GTO-SCRs, for short.

Triacs P-GATE
SCRs can be connected in an inverse-parallel, or
DRAIN
back-to-back, manner. When so connected, they S
G
convert fixed AC voltage to variable AC voltage. This G
arrangement requires two SCRs and two sources of N-CHANNEL

gate-control current. A triac is a special thyristor that P-CHANNEL SYMBOL

uses bipolar technology. Bipolar technology allows
the triac to achieve conduction in both directions
Figure 120 P-n junction field-effect transistor
with a single gate source. Triacs are used in variable
118 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

material. (Doping is the adding of impurities to schematic in figure 121, practically no current flows
n-type or p-type materials to give them the desired in the gate circuit when it is reverse biased. However,
semiconducting characteristics.) since each gate and channel junction forms a diode,
Figure 121 shows two schematics of the same depleted areas form near the junctions. Depletion
circuit, which illustrate source-drain current char- near a junction results in a high-resistance condition.
acteristics as a function of gate bias. The circuit has Note that the meter indicator (the arrow) is deflected
a power source, a potentiometer, two FETs, and a to the right to indicate this condition.
meter. The potentiometer provides a way to reverse If the potentiometer is advanced to make the
bias the p-type gate from zero to a negative voltage gate more negative (fig. 121, bottom schematic), the
source with respect to the source. As shown in the top depletion zones become even larger and resistance to

POTENTIOMETER

SMALL DEPLETION ZONE

l

GATE

P
+

SOURCE DRAIN
METER

N P N
GATE

– +

LARGE DEPLETION ZONE

l

GATE

P
+

SOURCE DRAIN
METER

N P N

GATE

– +

Figure 121 Source-drain current characteristics as a function of gate bias

Semiconductors and Applications 119

current flow between the source and drain becomes In a junction FET, reverse bias is always used
greater. With proper design, the arrangement can be between gate and source and the input impedance
made to pinch off virtually all current flow. is very high. Consequently, if a forward bias is at-
The amount of voltage applied to the gate to tempted, the input impedance will drop drastically,
control a wide range of current through the channel current will flow in the circuit and the power gain
is relatively small. Thus, the transistor performs well will diminish.
as an amplifier because it increases current with small Figure 122 shows an example of a MOSFET. It
voltage increases. The input impedance of the FET is uses a metal gate insulated from the n channel. Like
very high, which gives it a real advantage over bipo- the p-n junction, the insulated gate can cause a deple-
lar transistors. Because of the high input impedance, tion area in the channel when properly biased. The
less power is required to operate an FET. The output insulated gate feature can also increase conductivity
impedance of the FET is also quite high. of the channel when biased in the opposite direction
The FET shown in figure 121 is an n-channel and, in doing so, does not draw current or affect the
type, which means that the material that forms the power gain.
path between the source and the drain is n-type ma-
terial. A p-channel type of FET is also available. The
two types are quite similar. In the p-channel FET, the
SOLID-STATE DESIGNATIONS
gate is reverse biased by placing positive voltage on The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has
it with respect to the cathode. established standard designations for diodes, transis-
tors, SCRs and other semiconductors that have fixed
specifications. The standards are promulgated by
MOSFETS
the Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC)
A junction-type FET uses a reverse-biased semicon- Solid State Technology Association, which represents
ductor junction between the gate and channel. The the solid-state electronic industry. (It is usually sim-
junction is like that of a diode, in that current flows ply called JEDEC.) An alphanumeric code identifies
if forward bias is applied. A metallic oxide semicon- semiconductors. For example, JEDEC has assigned
ductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) contains an diodes and other two-terminal devices a 1N prefix,
insulating channel between its gate and channel, which is followed by numerical designations of 2
usually in the form of a dielectric material such as to 4 digits. Thus, a typical low-current, low-voltage
silicon dioxide (SiO2). The MOSFET gets its name diode of 1 ampere is designated as 1N4001. A higher
from its use of a metal gate, an oxide layer for gate- voltage version is designated as 1N4004.
channel insulation, and a semiconductor material Three-terminal de•vices, such as transistors,
as the channel. SCRs, and triacs, have designations that begin with
2N followed by numbers. For example, a popular
power transistor is the 2N3055. Keep in mind that
OXIDE manufacturers produce unique solid-state devices
INSULATING
METAL FILM that have their own design characteristics. Because
GATE
they are not standard, the manufacturer uses its own
SOURCE DRAIN
designation method.

N-TYPE CHANNEL
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
P-TYPE SUBSTRATE An integrated circuit is a device constructed on a
substrate in much the same manner as a transistor.
An integrated circuit, however, combines many de-
vices into a complete circuit. Typically, an integrated
B = SUBSTRATE CONNECTION circuit contains diodes, resistors, transistors, and
other components. The components are mounted on
a chip. A chip is a shaped and processed semiconduc-
Figure 122 MOSFET construction
tor die that is mounted on a substrate. Thousands
120 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

of components can be placed on a chip and thus are are arranged not only to provide high amplification
economical to produce. of signals, but also to provide—
Typical integrated devices include logic gates, • an inverting input,
such as AND, OR, NOR, NAND, exclusive or, buffer,
• a noninverting input,
and inverter circuits. An AND gate has two or more
• an output,
input-signal ports that deliver an output only if and
when every input port is simultaneously energized. • high input resistance, and
An OR is an instruction that performs the logical • low output resistance.
operation “or” on a bit-by-bit basis. In a NOR circuit, An op amp is used as an amplifier with adjust-
output voltage appears only when a signal is absent able gain, as a timing circuit, as a differential signal
from all of its input terminals. A NAND circuit is a producer, as a signal integrator, as a device to sum
logic circuit whose output signal is a logical 1 if any up signals, and so on. A timing circuit provides
of its inputs is a logical 0 if all of its inputs are logical accurately timed pulses to synchronize a digital
1. An exclusive O R is an instruction that performs computer or to provide a time base in a transmis-
on a bit-by-bit basis. A buffer is a component that sion system. (It is also called a clock.) A differential
prevents undesirable electrical interaction between signal is an indicator (a signal) that consists of the
two circuits or components. An inverter circuit (also voltage difference between two junctions (nodes),
called a NOT circuit) is a logic circuit with one input neither of which is at ground potential. A signal
and one output that inverts the input signal at the integrator senses electronic signals in a circuit and
output—that is, the output signal is a logical 1 if the electronically arranges the signals so that they func-
input signal is a logical 0 and vice versa. tion together in an efficient and logical way. Figure
Other integrated devices include operational 123 is a diagram of a typical op amp circuit that uses
amplifiers (op amps), Schmitt triggers, SCRs, di- transistors and resistors.
ode arrays, LED drivers, arithmetic converters, and Manufacturers usually package operational
EEPROMs. A Schmitt trigger is a pulse generator amplifiers as an integrated circuit. They connect the
capable of assuming either of two stable states (a circuit’s input and output terminals to pins, which
bistable pulse generator) in which an output pulse users employ to connect the component into the cir-
of constant amplitude exists only as long as the in- cuit of the device in which it is installed. Figure 124
put voltage exceeds a certain value. An arithmetic shows the symbol for an op amp. It has two inputs:
converter changes electronic signals into units that an inverting, or minus, input and a noninverting, or
additional circuitry can add, subtract, multiply, plus, input. The terms inverting and noninverting
divide, or compare. EEPROM stands for electrically refer to the change in output signal when an input
erasable programmable read-only memory, which signal is changed. For example, if the inverting
is an integrated-circuit memory chip that has an input increases in voltage, the output signal will be
internal switch to permit a user to erase the contents inverted, or will decrease in value. The opposite is
of the chip and write new contents into it by means true for the noninverting input. If the noninverting
of electrical signals. input increases in voltage, the output signal is not
The most popular and productive integrated inverted; it also increases in value.
circuit is the microprocessor, which is used in per- A typical application for an op amp is a simple
sonal and laptop computers, programmable logic amplifier. Without any external feedback resistors,
controllers (PLCs), flow controllers, and the like. but using the device as an open-loop amplifier, the
A microprocessor is a single silicon chip on which voltage gain of the device can be as high as 100,000.
all the arithmetic and logic functions of a computer (An open-loop amplifier is an electronic device that
are placed. A microprocessor is a highly complex increases, or amplifies, a signal without any feed-
device that integrated circuit technology has made back from the rest of the circuit.) For example, an op
economical. amp used as an open-loop amplifer can amplify an
input voltage of 1 millivolt 100,000 times to a level
Operational Amplifiers of 100 volts if the power supply’s range permits it.
An operational amplifier is a special linear circuit In circuits that require less voltage gain, a feedback
that consists of multiple transistors. The transistors
Semiconductors and Applications 121

INVERTING
INPUT
TO-5 CASE

NONINVERTING
INPUT

OUTPUT

OFFSET

OFFSET

Figure 123 Operational amplifier circuit diagram

resistor can be connected from the op amp output to

its inverting input (fig. 125). By adjusting the ratio
of the feedback resistor to the input resistor, the
INVERTING voltage gain can be established. The equation is—
INPUT –

NONINVERTING OUTPUT RFB

+ VG = (Eq. 49)
INPUT RIn
wherewhere
VG = voltage gain, volts
RFB = feedback resistance, ohms
Figure 124 Symbol for an op amp RIn = input resistance, ohms.
For example, if the feedback resistor is 100 kohms,
and the input resistance value is 1 kohm, the voltage
FEEDBACK gain is—
RESISTOR 100
VG = 1
VG = 100 millivolts.
INPUT In this case, a 1 millivolt input signal change pro-
RESISTOR
– duces 100 millivolts at the output. This input signal
INPUT can be applied to either the inverting or noninvert-
OUTPUT
+ ing input with the same amplifying result. Only
the output’s signal change in direction is affected.
Often, it is desirable for a circuit’s output
voltage to be proportional to the rate of change of
Figure 125 Op amp with feedback resistor
the input voltage. Such a circuit is a differentiating
122 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

FEEDBACK FEEDBACK
RESISTOR CAPACITOR

INPUT INPUT
CAPACITOR RESISTOR
– –
INPUT INPUT
OUTPUT OUTPUT
+ +

Figure 126 Op amp differentiating circuit Figure 127 Op amp as an integrating amplifier

circuit, and op amps are used in them (fig. 126). In Circuits Using Semiconductors
a differentiating circuit, an input capacitor is added Several integrated circuits use the basic functions
instead of an input resistor; however, a feedback of a rectifier, Zener diode, and transistor to convert
resistor is included. When a sudden change in input AC voltage to DC voltage and also provide filtered
voltage is applied to the input, the charging current regulation of this voltage.
of the capacitor causes the op amp output to change
abruptly and remain at that level for a time that Half-Wave Rectifier
depends on the values of the input capacitor and Figure 128 is a schematic of a half-wave transformer-
feedback resistor. At the end of the time interval, the rectifier circuit. The transformer steps down the AC
output resumes its original state. input voltage to a voltage level compatible with the
An op amp can also perform an integrating desired output voltage. A single diode then rectifies
function by placing a resistor in the input and a the low-voltage AC and allows current flow only
capacitor in its feedback loop (fig. 127). The output during the positive half-cycle of the AC voltage. The
of the amplifier is proportional to the charge that resulting output is a pulsating voltage waveform
accumulates from the input current flow into the whose average value represents the DC voltage. The
feedback capacitor. The amount of time delay in- value of the DC voltage is about 32 percent of the peak
volved, which is called integration, or summing, is voltage or 45 percent of the root mean square (rms)
proportional to the product of the input resistor and value. This circuit is relatively inefficient since it uses
feedback capacitor. only half of the available voltage and few circuits can
use the pulsating, discontinuous voltage.

VP
T D +

+
FUSE PEAK
VOLTAGE
0 = VP

– AVERAGE
– VALUE 0.32 VP

OUTPUT WAVEFORM
INPUT WAVEFORM
115 VAC

Figure 128 Half-wave transformer-rectifier

Semiconductors and Applications 123

T D1 +

VP R

FUSE
–
VP
D2

PEAK
AVERAGE VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
= 0.63VP = VP

115 VAC INPUT CURVE FORM

Figure 129 Transformer center-tap full wave rectifier

Full-Wave Circuits transformer and an additional diode. Nevertheless,

Figure 129 is a schematic of a full-wave rectifier that the voltage is still pulsating DC voltage whose fre-
uses the center tap of a transformer. This circuit im- quency is twice that of the AC supply frequency.
proves operation over the half-wave circuit by using Figure 130 is a schematic of a circuit that im-
two diodes to rectify the output voltage. With a com- proves the waveform produced by the full-wave,
mon connection to the center tap of the transformer, center-tapped, AC-to-DC rectifier circuit. The storage
the diodes are connected to the opposite ends of the effect of capacitor C1 filters the pulsating DC output.
transformer winding. During the positive half-cycle, The gaps between the pulsations remain at a higher
current can flow through diode D1 and produce half- level because voltage is stored. The high-level gaps
wave voltage output while diode D2 blocks current produce continuous DC voltage that still retains some
flow. During the negative half-cycle, diode D2 con- ripple voltage. However, the choke, or DC inductor,
ducts the voltage to the output while diode D1 blocks in the circuit further reduces ripple voltage by keep-
current flow. The resulting output is full-wave voltage ing the current relatively constant to the output. The
with both half-cycles being rectified to a DC level. output is further filtered with capacitor C2 to produce
The average voltage when measured with a DC a smooth DC voltage with little ripple voltage. This
voltmeter is about 63 percent of the peak or about type of filter is an LC filter or a pi (π) filter because
90 percent of the rms value of the AC voltage. These the two capacitors and choke roughly take the form
figures are a significant improvement over the half- of the Greek letter π. It is very effective in attenuating
wave circuit. The circuit requires a center-tapped any ripple appearing at its input.

CHOKE
T
D1 +

FUSE
R
D2 C1 C2

–
115 VAC

Figure 130 Full-wave rectifier with LC filter

124 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

R1 D1
+ +

0
CHOKE
VOLTAGE ACROSS C1
–
C1 C2 R LOAD

R2 D2 +
0
VOLTAGE ACROSS C2
FILTER – –
SECTION
115 VAC

Figure 131 Full-wave rectifier with RLC filter

Figure 131 is a schematic of a similar circuit tapped circuit. Filtering can be added to the output
with additional improvements. It has an RLC as required by the load.
filter. The resistors that are wired in series with
each rectifier provide current limiting so that the Power Supply Regulation
diodes do not reach peak-current limitations. In As noted before, the DC voltage on the output can
a capacitor-input filter such as this, the current be filtered or unfiltered, depending on the design of
during capacitor charging can be significant and the system. In addition, the voltage in the previously
the resistors limit the charging current to an ac- discussed circuits is unregulated, which means that
ceptable level. In addition, a dampening resistor any change in AC supply voltage or load current
is added in parallel to the DC choke to limit the will cause the output DC voltage to be affected. Most
peak voltages that might develop when a sudden applications for DC power require that the voltage
current change results in the load. not only be smooth and ripple-free, but relatively
Figure 132 is a schematic that shows a variation constant. Electronic regulation is the primary method
of a full-wave rectifier. This circuit uses a rectifier used to provide the constant voltage required by
bridge. A bridge circuit is better than center-tap cir- most electronic loads.
cuits because the transformer winding is completely
used during both cycles of rectification. Although Zener Voltage Regulator
this circuit requires four diodes to achieve full-wave In a Zener voltage regulator (fig. 133), unregulated
output, the result is the same as with the center- voltage is applied to the input on the left. By using

D2 +
D1

VP
D3 VP
D4
OUTPUT WAVEFORM

115 VAC
INPUT WAVEFORM

Figure 132 Rectifier bridge full-wave rectifier

Semiconductors and Applications 125

300 OHMS +

5 WATTS 3-WATT
UNREGULATED ZENER
INPUT REGULATED
DIODE 24-VOLT OUTPUT
TO LOAD VARYING
40 TO 60 FROM 0 TO 50
VOLTS DC VZ = VOLTS MILLIAMPERES

Figure 133 Zener regulated circuit

a series resistor to drop the undesirable voltage, the DC voltage has a negative polarity with respect to the
Zener diode provides a fixed voltage and low resis- common connection. The transistor’s base is connected
tance path for current to flow. By connecting the load to a Zener diode that provides the desired voltage
resistance to the output, the voltage remains relatively reference. When the input voltage or load current
constant as long as the load current does not exceed changes, the transistor base-emitter circuit detects
the current flowing through the Zener diode. this change against the Zener voltage and provides
A regulator with a Zener diode is limited by the required changes from collector to emitter to keep
the amount of power it can control because it uses a the output voltage constant.
shunt type of regulation. That is, the maximum load In this type of circuit, the transistor regulator
variation is the current permitted to flow in the Zener provides additional filtering if the filtered input volt-
diode from no-load to full-load. Once the current age contains any undesirable ripple content. Because
of the load exceeds this level, the circuit becomes of the fast response of the transistor and Zener diode,
unregulated since the Zener diode is no longer con- the transistor regulator attenuates any ripple, or
ducting and maintaining a constant voltage. change, on the input.
A Zener diode circuit can be improved by using While the circuit in figure 134A produces a nega-
a series form of regulation with power transistors. In tive output with respect to its common, the circuit shown
the schematics in figure 134, unregulated, but filtered, in figure 134B provides a positive output voltage. The
DC voltage is provided to the input of the voltage functions of regulation are basically the same, but circuit
regulator. In the first example (fig. 134A), the filtered 134A uses a pnp transistor regulator while circuit 134B

TRANSISTOR T1
F R1

D1

R1 1,000Ω T1
FILTERED
INPUT REGULATED FILTERED REGULATED
25–35 V OUTPUT INPUT OUTPUT
D1
C1

1,500 uf ZENER R2
DIODE

A B

Figure 134 DC regulators

126 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

uses an npn transistor. Circuit 134B also uses shunt diode connected to each winding. (It is called a wye-
regulation with the transistor operating in parallel type transformer because it resembles the letter Y.)
with the load in much the same manner as the Zener Each diode conducts when its anode becomes positive
diode did in the circuit shown in figure 133. The tran- with respect to its cathode. Each diode blocks reverse
sistor, however, has more current-handling capability current flow when its cathode becomes positive with
and can provide the capacity for most loads. respect to the anode. Unlike a single-phase circuit,
Series regulation is the most efficient form of where voltage appears for conduction every 180
regulator because the power handled by the transis- degrees, three-phase voltage appears for conduction
tor is the difference in input and output voltage times every 120 degrees. Therefore, overlap in the voltages
the current of the load, while the shunt regulating occurs and the resulting DC output has continuous
transistor must handle the total-load voltage as well voltage even though it retains some ripple.
as the total-load current change. Further improvements can be made with three-
Sophisticated regulators (fig. 135) are available phase rectification by installing three additional
that provide excellent voltage regulation with load rectifiers to produce three-phase, full-wave, supply.
changes as well as rejecting any incoming ripple volt- Figure 137 shows a printed wiring board voltage
age from the unregulated rectifier. In addition, these regulator of this type. The output ripple is quite low,
types of regulators provide a means for adjusting the generally in the neighborhood of 5 percent of the total
output voltage over a limited range. DC voltage. Filtering of this type of voltage is quite
small and simple.
Three-Phase Rectifiers
In high-power applications where three-phase exists,
REVIEW QUESTIONS
rectifiers can convert the three-phase from AC to DC
for power supplies. Figure 136 is a schematic of a 1. What is the basic difference between conduc-
three-phase half-wave rectifier. The three-phase volt- tors, semiconductors, and nonconductors?
age provided by a wye-type transformer has a single 2. How are n-type and p-type semiconductor
materials made?

Q1
+ +

R9 R 7* R 3* R6 R5
D3 R1
C1

C2
Q2
Q4
CONTROL Q3

V(in) V(out)

* CURRENT Q6 Qp
SOURCES
R 8* FOR D1, D2,
AND D3

R4
D2 R2
D1

– –

PREREGULATOR DC AMPLIFIER REFERENCE COMPARISON SAMPLE

Figure 135 Sophisticated adjustable voltage regulator

 D1 +

D2

P1 P2

P3

D3
1 2 3

INPUT WAVEFORM —
OUTPUTWAVEFORM

Figure 136 Three-phase half-wave rectifier

Figure 137 Printed wiring board voltage regulator

128 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

3. What serves as the current carriers in n-type 11. What is the direction of current flow
and p-type material? through each of the two types of transistors?
4. How is a junction diode formed? 12. Why is the base section of bipolar transistors
5. What prevents a total interaction between the made extremely thin?
free holes and free electrons in a p-n junction? 13. Are the two biasing voltages connected in
6. What is forward bias and reverse bias? How series or parallel?
does the direction of the bias affect current
14. What is the current gain relationship in a
flow?
transistor?
7. With an alternating current across a semicon-
ductor diode, during what part of the cycle 15. An SCR has three terminals. Name them
does the diode conduct current? and their function.
8. What are the two basic types of junction 16. Name three applications of an op amp.
transistors? 17. To create a DC regulated power supply from
9. What are the basic elements of transistors? AC, what are the basic functions required?
10. Are npn and pnp transistors biased in the
same direction? Are the polarities of the ex-
ternal connections the same for both types?
 11
Digital Logic

We are firmly entrenched in a world where digital logic numbers use base 10. All decimal numbers can be
equipment and systems have become the dominant represented as the number 10 raised to some power,
means of computation and communication. Sev- and all binary numbers can be represented as the
eral years ago, analog equipment dominated because number 2 raised to some power.
digital devices had not been developed to the point of The decimal system uses digits ranging from
widespread use. Development of solid-state electron- 0 to 9, while the binary system uses only the digits
ics, logic functions, and integrated circuits became 0 and 1. The use of only two digits fits in well with
commercial in the late 1960s and became fully devel- electrical systems, because 0 can represent the ab-
oped in the 1970s. Logic functions, such as AND, OR, sence of voltage while 1 can represent the presence of
NAND, NOR, and flip-flop circuits, became available voltage. Switches or solid-state devices can establish
at low cost and led to the replacement of electrome- the presence or absence of voltage.
chanical relays. (A flip-flop circuit is a type of elec- In all numbering systems, a number takes on a
tronic circuit in which either of two active devices may weighted value according to its position to a reference
remain conducting, with the other nonconducting, point. In binary systems, this reference point is the bi-
until the application of an external pulse.) However, nary point. Decimal systems take on weight relative to
replacement was passive—that is, the change from the position of the decimal point. A binary point is similar
electromechanical relays to logic circuits was made to the decimal point. A decimal point is a dot placed
only when it became necessary to replace a bad relay. between numbers to indicate the point where numbers
In the 1980s, a new integrated circuit was intro- take on positive or negative powers of 10 (positive to the
duced: the microprocessor. Microprocessors allowed left of the decimal point and negative to the right of the
interaction between the user and the desired output. decimal point). Because binary numbers are used in the
Further development of microprocessors led to pro- binary system, the point is called the binary point, rather
duction of calculators, digital phones, digital com- than the decimal point. In the binary system, numbers to
puters, and programmable logic controllers (PLCs). the left of the binary point are raised to positive powers
Today, supervisory control systems, digital telemetry of 2, while numbers to the right of the binary point are
devices, data acquisition equipment, and similar raised to negative powers of 2. For example—
equipment are widely available. Because they are so
widespread, these devices are usually well within Binary Point
↓
economic reach of most consumers and companies.
23 22 21 20 2–1 2­–2 2–3 2–­4

BINARY NUMBERS In the base-10 decimal system, a number

Because digital logic and the equipment that use it becomes 10 times larger each time it is moved one
are based on the binary number system, this section position to the left of the decimal point. For example,
further explores the concept. Earlier, basic concepts the number 3,747 can be represented in weighted
of digital and binary numbers, which use the symbols columns as—
1 and 0 to represent logic states or conditions, were
103 102 101 100
discussed. This section builds on these concepts.
1,000 100 10 1
Binary Arithmetic 3 7 4 7
Binary numbers are different from decimal num- Thus, the number 3,747 also means 3,000 + 700 + 40
bers in that binary numbers use base 2 and decimal + 7 = 3,747.

129
130 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

In the base-2 binary system, a number also in- number 0.1111 is the equivalent of 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125
creases in value to the left of the binary point. Thus, + 0.0625, or 0.9375.
the binary number 1111 can also be written as 1,000, Binary numbers can be added, subtracted,
100, 10, and 1. And, it can also be written as 1(23) + multiplied, and divided just as decimal numbers
1(22) + 1(21) + 1(20). Writing the number as 1 times the can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided.
power to which 2 is raised makes it easy to convert
the binary number to its decimal equivalent. Thus, the Binary Addition
binary number 1111 is the same as 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 1 × Adding binary numbers is easier if the numbers are ar-
21 + 1 × 20, which solves to 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 15. Similarly, ranged in columns and rows. In the following columns
the binary number 1010 is the same as 23 + 21, or 8 + 2 = and rows of numbers, the binary numbers are placed
10, and the binary number 101 is the same as 22 + 20, or and added in six left-hand columns. The equivalent
4 + 1 = 5. (Since 1 × 22 = 4 and is the same as 22, or 4, by decimal numbers are in the far right-hand column.
itself, it is not necessary to multiply each number by 1.) The binary numbers 110.11 and 011.01 are added, as
Arranging binary numbers in rows and col- are the equivalent decimal numbers 6.75 and 3.25.
umns shows how the numbers increase in weight to The binary number 110.11 and the decimal number
the left of the binary point. In the following arrange- 6.75 are augends. The binary number 011.01 and the
ment, the binary numbers 1111, 1010, and 0101 are decimal number 3.25 are addends. An augend is simply
put in columns and their decimal equivalents of 15, a quantity to which another quantity is added. An
10, and 5 are written to the right. addend is one of a collection of numbers to be added.
Decimal
Number
Function Binary Decimal
23 22 21 20
8 4 2 1 No. carried 1 1 1 1 111

1 1 1 1 15 Augend 1 1 0. 1 1 6.75

1 0 1 0 10 Addend 0 1 1. 0 1 3.25

0 1 0 1 5 Sum 1 0 1 0. 0 0 10.00

Binary numbers with negative powers of base To add the binary numbers, refer to the binary
two occur to the right of the binary point. The decimal columns and the two rows labeled augend and ad-
numbers decrease by half as they move one column dend. The operation begins with the right-most
to the right. The following columns and rows show binary number column and works to the left, just
binary and decimal numbers to the right of the binary as decimal numbers are added. Beginning at the
point and the decimal point. right-hand binary column, the augend 1 is added to
the addend 1, and the result is 2. However, because
Decimal 1 is the highest number in the binary system, a 0 is
Number
written for the sum of 1 plus 1, just as 0 is put down
2–1 2–2 2–3 2–4 for the sum of 9 plus 1 in the decimal system. The 1
0.5 0.25 0.125 0.0625 is carried over to the next column and placed in the
1 1 1 1 0.9375 first row, which is labeled ‘no. carried’.
To add the second column, the 1 in the augend
1 0 1 0 0.6250
is added to the 1 in the no. carried row; so, once again
0 1 0 1 0.3125
a 0 is written for the sum of 1 plus 1, and a 1 is carried
Just as the decimal equivalents of binary num- to the third column in the no. carried row. When the
bers to the left of the binary point can be determined third column is added, the result is again 1 plus 1,
by adding the numbers that result when raised to so a 0 is placed in the sum, and the 1 is carried to the
their respective powers, decimal equivalents of bi- fourth column.
nary numbers to the right of the binary point can be The fourth column now consists 1 + 1 + 1. As
determined by adding them. For example, the binary before, 1 plus 1 gives 0 and 1 to carry; so, the remain-
ing 1 and 0 are added to get 1 for the sum in the fourth
Digital Logic 131

column. Going to the fifth column, 1 plus 1 gives the Binary Multiplication
sum of 0 and 1 is carried into the sixth column. The Multiplication of binary numbers is the simplest of
final sum is 1010.00. In decimal form, the answer is the four mathematical operations because binary
10.00. In binary addition, keep in mind that 1 plus 1 multiplication is the same as decimal multiplication.
equals 0 with 1 to carry to the next column. Even the placement of the binary point in the product
is determined in the same way as placement of the
Binary Subtraction decimal point. In the example, 10.11 is multiplied by
Subtraction of binary numbers is similar to sub- 1.01 and its decimal equivalent of 2.75 is multiplied
traction of decimal numbers. In subtraction, as in by 1.25. The numbers 10.11 and 2.75 are multiplicands
addition, the numbers are arranged in columns and and the numbers 1.01 and 2.75 are multipliers.
rows. The binary numbers subtracted in the five left-
hand columns are equivalent to the decimal num-
Function Binary Decimal
bers in the right-hand column. The binary number
010.11 is subtracted from 110.10 and is compared Multiplicand 1 0. 1 1 2.75
with subtracting the equivalent decimal numbers Multiplier × 1. 0 1 × 1.25
of 6.50 and 2.75. The numbers 110.10 and 6.50 are 1 0 1 1 1375
minuends. A minuend is the number from which
Partial
another number, the subtrahend, is subtracted. In products 0 0 0 0 550
this case, the binary subtrahend is 010.11 and the
1 0 1 1 275
decimal subtrahend is 2.75.
Product 1 1. 0 1 1 1 3.4375
Function Binary Decimal
The final answer (product) in binary numbers is
No.
11.0111; in decimal numbers, the product is 3.4375.
borrowed – 1 1 1 1 –111
The three rows of numbers labeled partial products
Minuend 1 1 0. 1 0 6.50
are the figures that result from each multiplication
Subtrahend – 0 1 0. 1 1 – 2.75 step. Partial products are 1011, 0000, and 1011 in the
Difference 1 1. 1 1 3.75 binary multiplication steps, and 1375, 550, and 275
in the decimal multiplication steps.
Subtraction starts with the first right-hand column
of the binary numbers, just as with decimal numbers. In Binary Division
the right-most binary number column, the subtrahend Dividing binary numbers is also simple. Because a
of 1 cannot be subtracted from the minuend of 0, so 1 trial divisor must be either a 1 or a 0, there is little
is borrowed from the next column to the left. Since 1 is likelihood of failing on the first trial. In the following
moved one column to the right the number becomes 2, so example, borrowing is done mentally during all the
subtracting 1 from 2 leaves a 1 in the right-most column. intermediate subtraction steps. The placement of
This 1 is entered in the row labeled difference. the binary point and the placement of the decimal
In the second column, –1 is in the subtrahend, point are determined in the same manner. First, the
1 is the minuend, and a –1 is in the no. borrowed binary number 11.0111 is divided by 1.01; then, the
column. The numbers add up to –1. A 1 is borrowed decimal number 3.4375 is divided by 1.25. In the
from the third column, which is treated as a 2 when binary operation, the divisor is 1.01, the dividend is
adding up the second column; so, 1 is placed in the 11.0111, and the quotient is 10.11 as determined by—
difference row for the second column. 10.11
The operation proceeds in the like manner for 1.01 11.0111
the remaining columns. Remember: when subtract- 101
ing binary numbers, the no. borrowed column has 111
the same sign as the subtrahend, which is a minus 101
(–). The final answer is 11.11 in binary notation and 101
3.75 in decimal notation. 101
132 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

In the decimal operation, the divisor is 1.25, the logical AND operation. This operation is illustrated
the dividend is 3.4375 and the quotient is 2.75 as by the example concerning the car’s gas tank. That
determined by— is, both the statement regarding the gauge’s reading
2.75 empty AND the statement regarding the accuracy of
1.25 3.4375 the gauge must be true before the conclusion is true.
250 (In a logical AND operation, AND is capitalized,)
937 Another example of logic AND reasoning con-
875 cerns the statement, “If Tom is taller than Bill and
625 Bill is taller than Dick, then Tom is taller than Dick.”
625 This statement is correct, because if Tom is taller than
Bill AND Bill is taller than Dick, then Tom must be
DIGITAL LOGIC taller than Dick.

Statements or conditions that are either true or false,

yes or no, or energized or deenergized can be de-
Logical OR Operation
scribed with digital logic. Since digital implies either Another logical operation is the logical OR opera-
one state or the other, binary devices such as signals, tion. This operation also makes it possible to draw
components, and the like can establish binary condi- a conclusion from two or more statements. In this
tions and obtain results. case, however, if either or both of the statements are
true, then the conclusion is true. Thus, the logical
Classical Logic OR operation differs from the AND operation where
both statements had to be true for the conclusion to
Over 2,000 years ago, Greek philosophers studied the
be true. As an example of a logical OR operation,
concepts of logical reasoning, or logic. One concept
consider the statement, “if the sun is shining OR if
that came from this study was that all observations
artificial lights are on, then it must be light.” In this
could be simplified until a statement about an ob-
case, the logical OR operation holds that if the sun
servation was either true or false. We know today,
is shining, it is light OR if artificial lights are on, it is
however, that many observations are both true and
light. In this case, either the sun has to be shining OR
false and that many statements are either true or false.
the artificial lights have to be on for it to be light. On
Put another way, the Greeks were wrong to think
the other hand, both the sun can be shining and the
that all observations could be simplified to be either
artificial lights can be on for it also to be light.
true or false. However, unbeknownst to them, they
laid the groundwork for today’s digital revolution.
A fundamental concept of logic is that by using
Logical NOT Operation
two or more logical statements as premises, a correct Still another logical operation is the logical NOT op-
conclusion can be made. For example, if a car’s gas eration. This operation means that a true statement is
gauge reads empty, and the gas gauge is accurate, made false by the use of NOT. For example, consider
then the tank is out of gas. In terms of classical logic, the statement, “If it is light, and someone says that it
the preceding statements can be stated as— is NOT light, then the second statement is false.” In
other words, if it is true that it is light, the statement
• Major premise: the car’s gas gauge reads empty.
that it is NOT light is false.
• Minor premise: the car’s gas gauge is accurate.
• Conclusion: the car’s gas tank is out of gas.
Boolean Logic
Note that the conclusion is correct or true only if both
In 1850, the English philosopher and mathemati-
conditions are met—that is, both statements must be
cian George Boole developed a technique of using
true. Notice, too, that at least two premises must be
numerical values to relate to the truth or falsehood
used and both must be true.
of a logical statement. He assigned a mathematical
symbol to logical operations. Using this technique,
Logical AND Operation
logical statements can be expressed mathematically.
Digital logic depends on three basic logic operations, For example, Boole’s system can show so-called
or relationships. The first logic operation is termed if-then operations as algebraic equations. An if-then
Digital Logic 133

operation (also called an implication) is a statement simply writes A = 1. This statement can be spoken as,
that asserts that if a certain condition is true, then a “A is true.” Similarly, to express a false statement, one
certain other condition is also true. Stated algebra- simply writes B = 0. This statement reads, “B is false.”
ically, an if-then operation reads, “If p then q,” which Boolean logic contains many definitions and
means that if p is true then q is also true. Boolean math expressions. This manual does not list them all, but
makes it possible to manipulate equations just as any a few include—
algebraic expression, with only a few exceptions, can 0 • 0 = 0, which reads, “a false statement
be manipulated. The method of expressing logic as and false statement are false”;
equations is called Boolean logic.
1 + 1 = 1, which reads, “a true statement or
Boolean logic designates or labels each logical
a true statement is a true state-
statement or premise. For example, the letter A can
ment”;
replace the premise, “Tom is taller than Bill.” Similarly,
B replaces, “Bill is taller than Dick,” and C replaces, 0 • 1 = 1 • 0 = 0, which reads, “a false statement
“Tom is taller than Dick.” Now, the letters can replace and true statement are the same
the statements as, “if A AND B, then C.” This short- as a true statement and a false
hand notation greatly simplifies logic expressions. statement and both are false”;
The following symbols replace the three basic 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 = 1, which reads, “a false statement
logic operations— or a true statement is the same
as a true statement or a false
AND = • or ×, multiplication symbols;
statement and both are true”;
OR = +, the addition symbol; and
NOT = a bar placed across the top of the sym- 1 • 1 = 1, which reads, “a true statement
bol—for example, A. and a true statement are true”;
In many cases, as with conventional algebra, the 0 + 0 = 0, which reads, a false statement
AND symbol (• or ×) is left out, and two characters and false statement are false”;
are simply written side by side. Using symbols and 0 = 1, which reads, “a false statement
equations, the example, “If A AND B, then C,” can be is not a true statement”;
written in Boolean equation form as A • B = C or AB =
1 = 0, which reads, “a true statement
C. This expression reads as, “A and B equal C.”
is not a false statement”;
In the same way, logical OR operations can
also be written as a Boolean algebraic equation. For A • 1 = A, which reads, “A and a true state-
example, the previous logical OR operation, which ment is A”;
stated that, “If the light is on OR the sun is shining, A + 0 = 0, which reads, “A or a false state-
then it must be light,” can broken down as— ment is a false statement”;
• Statement A = the sun is shining, A • 0 = 0, which reads, “A and a false state-
• Statement B = the artificial lights are on, and ment is a false statement”; and
• Statement C = it is light. A + 1 = 1, which reads, “A or a true state-
The logical expression is written as A + B = C and it ment is a true statement.”
reads as, “A or B equal C.” At the time Boolean logic was developed, few
An example of a logical NOT operation is— philosophers were interested in it. However, when
Statement A = it is light, and the telephone was developed, engineers found
Statement B = it is not light; that Boolean logic lent itself well to describing the
operation of the complex relay switching gear that
then, A = B.
was necessary. A set of open relay contacts could be
This expression reads as, “not A equals B.” described by a logical 0 and closed contacts by a logi-
Boole also assigned the numerical symbol 1 to a cal 1. Thus, racks of switches could be described by
true statement and 0 to a false statement. These num- a few equations instead of several pages of electrical
bered symbols are states or conditions of logical state- drawings. From that time, Boolean logic has been
ments and, in themselves, have no numerical value. used mathematically to describe everything from
Thus, to express a true statement in Boolean logic one simple relay systems to complex computer systems.
134 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Truth Tables Table 18 shows four possible combinations

In many cases, it is desirable to know the effect of for consideration. Since two possible conditions
all possible conditions on a logical statement. For exist for each input statement, the number of
example, consider the statement, “If Tom is taller than possible combinations or considerations for a
Bill and Bill is taller than Dick, then Tom is taller than possible decision or conclusion is 2N, where N
Dick.” However, what if the part of the statement is the number of input conditions. If C = AB, the
that says, “Bill is taller than Dick,” is false? To be number of possibilities is 22, or 4, since A and B
absolutely sure of the conclusion, it is necessary to list are two inputs. The truth table shows these four
all possible conditions. Other possibilities include— conditions, which are: (1) if A is false and B is
false, then C is false; (2) if A is false and B is true,
1. If Tom is taller than Bill and Bill is not
then C is false; (3) if A is true and B is false, then
taller than Dick, then Tom is not taller
C is false; and (4) is A is true and B is true, then
than Dick.
C is true.
2. If Tom is not taller than Bill and Bill is
taller than Dick, then Tom is not taller TABLE 18
than Dick. Truth Table for C = AB
3. If Tom is not taller than Bill and Bill is not
A B C
taller than Dick, then Tom is not taller
than Dick.
0 0 0
Now, label the first statement A, the second
0 1 0
B, and the third C. With these labels, the following
1 0 0
equations are possible.
1 1 1
1. A = 0, B = 0
C = AB = 0
This Boolean equation reads, “If A is false and B is If the logic equation is D = ABC, which reads,
false, then C is A and B, which is false.” “D is either true or false depending on the truth
2. A = 0, B = 1 values of A and B and C.” (That is, whether D is
C = AB = 0 true or false depends on whether A, B, and C are
true or false.) In this case, the possibilities are 23, or
This equation reads, “If A is false and B is true, then C 8 since A, B, and C are three inputs. Table 19 shows
is A and B, which is false.” (If A is false and B is true, the possible combinations. Note that in only one
C is false, because in a logical AND operation, both case can D be true.
premises must be true for the conclusion to be true.)
3. A = 1, B = 0
TABLE 19
C = AB = 0
Truth Table for D = ABC
This equation reads, “If A is true and B is false, then
C is A and B, which is false.” (Both premises must A B C D
be true for the conclusion to be true.)
0 0 0 0
4. A = 1, B = 1
0 0 1 0
C = AB = 1
0 1 0 0
This equation reads, “If A is true and B is true,
0 1 1 0
then C is A and B, which is true. (In this case, both
premises in the logical AND operation are true, so 1 0 0 0
the conclusion is true.) 1 1 0 0
A tabular format called a truth table is a simple 1 1 1 0
method of expressing a logic equation. Table 18 is a
1 1 1 1
truth table for the previous example.
Digital Logic 135

TABLE 20 1. show all symbols for the devices in the dia-

Truth Table for D = A + B + C gram in their off-the-shelf, or deen-ergized,
condition;
A B C D
2. show input devices on the left part of the
rung;
0 0 0 0
3. show output devices on the right part of
0 0 1 1
the rung;
0 1 0 1 4. connect input devices in such a manner
0 1 1 1 as to create logic to accomplish a desired
1 0 0 0 function and produce an output; and
5. read the diagram from top to bottom and
1 0 1 1
left to right.
1 1 0 1
To the left in figure 138 are the symbols of six
1 1 1 1 relays: buffer, AND, OR, inverter (NOT), NAND, and
NOR. They are labeled with Boolean logic letters A,
B, and C. To the right in figure 138 is a ladder logic
Another truth table (Table 20) can be drawn
diagram that shows each of the relays in schematic
from the equation D = A + B + C, which reads, “D is
form. They are also labeled with Boolean letters.
either true or false depending on the truth values of A
Truth tables for each of the individual logic
or B or C.” In this case, because it is a logical OR op-
rungs in figure 138 follow. Note that each relay is
eration, D can be true in six out of eight possibilities.
referred to as a gate, which means that when its in-
Boolean logic can also be applied to describe
put receives the proper logic conditions, the output
electrical and electronic components used in electrical
changes its state. Table 21 is the truth table for the
and electronic circuits. Symbols have been developed
buffer gate, where B = A.
that portray the AND, OR, NOT forms of statements
in addition to other statements, such as buffer, NOR,
NAND, and XOR (exclusive or). TABLE 21
Electromechanical relays are devices that consist Buffer Gate
of a coil and one or more contacts that are magnetically Truth Table for B = A
and mechanically actuated when the coil is energized.
A B
The contacts of the relays can be normally open or
normally closed; normally refers to the coil’s being
0 0
deenergized. The relays are used in control applica-
tions for turning on or off discrete devices such as 1 1
lamps, contactors, annunciators, and other devices. (A
contactor is a switch that opens or closes a circuit. An Table 22 is the truth table for the AND gate, where
annunciator is an electromechanical device that signals C = AB.
when current flows in a circuit.) Schematic diagrams
containing relays are usually referred to as ladder logic TABLE 22
diagrams because they resemble the rungs and rails on AND Gate
a ladder. The components operate in a logical fashion Truth Table for C = AB
to achieve certain and definite results. A B C
Ladder logic diagrams developed from a need
in the field to solve a particular control problem. 0 0 0
Ladder logic diagrams are also used as trouble-
0 1 0
shooting aids, and help explain the operation and
programming of PLCs. When creating and reading a 1 0 0
ladder logic diagram, several rules must be followed. 1 1 1
Rules include—
 A B A B

BUFFER

A A B C

C
B

AND

A C

C
B

OR B

A B
A B

INVERTER (NOT)

A C
C

NAND
B

A A B C
C

B
NOR

Figure 138 Logic-relay logic symbols

Digital Logic 137

Table 23 is the truth table for the OR gate, where C TABLE 25

= A + B. NAND Gate
TABLE 23 Truth Table for C = A + B
OR Gate A B C
Truth Table for C = A + B

A B C 0 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 1

TABLE 26
Table 24 is the truth table for the inverter (NOT) gate,
NOR Gate
where B = A.
Truth Table for C = A + B

TABLE 24 A B C
Inverter (NOT) Gate
Truth Table for B = A 0 0 1
0 1 0
A B
1 0 1
0 1
1 1 0
1 0

SOLID-STATE LOGIC GATES

Table 25 is the truth table for the NAND gate, where
C = A + B. Besides relays, devices such as diodes, transistors,
Table 26 is the truth table for the NOR gate, and other switching devices can be used for logic
where C = A + B. gates. Figures 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, and 145
While the truth tables are similar, it is important are circuit diagrams that use diodes and transistors
to examine them carefully to understand the logic func- as logic gates. Each figure also shows the truth table
tions of each gate. For example, a Boolean logic equation that accompanies each device.
for the buffer gate is the same as for the inverter (NOT)
gate. However, the truth tables are different.

POSITIVE POSITIVE INPUTS OUTPUT

INPUTS SUPPLY
VOLTAGE ABC 1
ABC 0
A
ABC 0
OUTPUT
ABC 0
B ABC 0
ABC 0
ABC 0
C
ABC 0
A
ABC
B
C

Figure 139 Diode AND circuit

 NEGATIVE
SUPPLY
POSITIVE VOLTAGE INPUTS OUTPUT
INPUTS
ABC 1
ABC 1
A
ABC 1
OUTPUT
ABC 1
B ABC 1
ABC 1
ABC 1
C
ABC 1
ABC 0
A
A+ B + C
B
C

Figure 140 Diode OR circuit

+10V

INPUTS OUTPUT

AB 1
+ R1 Q1 AB 0
AB 0
AB 0

–2V

A AB

Q2

OUTPUT
+

+
–2V RL

Figure 141 Transistor AND circuit

 +10V

Q1 Q2 Q3
A B C

–2V –2V –2V

OUTPUT

RL
INPUTS OUTPUT

ABC 1
ABC 1
A
A+ B + C ABC 1
B
ABC 1
C
ABC 1
ABC 1
ABC 1
ABC 0

Figure 142 Transistor OR circuit

OUTPUT
INPUT OUTPUT

A A 0
A 1

A A

Figure 143 Transistor NOT circuit

140 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

+20V

400 Ω

INPUTS OUTPUT
4K ABC 1
A OUTPUT
ABC 1

4K ABC 1
B ABC 1
ABC 1
4K ABC 1
C A
A+ B + C ABC 1
15K
B ABC 0
C

–20V

Figure 144 Transistor NOR circuit

A AB
AND INPUTS OUTPUT
AB 0
AB + AB
OR AB 1
AB 1
B AB AB 0
AND
A

A A+ B
OR
B (A + B) (A • B) = (A + B) (A + B)
= AB + AB
AND

IN V
AB
AND
B
EXCLUSIVE OR

Figure 145 Exclusive OR circuit

SEQUENTIAL LOGIC AND gate and from logic family to logic family. In some
MEMORY DEVICES circuits, time is not a factor in the operation of the
gate. In such circuits, the negligible amount of time
Logic circuits give certain outputs for specified
delay before the output reaches its level is not a
inputs. Because logic circuits function according
problem. However, some logic devices depend on
to physical realties, a small amount of time elapses
time for operation. Such devices are sequential logic
between the time the inputs reach specified condi-
devices because most operations take place in a step-
tions and the time when the output reaches a given
by-step manner.
logic level. This period of time varies from gate to
Digital Logic 141

FLIP-FLOP CIRCUITS pulse does not affect the conducting transistor except
The simplest solid-state memory device is the flip-flop to drive it deeper into current saturation.
circuit, or a bistable multivibrator. Recall that a flip- Referring to figure 146, note that an input pulse
flop circuit is a circuit in which either of two active in input A forward biases transistor Q1 and drives it
devices may remain conducting, with the other non- into conduction. The output of Q1 becomes zero, which
conducting, until the application of an external pulse. places a low-level signal on output 1. At the same time,
A flip-flop circuit has considerable versatility. Using the low-level signal from Q1 is connected to the base
dual transistors (Q1 and Q2 in fig. 146) that alternate of Q2 through resistor R1. This low-level signal reverse
in the on-off state, the flip-flop consists of a trigger biases Q2, causing it to cut off. The collector voltage
input, data input, and two complementary outputs. of Q2 rises, placing a high-level signal on output 2.
The switching action of the flip-flop circuit The flip-flop remains in this stable state with Q1
lends itself well to bistable operation, which means on and Q2 off until input B is triggered with a pulse.
that the circuit is capable of assuming either of two The circuit then reverses its condition and goes into
stable states. When a flip-flop is triggered, one of its other stable state. Q2 goes into conduction, which
the two transistors starts conducting, and the other places a low-level signal on output 2. Q1 is cut off,
remains off. With flip-flops, no in-between condition which places a high-level signal on output 1. Capaci-
exists except for a very short time when the circuit is tors C1 and C2 serve to speed up the switching action
switching. To cause a flip-flop to change states, the and are sometimes called speedup capacitors.
base of the off transistor is triggered with a pulse
that forward biases it and drives it into conduction.
Flip-Flop Logic
When using npn transistors (fig. 146), a positive The flip-flop is a logic circuit with two possible out-
trigger pulse is used to forward bias the off transistor, puts and from one to three inputs. Each output has
causing it to go into conduction. The transistor that two conditions: either a high-level signal represented
was conducting is almost instantly cut off because of with a logic 1 and a low-level signal represented with
the nature of the bistable circuit. A forward-biasing a logic 0 when using positive logic. When an input

C2 C3
R1 R7

C5
INPUT A

R3 R6

OUTPUT 1 OUTPUT 2
Q1 Q2

R2 C1 R4 R5 C4 R8

INPUT B

Figure 146 An npn transistor flip-flop circuit

142 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

trigger signal is received, the logic 1 output becomes Q1 switches to logic 1. If a positive pulse is now applied
0 and the logic 0 output becomes 1. to the trigger input, it is directed to both bases of Q1 and
In the flip-flop circuit shown in figure 147, Q2 because both diodes CR1 and CR2 are forward biased
output 1 is sometimes referred to as the set output, and both conduct the signal to the bases.
output 2 as the reset output, and the trigger input as No matter what conditions Q1 and Q2 are in, a
the complement input. The set input is used to set trigger pulse will reverse their state. In other words,
output 1 at logic 1 and the reset input serves to reset if Q1 is conducting and Q2 is not conducting, a trigger
output 2 at logic 0. A pulse on the trigger input causes pulse drives Q1 out of conduction and Q2 into conduc-
the flip-flop to change its condition to the logic state tion. The next trigger pulse drives Q2 out of conduction
opposite from its current state. A set pulse causes and Q1 into conduction. The trigger input is sometimes
the flip-flop to change states only if output 1 is not called the toggle input because of its switching action.
already at logic 1; a reset pulse causes the states to be It is also called the complementary input.
reversed only if output 2 is not at logic 0. Table 27 is a truth table for the operation of the
In figure 147, a positive set pulse is directed flip-flop when pulses are placed on each of the three
only to the base of Q1 because steering diode CR1 inputs, set (S), trigger (T), and reset (R). A reset pulse
would be reversed biased and would not conduct. resets output 2 at logic 1, provided output 2 is at logic
This positive charge drives Q1 into conduction and 0 when the pulse is applied. If output 2 is already at
its output is logic 0. If Q1 is already in conduction, logic 1, then the condition of the flip-flop remains
the positive pulse causes no change. unchanged. The same is true of the set pulse. If input
A positive pulse on the reset input is directed 1 is at logic 0, a set pulse causes input 1 to change to a
only to Q2 because diode CR2 is reversed biased and logic 1. If not, then a set pulse does not affect the flip-
does not conduct. The positive pulse on Q2 drives it into flop condition. A pulse on the trigger input, however,
conduction, giving a logic 0 output, and the output of causes the flip-flop to change states no matter what

OUTPUT 1

+10V OUTPUT 2

INPUTS OUTPUTS
SET TIME* S T R 1 2
T1 0 0 1 1 0
RESET 1
T2 0 0 0 0 1
TRIGGER
T1 0 0 1 0 1
T2 0 0 0 0 1 RESET 2

RESET Q1 Q2 T1 1 0 0 0 1
T2 0 0 0 1 0 SET 1

T1 1 0 0 1 0
SET 2
T2 0 0 0 1 0

T1 0 1 0 1 0
TRIGGER 1
T2 0 0 0 0 1

T1 0 1 0 0 1
TRIGGER 2
T2 0 0 0 1 0
CR 1 *T1 IS THE TIME WHEN THE INPUT
PULSE IS APPLIED. T2 IS A FEW TENTHS
CR 2 OF A MICROSECOND LATER WHEN THE
INPUT PULSE HAS BEEN REMOVED AND
THE FLIP-FLOP HAS OPERATED.

Figure 147 Flip-flop with 3-trigger inputs

Digital Logic 143

TABLE 27
Flip-Flop Truth Table

Inputs Outputs

Time S T R 1 2

T1 0 0 1 1 0
T2 0 0 0 0 1 Reset 1

T1 0 0 1 0 1
T2 0 0 1 0 1 Reset 2

T1 1 0 0 0 1
T2 0 0 0 1 0 Set 1

T1 0 1 0 1 0
T2 0 0 0 1 0 Set 2

T1 0 1 0 1 0
T2 0 0 0 0 1 Trigger 1

T1 0 1 0 0 1
T2 0 0 0 1 0 Trigger 2

the conditions of the two outputs are. T1 is the time

when the input pulse is applied. T2 is a few tenths of INPUT
500 Hz 250 Hz
1,000 Hz
a microsecond later when the input pulse has been FF1 FF2
removed and the flip-flop has operated.
A

Flip-Flop as Frequency Divider

1,000 Hz
Since it takes two trigger pulses to change the output
of Q1 from a 1 to 0 and back to 1, a division of 2 takes 500 Hz
place with frequency. The output signal frequency
of Q1 is only half that of the frequency of the input 250 Hz

frequency. Therefore, by connecting two flip-flops AND GATE

PULSE
in series as a two-stage counter, the flip-flops act as OUTPUT
frequency dividers. B
Figure 148 shows this action for an input
frequency of 1,000 Hz to the trigger input of FF1 on FF1 FF2
the left side of the diagram. The input signal is ap-
plied to both the set and reset inputs, causing simple
complementary switching action and producing AND
one-half of the frequency at the output of FF1 of 500 OUTPUT
Hz. The 500 Hz is in turn applied to the set-reset
input of FF2 to produce 250 Hz at its output. C
Further division of frequency can be achieved
by cascading other flip-flops in series. Also, another Figure 148 Frequency dividing flip-flops
technique is to use an AND circuit with three inputs
144 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

to give a pulse at the leading edge of every fifth This action is similar to the way an auxiliary
pulse as shown at the bottom of figure 148. switch on a magnetic contactor keeps the contactor
closed even after the start push button has been re-
Supplementary Circuits leased. Once a positive signal is received at one of the
Other circuits can be developed using flip-flop input terminals of the latch circuit, a signal appears at
principles as the basic building block. Such the corresponding output terminal and remains there
circuits include latching circuits, timing pulse even though the input pulse is no longer present. At
generators, differentiating circuits, and binary this point, the latch circuit is in one of its stable states,
counters. which latches, or traps, the information of the inputs
A or B until it is removed.
Latching Circuits To get an output signal from the other terminal,
A special type of bistable multivibrator (flip-flop the other input terminal must receive a pulse. The
circuit) is a latch circuit (fig. 149). A latch circuit is output terminals then reverse their conditions: the
the equivalent of a pair of OR and NOT circuits terminal that was on becomes off and the terminal
connected in series. The output of the NOT circuits that was off becomes on.
is cross-connected back into the OR circuits for the When a trigger pulse is received at input A of
purpose of latching in the OR circuit once a signal figure 149, a high signal is placed on the base of Q1.
has been applied to the OR circuit input. Q1 is a NOT gate and it inverts the input to produce a

OUTPUT B

INPUT A Q1

A
NOT
OR
–

NOT
B OR OUTPUT A

INPUT B Q2

Figure 149 A latch circuit and logic diagram

Digital Logic 145

low signal at output B. The zero signal from Q1 is also per, or limiter, is a circuit that prevents the amplitude
fed back to the base of Q2. Because the latch circuit of a waveform from exceeding a specified level while
is triggered with short pulses placed alternately on preserving the shape of the waveform. Thus, to clip the
A and B inputs, a low signal exists on input B at this sine wave means to keep it from exceeding a specified
instant. The low signal on input B results in Q2 not level by squaring it off.) A more economical method
conducting and a high output appears at output A. of transforming a sine wave into a square wave is to
The high-level output from Q2 is also fed back to the use a Schmitt trigger circuit (fig. 150). A Schmitt trigger
input of Q1 to latch Q1 in conduction after the trig- circuit is a bistable pulse generator in which an output
ger pulse on input A has expired. A high signal now pulse of constant amplitude exists only as long as the
exists on output A and a low signal on output B. Q1 input voltage exceeds a certain value.
is latched in conduction and Q2 is off. The Schmitt trigger belongs to the flip-flop, or
When a trigger pulse is received at input B, a bistable multivibrator, family of circuits. It is a regen-
high input to Q2 causes it to conduct and develop a erative circuit because of the common emitter resistor,
low signal at its output. This action removes the feed- R, and it changes states very abruptly when the input
back latch from Q1. Q1 then develops a high output, signal crosses specific DC threshold levels. The input
which appears at output B, and is also sent to the waveforms in figure 150 start at the 0-volt reference
base of Q2, which latches it into conduction. At this line. The output, however, is at a +10-volt level. When
point, a high signal is at output B and a low signal is the input signal begins to go negative and reaches a
at output A. Q2 is conducting and Q1 is off. The circuit critical point on the downward slope, Q1 snaps out
remains in this state until input A is triggered again. of conduction and Q2 is forced into full conduction.
One of the principal uses for the latch circuit When the negative half of the input signal returns to
is to turn a transmitter or a receiver on and off with zero and begins to go up the positive slope, a critical
precise timing. It can also be used to turn a transmitter point is reached again, and Q1 switches into full con-
on and a transmitter off at the same time. duction. Q2 is turned off. The output waveform at the
collector output of Q2 is a square wave. Circuits of this
Timing Pulse Generators type are commercially available as an integrated circuit
The operation of supervisory control systems and chip, complete with inputs and outputs.
computer systems always involves time. A stable
master oscillator is used to generate timing pulses. Differentiating Circuits
(Recall that an oscillator produces high frequen- A differentiating circuit takes its name from the
cies without the need for rotational forces. Also, mathematical operation of differentiation. (Differ-
oscillator voltages produce output current that entiation involves a branch of mathematics called
periodically reverses, or oscillates. A master os- calculus, which is beyond the scope of this manual.)
cillator is an oscillator that establishes the carrier In any case, a differentiating circuit responds to the
frequency of an amplifier or transmitter’s output.) rate of change with respect to time of the applied
In supervisory control equipment, the master os- voltage. A differentiating circuit is a simple resis-
cillator is usually a carefully designed LC type or tance-capacitance (RC) circuit, which is an assembly
crystal-controlled type. The frequency of the oscil- of components that consist of a resistor and capaci-
lator is chosen so that the desired bit frequency to tor as shown in the middle drawing of figure 151.
be transmitted is obtained after a certain number of An RC circuit has a short time constant because
stages of frequency division. In some cases, a means the value of the capacitor is small and the capacitor
of synchronizing the master oscillator to incoming is able to charge to full applied voltage very quickly.
signals is provided. Because the output of the LC- As the square wave input voltage is applied to the
type oscillator is sinusoidal in nature and because circuit’s input, the output pulses are created. The
square or rectangular waveforms should be used output voltage is taken from across the resistor and
in the system, a means of converting the sine wave pulses of voltage are created from the charging and
into square waves is needed. discharging currents of the capacitor.
One way to convert the sine wave into square Output pulses occur at the leading edge and
waves is by clipping the sine wave several times. (A clip- trailing edge of the square wave input. They occur
146 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

A +10 V

Q2
Q1 0.4 V OUTPUT
INPUT
+1.4 V

+10 V

TRIGGERING POINTS
B

INPUT 0

+10 V

OUTPUT 0

Figure 150 Schmidt trigger circuit and waveform

because the rate of change with respect to time is

SQUARE maximum at these two points. The rate of change
WAVE INPUT during the horizontal part of the square wave is zero,
resulting in no output. Figure 152 shows that either
the leading edge pulse or the trailing edge pulse can
be selected for use by means of steering diodes.
INPUT

LOGIC COUNTER CIRCUITS

+
Counting pulses and adding binary numbers,
PULSE OUTPUT and converting to other numbering systems can
– be accomplished with variations on flip-flop
circuits.
Figure 151 Differentiating circuit and waveform
Digital Logic 147

the correct polarity of the pulse triggers FF2, causing

INPUT PULSES it to go to its 1 state. The binary count is now 0010
or decimal 2.
OUTPUT The third pulse causes FF1 to go to its 1 state
PULSES
but the output pulse from FF 1 again does not trig-
ger FF2 because of its polarity. The binary count is
now 0011 or decimal 3. The fourth pulse triggers
FF1 and FF2 back to their 0 states and also triggers
LEADING EDGE PULSES
FF4 to its 1 state, making the binary count 0100, or
TRAILING EDGE PULSES decimal 4. Succeeding pulses trigger the counter
until the highest number (1111, or decimal 15) is
reached. The sixteenth pulse returns the counter
to 0000.
Figure 152 Diode pulse selection technique Any number of flip-flops can be connected to
increase the counting capability to any desired figure.
Binary Counters Counters having thirty-two flip-flops are common
and are commercially available on integrated circuit
Flip-flops can be arranged so that they can count a
chips.
sequence of pulses. Figure 153 shows four flip-flops
connected to form a binary counter capable of count-
Decade Counters
ing to 1111, the decimal equivalent of which is 15. A
pulse applied to the reset line returns all flip-flops Occasionally, a need exists for a counter that can be
to zero at their set outputs. The set output of each reset on the tenth pulse. Such a counter operates on
flip-flop feeds the trigger input of the succeeding binary principles but produces an equivalent deci-
flip-flop. The device makes the binary count by not- mal output. Data processing equipment commonly
ing the state of each set output. When the count pulse use this method. A binary system can be converted
goes to its 0 state from a 1 state, a count is made by to a decade counter by several easy and effective
that particular flip-flop. Flip-flop 1 (FF1) is the least methods.
significant digit, FF2 is the next significant digit, fol- One method of causing the counter to reset on
lowed by FF4 and then FF8 as the most significant the tenth pulse involves adding OR and AND gates
digit in the binary number. to the basic flip-flop counter in figure 154. The output
If the set outputs are all at the 0 state and a of the AND gate is applied to reset inputs for FF2 and
pulse is applied at T of FF1, FF1 goes to its 1 state. The FF4. The OR gate gets its two inputs from the reset
pulse does not trigger FF2, however, because it has outputs of FF2 and FF4, and its output is applied to
the wrong polarity. The binary count at this time is one of the AND gate inputs. The other input for the
0001. The second pulse returns FF1 to its 0 state, and AND gate is the reset output of FF8.

S S S S

T FF1 FF2 FF4 FF8

C C C
R R R R

RESET

INPUT

Figure 153 Binary counter using flip-flops and gates

148 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

A A +B (A + B)(A – B )
OR
AND SUM
B OUTPUT

INV
A – B

CARRY
AND OUTPUT
A – B

A B SUM CARRY

0 0 0 0

1 0 1 0

0 1 1 0

1 1 0 1

Figure 154 Logic gates forming a half adder

Remember that an OR gate produces a logic 1 if Binary Adders

either or both of its inputs are pulsed; but, the AND Full adders and half adders are logic devices that can
gate must have both inputs pulsed to produce a 1 at accurately add binary numbers. Remember that
its output. When the counter has reached a decimal 9, when adding binary numbers, 1 added to 1 results in
the binary count is 1001. The tenth pulse restores FF1 a sum of 0 for that column with a 1 to carry to the next
to its 0 state and pulses FF2 to its 1 state. Without the higher column. A term for this operation is to carry
presence of the AND and OR gates, the action stops out. A half adder provides this carry-out function;
because FF4 does not respond. however, it cannot accept a carry-in function from a
The tenth pulse causes FF2 to apply a 1 to input lower column. A full adder can accept a carry-in 1 and
B of the OR gate. This input of 1 triggers the OR gate can produce a carry-out 1. (A carry-in is the transfer
to produce a 1 at its output. Input B of the AND gate of the number carried out. In decimal numbers, for
already has a 1, so now the output of the OR gate example, when the addition of a column of numbers
feeds a 1 to input A. The AND gate sends a reset im- in a row exceeds 9, such as 13, 1 is written down and
pulse to FF2 and FF4. This reset pulse does not directly 3 is carried out to the next higher column of numbers.
affect FF4 because it is already at its 0 state. However, The transfer of the 3 is carried in to the next column.)
the resetting of FF2 to 0 momentarily triggers FF4 to The logic circuitry for a half adder is composed of
its 1 state. Almost instantaneously, the OR gate is able an OR gate, an AND gate, and an inhibited AND gate
to send another 1 to input A of the AND gate, while (fig. 154). An inverter associated with the second AND
input B of the AND gate is still being pulsed by FF8. gate causes the gate to be called an inhibited AND gate.
A reset pulse is once again sent to FF2 and FF4 by the Figure 155 shows a full adder and a truth table
AND gate. This time, FF2 is unaffected because it is for it. The full adder is composed of two half adders
in its 0 state; but, FF4 loses its momentary 1 state and plus an OR gate. A full adder can accept a carry-in
returns to 0 as does FF8. The count now reads 0000. bit and for producing a carry-out bit.
Another decade counter can be added to the Figure 156 shows a half adder and three full ad-
unit in figure 154. The output from FF8 can be used to ders arranged to add binary numbers. Two numbers
trigger this second decade counter with every tenth are added in this figure: the decimal numbers 12 and
pulse. By adding additional counters in this manner, 14, the binary equivalent of which are 1100 and 1110.
a system is achieved that can be quickly interpreted The resulting addition produces the binary number
in terms of its decimal numbers. 11010, the decimal equivalent of which is 26.
 CARRY IN

OR AND SUM

INV

AND

OR
CARRY
A OUT
OR
B AND

INV

AND

TRUTH TABLE
A B C IN SUM C OUT
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

Figure 155 A full adder gate arrangement

INPUTS A 1 1 0 0 –1100

B 1 1 1 0 –1100

FULL FULL FULL HALF

ADDER ADDER ADDER ADDER

16 8 4 2 1

OUTPUT 1 1 1 1 0 – 11010 (26)

Figure 156 An adder used to add 4-digit binary numbers

150 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

ENCODERS AND DECODERS The diodes steer the pulse signals to the proper flip-
To convert conventional decimal-number informa- flops (FFs) and prevent them from reaching the input
tion to binary form for processing and binary num- of the wrong FF. This arrangement is a matrix, which
bers to decimal numbers, encoders and decoders are is a mathematical term for a rectangular arrangement
required. An encoder converts decimal numbers to of elements or numbers formed by columns and rows.
binary numbers; a decoder converts binary numbers Punching the key on the calculator or computer
to decimal numbers. for the number 9 produces a pulse, which goes to the
Figure 157 is a schematic of an encoder. The inputs for FF1 and FF8. These two flip-flops produce
decimal digits 0 through 9 on the right side of the the binary number 1001 or decimal number 9. The
figure at the end of the horizontal lines can be thought encoder’s FFs have the appropriate inputs pulsed for
of as punch keys. The keys operate switches that send each decimal digit.
pulses along the appropriate horizontal lines. Diodes A bank of four FFs can handle only one digit in
connect some of the vertical lines to horizontal lines. one column. For the next decimal digit that appears
in the next higher column, another bank of four FFs

DECIMAL
9

IN OUT IN OUT IN OUT IN OUT

SET SET SET SET SET SET SET SET

FF8 FF4 FF2 FF1

C C C C

RESET
OR
CLEAR

BINARY BINARY BINARY BINARY

8 4 2 1

Figure 157 Diagram of an encoder

Digital Logic 151

must be used. Banks of four FFs can be added to nary numbers to decimal numbers. Figure 158 shows
achieve the required number of decimal columns. For a decoder. It receives its input from both the regular
example, a decimal number of twelve digits requires and complementary outputs of a group of four FFs.
an encoder with 48 FFs and 45 steering diodes. Such In figure 158, bars over the numbers indicate the
encoders can be produced at reasonable cost using complementary outputs.
integrated circuits. The decoder circuit consists mainly of four in-
As previously mentioned, decoders perform put AND gates. One gate is required for each decimal
the opposite function of encoders; they convert bi- digit of 0 through 9; so, 10 AND gates are needed.

8 4 2 1
FF8 FF4 FF2 FF1
8 4 2 1

8 4 2 1
1
2
4
8

DECIMAL
AND 9

Figure 158 A decoder for convening binary numbers to decimal digits

152 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

The outputs of the AND gates provide the decimal Electronic Memory
signal. The logic of the AND gate requires that all Erasable programmable read-only memories (EPROMs)
inputs must be at 1 for a 1 output. If the FF bank is are integrated circuits with inputs in which the
storing a binary 9, or 1001, the regular outputs for manufacturer programs the circuit with permanent
FF1 and FF8 and the complementary outputs for FF2 information. Once programmed, these devices are
and FF4 are 1s. not reusable for other data storage and can only be
With this information in mind, the circuit can accessed for their information. In other words, they
be traced to show that a 1 exists at each of the four are read-only memory (ROM) devices.
inputs to the AND gate for decimal digit 9. Trac- Electronic memory that allows a user to pro-
ing the circuit for other possibilities shows that the gram it, or write to it, and then access (read from)
output for the 0 digit AND gate is a 1 only when all it, erase it, and reprogram it is random-access memory
regular outputs of the FFs are 0, making all comple- (RAM). Memory devices that can be programmed
mentary outputs 1. As with the encoder, an additional and erased with electrical pulses are further called
encoder is needed for each column of decimal digits, electrically erasable programmable read-only memory
but integrated circuits make these complex devices (EEPROM).
easy to produce. Permanent, or nonvolatile, memory that contin-
ues to hold its memory when power to it is turned off
STORAGE OF BINARY INFORMATION includes switches, magnetic and photo disks, tapes,
The storage, or memorizing, of logic 1s and 0s for the and memory chips. In some cases, a small backup
purpose of retaining instructions, data, or other needs battery can make volatile memory nonvolatile by
in a digital system can be achieved in several ways. maintaining power to it when power is turned off.
The flip-flop can be considered to be a storage device Users must replace the battery periodically—perhaps
since it can retain a 1 or 0 indefinitely unless power every 1 to 5 years. Otherwise, memory will be lost
is lost to the circuit. In the past, magnetic devices, when the power goes off and the battery is dead.
such as magnetic core memories, stored data. These
memory systems relied on the magnetic saturation of REVIEW QUESTIONS
a core. Data could be stored for an unlimited amount
1. Convert the decimal numbers 15 and 33 to
of time as long as power was applied. Unfortunately, binary numbers and add them together.
if power was removed from the core, loss of memory
2. What is the logic output of a NOT gate if the
occurred. Because of this characteristic, magnetic
logic input is a 0?
core memories were called destructive or volatile
memory devices. 3. What is the logic output of a three-input
AND gate if the logic inputs are 1, 1, 0?
Other types of magnetic memory devices in-
clude magnetic-drum and magnetic-tape machines. 4. Describe an application of a Schmitt trigger
These devices store data permanently since removal circuit.
of electrical power does not change the stored bits in
their memory. However, modern computing systems
use magnetic disks and electronic devices.
 12
Electrical Test Instruments

A large part of the world’s population is served by a

group of persons who perform special services related
to the repair and maintenance of machines. These CHARGED
ROD
persons are mechanics, electricians, and technicians
RUBBER
who use special instruments to locate points of trouble. STOPPER
And, once they determine the problem, they often use METAL
special tools to repair malfunctioning equipment and CYLINDER
machines. For example, auto mechanics use special METAL
ROD
tools such as pressure, vacuum, temperature, and
feeler gauges to measure and adjust engines. Mechan-
ics also use a variety of electronic instruments when
dealing with automobiles. Special scopes allow them GOLD LEAF

to study the performance of ignition systems, dwell

meters allow them to set timing (on older cars), and
rpm meters (tachometers) allow them to set engine
idle speeds. They also use voltmeters, ammeters, and
Figure 159 Simple electroscope
ohmmeters to locate trouble in electrical systems and
to help them make engine adjustments.
However, electronics technicians are likely to In figure 159, a negatively-charged rod is held
use the largest array of test and measuring instru- near the metal ball. Electrons are repelled to the lower
ments. They are engaged in the maintenance and end of the metal rod and onto the gold leaf. Electrons
repair of industrial instrumentation systems that in the rod and leaf repel one another, pushing the leaf
employ electronic controls and they must know about away from the rod. As scientists such as Volta, Galvani,
several testing, measuring, and calibrating devices. and Coulomb, all of whom worked in the early 1800s,
An instrumentation technician or mechanic not recognized, the leaf’s movement confirms the presence
only uses ordinary pressure gauges and mechanical of electricity. Later, other scientists recognized the
measuring devices, but also many test instruments close relationship between electricity and magnetism
that measure and observe the various aspects of and began using electric current produced by chemi-
electricity. These aspects include voltage, current, cal and mechanical means. From these beginnings,
resistance, frequency, and wave shape. electrical researchers rapidly developed measuring
and testing devices using magnetic fields.
Most modern testing and measuring instruments
D’ARSONVAL MOVEMENTS
use a meter. Several kinds of meters are available, but
An electricity detection device that has been in exis-
most have a scale of values printed on a background
tence for over 200 years is the electroscope (fig. 159).
that makes them easy to read. A pointer, when ener-
An electroscope consists of a metal rod with a ball
gized by the meter’s leads being attached to the circuit
on the end of it, a strip of gold leaf, a metal cylinder,
or component to be tested, moves to some point on the
and a rubber stopper. When the rod and leaf take
scale. A user then reads the value opposite the pointer’s
on the same electric charge—either positive or nega-
tip. Meters display values of voltage, current, resistance,
tive—the like charges drive the free end of the thin
and other variables, such as rpm and dwell angle.
and limber leaf away from the rod, just as the same
Most meters use a mechanism called a d’Arsonval
poles of a magnet repel each other.
movement. A meter with a d’Arsonval movement
153
154 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

forms the basis of most electrical measuring in- Generally, the coil in a d’Arsonval meter
struments. These instruments include voltmeters, movement has fairly low resistance—anywhere
ammeters, and ohmmeters, which are electrical from a few to hundreds of ohms. The typical move-
measuring instruments. Other meters include dwell ment without shunt or series resistances measures
angle meters, rpm meters, temperature indicators, current in the milliampere or microampere range.
pH meters, and light meters. Through the use of shunt and series resistances, the
A d’Arsonval movement (fig. 160) consists of two movement can be adapted to measure virtually all
major components: (1) a powerful permanent magnet practical ranges of current and voltage. While the
and (2) a moving coil assembly that drives a pointer. d’Arsonval movement is not the only meter move-
The pointer sweeps across a dial that can be marked ment—more modern ones are available—it will
with numerical values expressing current, voltage, likely be used for years to come.
resistance, or whatever is appropriate to the application
of the meter. The movement is named after one of its Analog Voltmeters
inventors, Jacque-Arsène d’Arsonval (pronounced dar- A meter using a d’Arsonval movement can easily
son-val), a French physiologist who, in the mid-1800s, be adapted to measure any reasonable range of
studied electrical effects on living organisms. voltage by adding series resistances to the meter
The permanent magnet assembly not only includes circuit. As previously noted, current flowing in
the magnet, but also pole pieces shaped to surround the the meter movement’s coil causes it to turn the
moving coil. A cylindrical core of magnetic material fits pointer. To bring about current flow, it is necessary
to apply voltage to the coil. Typically, the voltage
appearing across the coil is quite small. Because
POINTER JEWEL PIVOT BEARING the coil’s resistance is low, the field strength of the
COUNTER-TORQUE permanent magnet is sizable. Further, the friction
SPRING of the system is negligible, so only a small amount
of voltage produces enough current and torque to
overcome the spring tension.
For any d’Arsonval movement, a specific value
of current causes full-scale deflection of the pointer.
Many modern meter movements are capable of full-
MAGNET scale deflection with a current flow of 25 to 100 micro-
MOVING COIL amperes. Such movements work well for voltmeters
POLE PIECES
because their sensitivity avoids excessive loading of
the circuit being tested. A load on a high-resistance
Figure 160 Example of a d’Arsonval meter move- circuit causes a voltage drop proportional to the cur-
ment rent being drawn from the circuit. The voltage drop
not only results in a false voltage reading, but also can
interfere with the operation of the circuit being tested.
within the coil. Besides the pointer, the moving coil as-
Meters augmented with solid-state amplifier
sembly contains spiral hairsprings and jeweled bearings
circuits achieve sensitivity ranges that extend to
at either end. The springs create torque to resist motion
very high values—typically 10- or 11-megohm input
of the coil and conduct current to the coil.
resistance, regardless of scale. These meters are good
With direct current flowing through the coil
choices for measuring sensitive circuits that are easily
in the proper direction, the magnetic field of the
upset by extraneous loading.
permanent magnet and the magnetic field set up by
The circuit for a simple single-scale voltmeter
the current-carrying coil attempt to align. The hair-
consists of a meter movement and a series resistance
springs resist the torque caused by the interaction of
(fig.161). The meter can be made more versatile by
the two magnetic fields. The respective torques of the
adding a combination of several resistances and a
spring and magnetic fields are balanced within the
range switch (fig. 162). The range switch introduces
range of the instrument, and the pointer indicates a
series resistances into the circuit, beginning with a
numerical quantity on the scale.
Electrical Test Instruments 155

100, and 300 volts. It also has a polarity reversing

switch so the polarity of the test leads can be easily
METER
changed (see fig. 162).
VOLTS

Direct-Current Analog Ammeters

SERIES RESISTOR
A meter movement used only in an ammeter does
not need high sensitivity. Typically, only about 1 mil-
TEST LEADS liampere of current through the coil circuit is needed
to deflect the pointer to the highest value on the
meter’s scale. Resistance of the coil circuit is about 50
ohms. Shunting the coil circuit with a 50-ohm resistor
enables the meter to indicate 2 milliamperes for full
Figure 161 A simple single-scale voltmeter scale, because the current divides equally between
the meter and shunt (fig. 163).

minimum value for the lowest scale and proportion-

ately higher values for each succeeding scale. The 50 Ω METER MOVEMENT
1 mAFOR FULL-SCALE
number of scales on a voltmeter and their arrange- DEFLECTION
ment is dictated by the service for which the meter
is intended. The schematic of the voltmeter in figure
mA
162 also has a polarity reversing switch, which is
used when testing motor circuits. It allows the correct
polarity to be selected to match that of the motor.
A voltmeter used for automotive electrical
50 Ω SHUNT TEST LEADS
service usually has two or three scales, including
3- and 16-volt scales, because these ranges are the
most useful for testing automobile circuits. On the
other hand, a voltmeter intended for testing solid-
state electronics usually has scales for 0.3, 1, 3, 10,
Figure 163 Analog current meter circuit

METER

VOLTS
MULTIPLIER RESISTANCES

RANGE SWITCH TEST LEADS

POLARITY REVERSING
SWITCH

Figure 162 An analog voltmeter with selector switch for choosing any of five voltage ranges
156 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

AMPS

SHUNT
RESISTORS TEST LEADS

RANGE SWITCH

Figure 164 An ammeter arrangement with five ranges

Using a shunt resistance of 0.005 ohm enables type of ohmmeter uses a voltmeter and a battery of
the meter to indicate 10 amperes full scale or, to be sufficient voltage to provide full-scale deflection
more exact, 10.001 amperes. The current flow through when the meter leads are shorted together (fig. 165).
the meter and shunt is inversely proportional to their The ohms-adjust potentiometer is set to indicate full
resistance values. The following equations show this scale with the meter leads shorted. The scale can
relationship. be calibrated to read in ohms or it can be calibrated
Is R to allow a curve of volts versus ohms to be drawn
= m (Eq. 50) after numerous resistors of known value have been
Im Rs
where measured by placing them across the meter leads.
Is = shunt current, amperes The values on the calibrated scale are very
Im = meter current, amperes close together at the left end of the indicator’s travel
Rm = meter resistance, ohms and relatively far apart at the right end of the scale.
Rs = shunt resistance, ohms. Such a scale means that a small change in resistance
value is determined easily at the right end, but even
IxRs = ImRm (Eq. 51) sizable changes are difficult to detect at the left end.
where The switch (labeled Sw in fig. 165) is turned off when
Is = shunt current, amperes the meter is not being used to prevent the battery
Im = meter current, amperes from draining. The switch is part of the potentiom-
Rm = meter resistance, ohms eter assembly.
Rs = shunt resistance, ohms. Another more common type of ohmmeter mea-
In the circuit shown in figure 163, 2 milliamperes sures resistance by placing the unknown resistance
must flow in the test leads to obtain full-scale in parallel with one or more multiplier resistors (fig.
deflection of the 1-milliampere meter movement. 166). This arrangement is found in many multimeters,
Panel or switchboard ammeters generally have which is a meter capable of measuring volts, ohms,
a single scale, although exceptions exist. Portable am- and milliamperes. Several multiplier resistors are
meters typically have several scales, each of which connected in series and placed across a sensitive me-
can be selected with a range switch (fig. 164). ter movement. One resistor is a variable resistor that
serves as a zero-adjust control. Before measurements
Analog Ohmmeters are made, the user shorts the meter leads together and
moves the zero adjust until the pointer reads zero.
A sensitive direct-current meter can be used to mea-
The user then places the test leads across the leads or
sure resistance of a circuit or component. One simple
Electrical Test Instruments 157

OHMS

INTERNAL BATTERY AND SWITCH (S W )

TEST LEADS

OHMS-ADJUST POTENTIOMETER

Figure 165 A simple form of ohmmeter

terminals of the component being tested, and reads Measuring Alternating Current and Voltage
the resistance value on the scale. It is advisable for A voltmeter, direct-current ammeter, and ohmmeter
the user to select a range that causes the pointer to cannot measure alternating current and voltage.
settle near mid-scale when the unknown resistance Connect a meter of this type to a source of 60-Hz
is measured. The operator turns switch Sw to its on alternating current and the only result is a rapidly
position when the range selector is moved to any one vibrating pointer near the zero point. However, in-
of the ohmmeter positions, R1, R2, R3, or R4. stalling solid-state rectifiers into a meter circuit en-
ables its d’Arsonval movement to respond accurately

RANGE SWITCH
AND RESISTORS

OHMS R2 R3

ZERO
ADJUST

R4
R1

TEST LEADS
SW

SWITCH AND BATTERY

Figure 166 A multi-range ohmmeter

158 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

MULTIPLIER RECTIFIERS
V3
VOLTS
V2
V4

V1
V5

SILICON
RECTIFIERS

TEST LEADS

Figure 167 AC voltmeter with rectifiers and range switch

to alternating current and voltage. A meter circuit

suitable for measuring AC voltage uses two silicon
diodes to rectify the current before it is applied to the
meter coil (fig. 167). Em
Figure 168 shows a sine wave produced by
E avg = 0.32E m
60-Hz current that has passed through full-wave
0
rectification. A typical meter cannot respond fully
to the rapid pulsations. Proper design and calibra-
tion enable the meter to indicate the effective value
of the voltage at about 0.707 of the peak value for a
Figure 169 Sine wave after half-wave rectification
sine wave current. This factor, 0.707, is also known
as the root-mean-square (RMS) value.
To measure alternating-current flow with a
d’Arsonval meter movement, manufacturers also
install rectifiers; however, the arrangement differs
from that used to measure AC voltage. The setup
Em in figure 170 includes a current transformer. The
0.707Em= Eeff primary in a current transformer is a single turn of
0 heavy conductor material. The secondary winding
consists of 100 or more turns of comparatively fine
wire. A voltage and corresponding current is induced
in the secondary that is proportional to the current
Figure 168 Sine wave after full-wave rectification flowing in the primary. A full-wave rectifier changes
the induced secondary AC voltage to DC. DC then
flows to the meter coil. The range switch provides
Figure 169 shows a sine wave that undergoes
various ranges for the meter.
half-wave rectification. Half-wave rectification causes
A special form of AC voltmeter-ammeter,
a typical DC voltmeter to indicate an average value
called a clamp-on meter, uses the principles of opera-
of the half-wave pulses. The average value is about
tion shown in figure 170. It has a magnetic core in
0.32 of the peak value. Proper design and calibration
the form of hinged jaws that can be clamped around
produces a meter that indicates the effective value of
a current-carrying wire to measure AC voltage or
the AC voltage.
amperage. Such meters offer great convenience,
Electrical Test Instruments 159

CURRENT TRANSFORMER

METER
FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER

RANGE SWITCH

Figure 170 Arrangement for measuring alternating current

particularly when making measurements on power Analog Volt-Ohm-Milliammeters

circuits, since they do not require that circuitry be
The volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) combines the ca-
disturbed for the installation of shunts. This fact also
pabilities of the instruments discussed to this point.
enhances the safety aspects of the meters.
Most VOMs cannot measure alternating current, but
they can measure AC and DC voltage, direct current,
MULTIMETERS and resistance. Figure 171 shows a popular VOM.
Multimeters, as the name suggests, combine the func- It has a number of scales and a selector switch for
tions of several meters into one unit. These meters choosing the appropriate range and scale.
require that the user select the desired parameters When using a VOM, it is important to choose
to be measured with a selector switch and to choose the appropriate scale with the selector switch and to
the proper leads. Improper selection can cause injury properly place the leads in the VOM before apply-
or damage, so always exercise caution when using ing them to the circuit or component being tested
multimeters. (fig. 172). For example, if a user applies voltage to

Figure 172 Testing field-effect transistor (FET)

Figure 171 Analog multimeter circuits with a VOM
160 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

the test leads when the selector switch is set for

measuring resistance, the voltage will likely blow a
fuse in the instrument.

Digital Multimeters
Because digital readout displays and logic devices
using integrated circuits are inexpensive and widely
available, digital multimeters are now the industry’s
standard. The detailed circuitry of a typical digital
meter is enormously complex; but, thanks to the mod-
ern technology of solid-state electronics that permits
the combining of thousands of circuit components
into a single chip, such meters can be manufactured
at relatively low prices.
Lightweight digital readout multimeters that
use either internal batteries or 60-Hz 120 VAC as a
source of power, are widely available. Figure 173 is
a photo of a typical digital readout multimeter. Fig-
ure 174 shows the external parts of the meter. This
instrument can measure AC and DC voltage, ohms,
Figure 173 Digital multimeter
and AC and DC current with remarkable accuracy.

DIGITAL DISPLAY
MANUAL RANGING

MINIMAL/MAXIMUM
RECORDING
DISPLAY HOLD

AC/DC,RESISTANCE,
CAPACITANCE
FREQUENCY
COUNTER/ DUTY CYCLE

DISPLAY BACK
LIGHT
RELATIVE READINGS

FUNCTION
SELECTOR SWITCH
CONTINUITY BEEPER

mA,uA, INPUT COMMON TERMINAL

TERMINAL

AMPS INPUT
TERMINAL
VOLTS,OHMs,
DIODE TERMINAL

Figure 174 Digital multimeter displays

Electrical Test Instruments 161

The display is usually arranged to measure the elec- oscilloscope uses a cathode-ray tube to make visible
trical values to four or five significant figures. In this on a fluorescent screen the instantaneous values and
regard, the digital meter has an advantage over the waveforms of electrical quantities that rapidly vary
conventional analog meter, similar to the way a hand- as a function of time or other quantity. An analog
held calculator has an advantage over a slide rule. oscilloscope enables an operator to measure voltage
The most common digital multimeter is a by observing how much the voltage deflects a beam
3½-digit instrument. It is called a 3½-digit instrument of electrons. A digital oscilloscope selects pixels for
because it can display a maximum reading of 1999. display. The oscilloscope gets its name from the fact
The left digit space can only display 0 or 1, which is that it displays a visible pattern of the voltages that
loosely thought of as being only half the other three exist in an irregular, or oscillating, circuit. It not
digits. (It is not, of course, but it is a short way to indi- only measures the voltage of an AC circuit, but also
cate the instrument’s ability.) Two-and-one-half and displays its wave shape.
4½-digit meters are also available. Their maximum Oscilloscopes became valuable test and
readouts are 199 and 19999, respectively. The decimal measuring instruments in the 1930s. At the time,
may be manually set at any point in the readout—for electronics technology had progressed to the point
example, 1.99, 0.9999, 225.6, or 1.05. Or the meter can where the observation of waveforms was useful in
be set to automatically place the decimal point. making adjustments to special circuits. Moreover,
Digital meters are available that not only auto- technicians discovered that analyzing waveforms
matically set the decimal point, but also automatically was a valuable way to troubleshoot circuits. Although
zero and automatically sense the polarity needed for early oscilloscopes were not simple, they had only
the circuit. While digital meters should be handled limited capability when compared to the versatile
with reasonable care, they are more rugged than instruments of today (fig. 175).
meters with d’Arsonval movements. They are also
less sensitive to overranging but can be ruined just The Cathode-Ray Tube
as any meter if abused or improperly used. The heart of older style oscilloscopes is the cathode-
ray tube (CRT). It is a complex arrangement of parts
inside an evacuated bottle-like glass structure (fig.
OSCILLOSCOPES 176). A filament (not shown in the figure) heats the
A measuring device that operates differently from oxide-coated cathode, which emits a rich supply of
the meters previously discussed is the oscilloscope. An electrons. The electrons are attracted to the first and

Figure 175 Dual-channel oscilloscope

162 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

GRAPHITE
COATING

HORIZONTAL
DEFLECTION
PLATES

CATHODE GRID ANODE 1 VERTICAL

DEFLECTION
ANODE 2 PLATES

SCREEN WITH INTERNAL

FLUORESCENT COATING

Figure 176 Principal parts of a typical cathode ray tube

second anodes that carry relatively high positive to the cathode applied to the grid suppresses the
potentials. A beam of electrons stream from the electron stream. The amount of suppression is in pro-
cathode and go through small apertures in the grid portion to the value of the negative potential. Varying
and past anodes 1 and 2. The electrons have such the amount of suppression controls the brilliance of
high velocity that when they reach anode 2 most of the screen’s illumination.
them continue through the aperture and eventually Anode 1 has a relatively positive potential ap-
strike the fluorescent material that coats the inside plied to it, and anode 2 has an even higher positive
of the screen. potential. The two anodes with their potentials act
It is the nature of the fluorescent material to accelerate the electron beam; in addition, they
to emit light when fast-moving electrons strike it. serve to focus the stream of electrons into a narrow
The color of the emitted light is determined by the beam. Anode 2 is normally supplied with a fixed
composition of the material. The fluorescent mate- potential, while anode 1 has a smaller potential that
rial also has a characteristic quality of persistence, can be varied over a narrow range to adjust focus of
which means a bright dot continues to glow after the beam to its optimum fineness.
the electron beam has ceased to excite that particular After the electron beam emerges from anode
spot. This afterglow is usually of short duration in 2, it passes between two pairs of deflection plates. If
an oscilloscope. these plates are at zero potential, the electron beam
The electrodes affect the electron beam as it is not affected in its path to the fluorescent screen.
passes through them on its way to the viewing screen. It strikes the screen somewhere near the center and
Further, the potential that is applied to the grid and causes a bright spot. The electron beam’s path can be
anodes determines the effect the electrodes have on bent by placing a potential on the deflection plates.
the electron beam. A negative potential with respect If one of the vertical deflecting plates is made posi-
Electrical Test Instruments 163

BEAM

VERTICAL
POSITIONING

BEAM +
(Centered
on screen)

HORIZONTAL
POSITIONING

Figure 177 Positioning controls for an oscilloscope

tive and the other negative, the beam bends toward shown by the arrows with dotted lines, drives the
the positive plate. The amount the beam is bent is beam to the upper left corner of the screen.
proportional to the difference in potential between Cathode-ray tubes are internally coated with a
the two plates. graphite film that serves as a return circuit for elec-
The same effect occurs if similar potentials trons. The graphite film, which is also called aquadag,
are applied to the horizontal deflecting plates. In is not in direct contact with the fluorescent material of
one instance, the beam is deflected in a vertical the screen but gathers electrons through a secondary
direction, and in another instance, it is deflected in emission process. The electrons are returned to the
a horizontal direction. power supply of the oscilloscope. Removal of the elec-
By applying various potential values to the trons from the screen is necessary to avoid an intense
deflecting plates, the electron beam can be moved accumulation of negative charges on the screen. Such
to any point on the fluorescent screen. Thus, oscillo- a charge acts as a retarding force to the electron beam.
scopes have a circuit for centering the electron beam
on the screen and for positioning it to a desired Auxiliary Circuits and Components
point (fig. 177). Such a circuit provides for changing Auxiliary circuits and components are combined
the relative potentials and the polarities of each set with the cathode-ray tube (fig. 178) to make it a
of deflection plates. Adjustment of a positioning useful instrument for studying waveforms, observ-
potentiometer can change the polarity of one plate ing phase relationships, and measuring voltage and
from positive to negative with respect to the other frequency.
plate. Setting the controls near their extremes, as
 EXTERNAL SYNC

HORIZONTAL
INTERNAL
SYNC OSCILLATOR AND
SYNC AMPLIFIER

HORIZONTAL
GAIN
HORIZONTAL
EXTERNAL INPUT HORIZONTAL
DEFLECTION
AMPLIFIER

VERTICAL HORIZONTAL POSITIONING

VERTICAL DEFLECTION
INPUT AMPLIFIER

VERTICAL GAIN
VERTICAL POSITIONING

ANODE 1
ANODE 2

FOCUS
INTENSITY

LOW HIGH
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE

120 VAC

Figure 178 Minimum number of special circuits in an oscilloscope

Electrical Test Instruments 165

A 120-VAC, 60 Hz power source operates constant velocity—that is, the beam neither speeds
most oscilloscopes. Anode 2 of the CRT requires a up nor slows down. This uniform movement enables
voltage in the range of 1,500 to 2,500 volts. Anode 1 the oscilloscope to accurately display the pattern of
requires less voltage. The low-voltage section of the the signal that is applied to the vertical deflection
power supply provides relatively low potentials for system. Most signals are dynamic in nature, and
the remaining circuits. Two front-panel controls on vary in voltage according to a time-related function.
a conventional oscilloscope are associated with the For example, a 60-Hz wave goes through a complete
power supplies: a focus control adjusts the voltage on cycle of voltage changes in ¹⁄₆₀ of a second.
anode 1 to obtain the sharpest image; another control The sawtooth wave is so named because it
adjusts the bias on the grid electrode to control the resembles the teeth of a saw (fig. 179). The wave con-
intensity, or brilliance, of the image. (Manufacturers sists of two straight lines per cycle: one line, which
sometimes combine the oscillo-scope’s on-off power gradually slopes upward, represents rising voltage;
switch with the intensity control.) the other line, which is nearly vertical, represents an
Each set of deflection plates is connected to an abrupt drop to the starting point for a new cycle. The
amplifier. In the simplified diagram shown in figure upward sloping, horizontal line represents voltage
178, one of each pair of plates is at ground potential, that drives the electron beam across the screen of
and the amplifiers are capable of driving the other an oscilloscope. It must be straight (and not curved)
two plates to potentials well above and below (+ to drive the beam at a uniform rate and serve as an
and -) ground potential. The horizontal deflection accurate time base. The slanted portion of the wave
amplifier can be driven from an outside, or external, causes the electron beam to move from left to right;
source or by an internal sawtooth sweep generator. the nearly vertical portion is the retrace part of the
A sawtooth generator is a device that creates, or wave that moves the beam from right to left.
generates, an output voltage that has a waveform in Note in figure 179 that at time t0, the sawtooth
the shape of a sawtooth. Such a generator produces wave begins below an arbitrary zero line, which is in-
sweep voltage for cathode-ray tubes. Sweep voltage is dicated as E0. The zero line (E0) represents a set of volt-
periodically varying voltage applied to the deflection age values that is applied to the horizontal deflection
plates of a cathode-ray tube. plates. These voltage values place the electron beam
at the center of the screen. For voltage values below
Horizontal-Sweep Frequency Oscillators the E0 line, the beam is deflected left of center. For
Conventional oscilloscopes have an internal sawtooth voltages above the E0 line, the beam is right of center.
oscillator associated with the horizontal deflection The wave eventually reaches a maximum
system. (A sawtooth oscillator is an electronic circuit value above the line, noted by Em, then falls abruptly
that converts energy from a direct-current source to a to the value it had at t0, which is designated as E–m.
periodically varying electric output; its waveform has The sudden drop from maximum to minimum oc-
the shape of a sawtooth.) In addition to this internal curs in a very short time, and the beam sweeps to the
system, manufacturers usually provide connections left side of the screen in this brief instant. This brief
for an external device to drive the horizontal system. sweep to the left is called a retrace. Sometimes, this
One purpose of the horizontal oscillator is to provide retrace can confuse the screen’s pattern; so, a blanking
a time base. The beam sweeps across the screen at a pulse is usually employed to shut off the beam dur-

GRADUALLY RISING VOLTAGE

ABRUPT DROP
Em
E0
E -m

t0 TIME

Figure 179 A sawtooth wave of the sort used to drive the horizontal deflection amplifier
166 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

ing retrace. (A blanking pulse is a positive or nega-

tive square-wave variation in electrical power—a
pulse—that switches off a part of the oscilloscope’s
screen for a predetermined length of time.) The blank-
ing pulse is applied to the grid electrode, which cuts
off the electron beam during retrace.
Oscilloscopes generally use a multivibrator
oscillator for horizontal sweep. (A multivibrator os-
cillator has two transistors; resistors and capacitors
couple the output of each transistor to the input of
the other. Such coupling obtains in-phase feedback
voltage.) Multivibrator oscillators have good linearity,
which means that they produce a uniform time base.
(Linearity is the relationship between two quantities Figure 180 Pattern of sine wave on oscilloscope
that occurs when a change in one of the quantities screen
produces a directly proportional change in the other
quantity.) Multivibrator oscillators can produce an
enormous range of sweep frequencies—from a few
Measurements with the Oscilloscope
Hz to 25 MHz or more—which is a range modern os- Oscilloscopes commonly have a round-faced CRT,
cilloscopes need. The range of frequencies is covered although some are fitted with rectangular screens
in five or six steps using a coarse sweep frequency having a 3-to-4 aspect ratio. (The aspect ratio is the
selector switch. A potentiometer provides for fine ratio of the screen’s height to its width. For example,
adjustment of the frequency. if a rectangular screen is 3 in. high, its width is 4 in.
Another example is an automobile ignition analyzer’s
Synchronization Amplifiers and Controls screen, which is 9 by 12 in.) An oscilloscope’s CRT
Assume that the horizontal-sweep oscillator is driv- usually has a plastic overlay, which is lightly col-
ing an oscilloscope’s electron beam at a particular ored and contains vertical and horizontal lines to
frequency. Also assume that the vertical input to the form a grid. Typically, each grid is 1 cm square. A
oscilloscope has a frequency near that of the hori- horizontal line and a vertical line cross at the center
zontal sweep or a multiple of it. The fine-adjust of of the screen. These lines are typically divided into
the sweep frequency brings the two inputs into step. increments of 2 mm (fig. 180). These grid patterns are
However, even the least bit of variation in either the required to make measurements. In figure 180, the
vertical or the horizontal frequency causes the pat- sine wave peaks up at 6 cm and peaks down at 6 cm.
tern to drift right or left on the screen. To lock them Peak heights can be used to determine peak-to-peak
together, a synchronization amplifier and a synchroni- voltage in a circuit being measured.
zation control—usually shortened to sync amplifier Measurements that an oscilloscope can make
and sync control—are used. Locking the vertical and include—
horizontal frequencies creates a steady pattern that • AC and DC voltage,
can be studied under stable conditions. • frequency,
The sync amplifier receives a small portion of • phase shift, and
the vertical input signal and feeds it to the horizontal-
• time of a period.
sweep oscillator as a pulse that triggers the oscillator
in step with the vertical input signal. The sync control Measuring Voltage
varies the amount of pulse strength that reaches the
While older oscilloscopes cannot measure direct-
oscillator, providing just enough pulse to stabilize the
current voltage, most modern units can. To measure
pattern. Conventional oscilloscopes provide for exter-
DC voltage, the oscilloscope must have direct coupling
nal synchronization signals. Such signals are usually
from one stage to the next in its internal circuitry.
associated with other signals that drive the horizontal
Direct coupling is the joining, or coupling, of two
deflection amplifier from an external source.
circuits with a nonfrequency-sensitive device, such
Electrical Test Instruments 167

as a wire, resistor, or battery, so that both direct and

alternating current can flow through the coupling
path. (Besides direct coupling, capacitive coupling and
inductive coupling are also available; however, such
coupling circuits in an oscillator do not allow it to
measure DC current. In capacitive coupling, energy
is transferred from circuit to circuit through a capaci-
tor. In inductive coupling, energy is transferred from
circuit to circuit through the inductance provided by
a transformer.)
To measure voltage, an oscilloscope must first
have a calibrating voltage sent to it. Put another way, it
is necessary to know how much the electron beam will
be deflected in a vertical direction for a given voltage Figure 181 Sine wave of 15 volts value
value. Some oscilloscopes have a terminal from which
a fixed voltage can be obtained (1 volt, for example).
then the sine wave indicates a value of 15 volts, peak
This voltage may be taken from a secondary winding
to peak. This voltage is determined by multiplying
on the low-voltage power transformer, or it may be
the peak amount times the sensitivity setting for the
obtained from a closely regulated DC source within
oscilloscope. Thus, 5 × 3 = 15 volts.
the instrument. The latter method provides a more
In many instances, it is necessary to use an
accurate calibrating voltage, but it is applicable only
attenuating probe between the voltage source and
to oscilloscopes capable of measuring DC volts. In
the vertical input to the oscilloscope. An attenuat-
any case, the known voltage is applied to the vertical
ing probe is a small device (a probe) that is put
deflection input, and the desired amount of deflection
into contact with or inserted into a circuit to make
is adjusted through use of the vertical gain control. The
measurements of the circuit and that reduces (at-
instrument is then ready to measure peak-to-peak AC
tenuates) the strength of the value (such as voltage)
signals or DC voltage, as appropriate.
being measured in the circuit. Such a probe may have
Some oscilloscopes have a selector switch that fea-
a 10-to-1 ratio, and this must be taken into account
tures a calibrating step, or position. Additional switch
when calculating the voltage.
steps provide various multiples of the volts-per-cm
range on the grid. Other oscilloscopes rely on occasional Measuring Frequency
checks that can be performed by applying a known An oscilloscope is not the best instrument with which
voltage value to the vertical input, and then adjusting to measure frequency. Reasonably close approxima-
an internal potentiometer to recalibrate the unit. tions can be obtained by matching the vertical input
Once the oscilloscope is set for voltage measure- signal’s frequency with that of the horizontal-sweep
ments, the unknown voltage is applied to the vertical oscillator. Accurate measurements entail the use of
input and the result interpreted from the amount of calibrated signal generators to produce the horizon-
the electron beam’s vertical deflection. Applied DC tal-sweep frequency. It is then a matter of adjusting
voltage deflects the horizontal line to a level either the horizontal frequency to match the frequency of
above or below the centerline, depending on polarity the vertical input.
of the applied voltage. AC voltage deflects the beam
above and below the centerline. Also, the oscilloscope Measuring Phase Shift
displays the input’s wave shape if the horizontal oscil- It is sometimes desirable to detect and measure the
lator is set properly. The peak-to-peak value of the AC phase shift that occurs in a circuit between its input
voltage is determined by counting the number of grid and output. Phase-shift measurements can be done
squares from top to bottom of the wave. In figure 181, with a conventional oscilloscope, although the use of
the sine wave rises 2.5 cm above and 2.5 cm below the a dual-trace oscilloscope is preferred. (A dual-trace oscil-
reference line, which totals 5 cm from peak to peak. loscope can compare two waveforms on the face of its
If the sensitivity of the oscilloscope is 3 volts per cm, single cathode-ray tube.) If the input signal of a circuit
168 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

is applied to the oscilloscope’s horizontal-sweep sec- circuitry and controls that enable a technician to
tion, and if the output signal of the circuit is applied measure period time with considerable ease.
to the vertical section, the resulting display can show
whether a phase shift is present. A straight diagonal Dual-Trace Oscilloscopes
line indicates no phase shift, while an oval display
With added circuitry and controls, an oscilloscope
indicates a phase shift. For a small amount of shift, the
can simultaneously display two separate traces, or
oval is thin; as more shift occurs, the oval opens up and
waveforms (see fig. 175). A dual-trace oscilloscope
becomes quite pronounced at a 90-degree phase shift.
is required to study the behavior of two signals and
Measuring the Time of a Period their time relation to each other. While the dual
display appears to be simultaneous, in reality the
Using an oscilloscope to measure the time of a period
cathode-ray tube’s circuits are switched rapidly back
is not often required in practical electronics. However,
and forth between the two channels, bringing about
in research and some manufacturing processes, it may
an illusion of two steady patterns.
be necessary. In studying waveforms, for example, it
Separate circuits operate the two channels in a
may be desirable to determine the rise time of a pulse.
dual-trace oscilloscope. The separate controls posi-
Figure 182 shows a sawtooth pulse that occurs when
tion the baseline for each channel and control the
the time of a period is measured. From this pattern,
vertical input gain. Dual-trace oscilloscopes have
the rise time of the sawtooth pulse can be calculated.
advantages over single-trace units for performing
Accuracy in measuring time requires knowing exactly
several functions. For example, the phase shift in a
the frequency of the horizontal sweep. The period in
circuit is easily and clearly observed and measured
seconds is the reciprocal of the frequency in Hz. Thus,
using a dual-trace oscilloscope.
a 60-Hz signal has a period of ¹⁄₆₀ of a second.
In figure 182, the sweep is 1,000 Hz, and the
Oscilloscope Probes
gain of the horizontal amplifier is adjusted to limit
the sweep to a width of 10 cm (5 cm on each side of Earlier, this manual mentioned the use of a 10-to-1
the vertical centerline). In this case, the beam sweeps probe when measuring voltage with an oscilloscope.
across 10 cm in ¹⁄₁,₀₀₀ of a second (1 millisecond). The Such an attenuation probe is more commonly called a
top of the pulse is positioned to lie on the vertical lo-cap (for low capacitance) probe. This probe allows the
centerline. Note that the bottom of the pulse on the oscilloscope to be attached to a sensitive circuit with a
left side is exactly 1 cm to the left of the centerline. very small loading effect. Typical characteristics of lo-
The rise time is then the time it takes the beam to scan cap probes are 5 to 10 megohms and 10 to 20 picofarads.
1 cm, or one-tenth of the total scan distance. Thus, Another probe used with oscilloscopes is a
¹⁄₁,₀₀₀ × ¹⁄₁₀ × ¹⁄₁₀,₀₀₀ second, or 100 microseconds. Many straight-type probe. It consists of a shielded single-
moderately expensive oscilloscopes contain internal conductor made of stranded wire. It is used for
measuring nonsensitive circuits of low frequency,
such as those found in the audio range.
A third probe is a detector, or demodulator, probe.
It is used in radar and television alignment work. The
probe demodulates a signal composed of a high-fre-
quency carrier and low-frequency modulation. Only
the effects of the low-frequency signal are displayed
on the screen when using this probe.

Combination Scope-Meters
Manufacturers now produce a measuring device
that incorporates a multimeter and a dual-trace oscil-
loscope (fig. 183). It is rugged, has excellent perfor-
mance, and is versatile. It contains internal batteries;
so, it can be used in remote locations without an AC
Figure 182 Sawtooth pulse
supply. It has multiple capabilities and has all but
Electrical Test Instruments 169

As an oscilloscope, it can present, function as, or

measure—
• single or dual traces;
• AC, DC, and invert functions;
• amplitude and timing adjustments;
• plus or minus trigger slopes;
• frequency responses up to 20 MHz;
• rise times up to 17.5 seconds;
• range selections from 1 to 40 MHz;
• external signal triggering; and
• plot trends and changes on the screen.
Figure 184 shows a typical screen display of a
dual-trace scope-meter. This type of instrument also has

Figure 183 Dual-trace scope-meter

made the table-top oscilloscope obsolete. As a digital

multimeter, it can measure—
• AC and DC voltage, including root-mean-
square (rms) values, peak values, peak-to-peak
values, average values, and effective values;
• frequency, period, and duty cycles;
• diode function, resistance, and capacitance;
• DC and AC current;
• signal hold and changes;
• temperature (with a separate probe); and
• decibels (power or voltage ratio). Figure 184 Typical screen display of dual-trace
scope-meter

Figure 185 Connecting scope-meter to computer

170 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

computer-compatible capabilities by providing a Recom- devices that are readily available. However, early
mended Standard (RS)-232 connector for downloading versions were bulky and used several dual-triode
oscilloscope display information to a printer, computer vacuum tubes in flip-flop circuits. Neon bulbs pro-
memory, or floppy disk (fig. 185). (RS-232 is an Electronic vided a crude readout means.
Industries Alliance—EIA—standard that describes the Modern frequency meters use LEDs or liquid
requirements for the interface between data processing crystal displays (LCDs), and some are capable of read-
and data communications equipment. It is widely used ing frequencies higher than 1 GHz. A liquid crystal
to connect computers to peripheral devices.) display (LCD) is an electronic digital display that
consists of two sheets of glass separated by a sealed-
in, normally transparent, liquid crystal material. The
ADDITIONAL TEST AND MEASURING
outer surface of each glass sheet has a transparent
INSTRUMENTS
conductive coating etched into character-forming
Current Measuring Meters segments that have leads going to the edges of the
One of the safest methods used to measure high- display. Voltage applied between front and back
power AC or DC currents is to use a clamp-on meter electrode coatings disrupts the orderly arrangement
that measures the magnetic field produced by the of molecules, which darkens the liquid enough to
current in the cable (fig. 186). The meter displays form visible characters although no light is generated.
current in amperes; an operator can select current Today’s frequency meters are often used to
ranges from low to high. Contact with a live circuit provide a direct readout of the operating frequency
is not required, nor are changes in wiring. of radio transmitting and receiving equipment.
Instrumentation systems in the oil and gas produc-
Frequency Meters (Cycle Counters) tion industry also use frequency meters where data
is transmitted from remote locations to a central
receiving point.

Signal Generators
Signal generators are generally classified as radio-
or audio-frequency types. Audio-frequency signal
generators may produce sine waves or square waves.
Radio-frequency signal generators may produce
a continuous wave, or a frequency-modulated (FM)
signal. (Frequency modulation is the varying, or
modulating, of a wave in which the instantaneous
frequency of the modulated wave differs from the
carrier frequency by an amount proportional to the
instantaneous value of the modulating wave.)
Signal generators are limited to use in instru-
mentation work, and are usually used to troubleshoot
microwave or other radio transmitting and receiving
equipment.
A special form of signal generator is a pulse
generator, used in troubleshooting and adjusting
Figure 186 Digital current meter electronic controllers. A pulse generator produces
repetitive pulses or signal-initated pulses. Most
pulse generators have a way to adjust the width of
A frequency meter, or cycle counter, is a device that the pulse as well as its amplitude and frequency.
measures the frequency of a signal by counting the Pulse generators typically serve to produce timing
number of cycles in the signal during a specified time and trigger pulses needed in testing and adjusting
interval. Modern frequency meters are solid-state electronic instrumentation systems.
Electrical Test Instruments 171

TEST INSTRUMENT OVERVIEW 7. An oscilloscope can measure AC and DC volt-

Once technicians have achieved a good under- age. It also will display the _____________of
standing of the basic operating principles of test
an AC voltage.
instruments, they should also study the specific 8. The intensity of the stream of electrons in a
instruments they will use in maintaining the con- cathode-ray tube (CRT) can be controlled by
trol system for which they are responsible. Keep the voltage applied to the ________ of the CRT.
in mind that a good source of information is the 9. The electron beam in a cathode ray tube
instruction manual that accompanies the test and can be centered on the screen by use of the
measuring equipment. Another source is the oper- _________________________ controls.
ating, maintenance, and troubleshooting manuals 10. In an oscilloscope, the principal purpose of the
that are pertinent to the control system. horizontal-sweep frequency generator is to
Should manuals be missing, a technician provide a _______________ _______________.
should obtain new ones from the manufacturer of 11. A sweep frequency generator produces a
the test equipment or from the installer of the con- sawtooth wave. The steep, almost vertical,
trol system. Obtaining new or additional manuals portion of the sawtooth wave represents the
usually requires a formal request from supervisory ______________ portion of the cycle.
personnel and may entail a small cost. In any case, 12. The sync amplifier and sync control of
it is worth the effort and cost to obtain them. an oscilloscope provide a means to help
the sweep oscillator stay in step with the
______________ input signal.
REVIEW QUESTIONS 13. To accurately measure voltage with an oscil-
1. Common voltmeters, ammeters, and loscope, it is necessary to know how much the
ohm-meters use a mechanism called a electron beam will be ___________________
____________ meter movement. for a given value of voltage.
2. To adapt a meter movement to measure volt- 14. When using a 10-to-1 lo-cap probe between
age, it is usually necessary to use a resistor voltage source and oscilloscope, it is neces-
connected in ________________ with the sary to multiply the value of the displayed
meter coil. voltage by a factor of _______________.
3. The sensitivity of a voltmeter can be stated in 15. The input signal to an AC circuit is applied
terms of ________________ per volt or input to the horizontal-sweep section of an oscil-
_____________ for all scales. loscope, and the output of the circuit is ap-
plied to the vertical section. The display is an
4. Ammeters can be prepared by placing
oval pattern that indicates a _____________
_______________ resistance across the meter
____________ is occurring within the AC
movement coil.
circuit components.
5. Alternating-current voltage can be measured
16. A dual-channel oscilloscope has an advan-
with a d’Arsonval meter movement that
tage over a single-channel unit for studying
has been adapted through use of solid-state
______________ _______________ between
____________________.
points in an AC circuit.
6. Within its range, a 3½-digit digital multi- 17. Persons involved in maintaining electronic
meter can display a voltage reading equipment and test instruments should make
to _______________ or _____________ sure they have proper __________________
significant figures. to guide them in their work.
 13
Troubleshooting Techniques and Safety

Electronic control systems used in the petroleum in- Besides integrated circuits, modular construc-
dustry are usually complex groupings of integrated tion has also made modern-day systems easy to
circuits (ICs) that represent thousands of discrete com- troubleshoot and service. Making components in
ponents. Circuits are complicated; indeed, even the modules dates back to the vacuum-tube era, but in
simplest systems can be very involved. To understand those days the modules were bulky and expensive
the function and characteristics of every component or (fig. 188). Today, however, a technician can quickly
module is virtually impossible. At the same time, how- and easily extract a malfunctioning module that may
ever, modern systems possess many excellent features contain tens of thousands of discrete components
and they are relatively easy to troubleshoot—certainly from a cardholder or socket and replace it with a
easier than the equipment of two or three decades ago. module known to be operational (fig. 189).
Consider, for example, a solid-state operational
amplifier (op amp), called a 741 (fig. 187). It replaces
a 1950s vintage assembly that contained at least a
RECORDKEEPING
dozen vacuum tubes and scores of other components. It is very important to keep accurate troubleshooting
To determine whether a 741 op amp is operating records. Often, the operation and maintenance man-
properly, a technician only has to take measurements uals that accompany a particular piece of equipment
at two or three points. On the other hand, trouble- contain forms or special pages for recordkeeping. If
shooting the 1950s model required considerable skill they do not, then the technician responsible for the
and an extensive amount of time. equipment’s upkeep should start a record. Indeed,

+
INVERTING V
INPUT
TO-5 CASE

NONINVERTING 4,500
INPUT

25

39K
7,500
30 OUTPUT

50 +

OFFSET

1,000 50K 1,000 5,000 50K 50K

OFFSET V
–

Figure 187 Circuit diagram of a type 741 op amp with a typical package format

173
174 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

2. symptoms of the trouble (record the prob-

lem specifically—for example, trouble-
panel light on, blown fuse, system not
responding to signals, or actions operator
took when problem occurred);
3. where the trouble was found and how—
that is, was the trouble determined by
measurements or by deduction;
4. how the problem was solved—for example,
by replacing a fuse or a module;
5. disposition of the faulty component or
module (repaired locally, sent elsewhere,
or junked);
6. a list of the new components or modules
used or ordered (for replacement of spare
parts); and
7. additional remarks that might be of value
at a later date.

FAMILIARITY WITH EQUIPMENT

In the matter of troubleshooting, perhaps the best
asset for success is being familiar with the equip-
Figure 188 A 1950s-era modular device. Note the ment. The best troubleshooter is one who knows
vacuum tubes and large relays.
how to operate the equipment and knows what it
is supposed to do. The person normally assigned
to operate equipment, however, is not necessarily
capable of full-scale troubleshooting. However, the
operator is always a good source of information about
the system’s failure and is typically the first person
to detect and report the difficulty.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE MANUALS

Technicians should not troubleshoot a malfunction-
ing system without the instructions contained in the
manufacturer’s literature, unless they are thoroughly
familiar with the system. Figure 190 depicts two large
and extensive manuals that cover the operation,
maintenance, and troubleshooting of one company’s
control equipment.
Reliable manufacturers spare no effort to pro-
duce excellent operation and maintenance manuals
Figure 189 Printed circuit card containing inte-
grated circuits and numerous discrete components to accompany their products. Large corporations
that contract to buy control systems typically require
adherence to detailed specifications. A part of the
most companies have detailed operating procedures
specifications package usually calls for the supplier
that include requirements for maintenance and re-
to provide acceptable manuals covering operation,
pair records of all equipment. In any case, a typical
maintenance, and parts lists.
troubleshooting record should contain—
A good maintenance manual includes a sec-
1. date of the failure or malfunction;
tion on troubleshooting. Troubleshooting guides
Troubleshooting Techniques and Safety 175

Figure 190 Manufacturer’s instruction manuals

may take several forms. A common one is a three- is taken, for example, and the response is noted
column arrangement (fig. 191). The first column lists as yes or no (normal or not normal). The next step
the symptom; the second column lists the probable involves branching one way or another according
causes; and the third column suggests corrective mea- to the response.
sures. The example in figure 191 is a troubleshooting Usually, maintenance manuals contain circuit
chart for an oscilloscope. Such charts are effective diagrams, which can also be helpful in troubleshoot-
if they list enough symptoms and include virtually ing. Most diagrams include appropriate values for
every cause of the symptoms. all the discrete components and, where applicable,
Figure 192 is another troubleshooting guide. The have waveform information at various test points.
procedure column lists test points (TPs) to which a
voltmeter is to be connected; the next column gives the
TEST INSTRUMENTS
normal range of voltage; and the right column directs
attention to the components that are likely to be faulty The most popular troubleshooting instrument is the
if the voltage readings are out of normal range. Figure digital multimeter. It is moderately rugged, por-
193 points out the test points listed in figure 192 on a table, and self-contained. It can measure resistance,
diagram of the equipment’s circuit board. The proce- current, and a wide range of voltage values without
dure for locating trouble spots can be a slow process, seriously loading a circuit.
but it usually leads to the trouble source. The standard VOM is another instrument that
Figure 194 is another effective troubleshooting should be included in a troubleshooting kit. Also,
guide called a flow diagram. The diagram in figure small portable instruments that combine the multi-
194 troubleshoots a generator control. It resembles meter with oscilloscope functions are available. Other
a maze. Consequently, flow diagrams require some test instruments commonly used in troubleshooting
practice before their use. A flow diagram involves include signal generators, digital multimeters, and oscil-
a step-by-step procedure coupled with a yes–no loscopes. Additional instruments include watt-meters,
or go–no-go response technique. A particular step frequency counters, and clamp-on meters. (A signal
176 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

TROUBLE CHART

Symptom Probable Cause Corrective Measure

Can obtain dot, but no Scope selector switch S6 Set scope selector switch to normal position.
horizontal or vertical (at rear of PS 148) in
trace. improper position.

Trace tilted. CRT positioned Remove scope from case, loosen screws holding
incorrectly. CRT, and carefully rotate CRT so that trace is
not tilted.

Trace bounces up and Open peaking coil L2, L3, Use ohmmeter to determine which coil is open.
down at a slow rate. L4, or L5 or leaky capacitor Replace capacitor if defective.
L6.

Intermittent or erratic Short at input jack. Check for short at input jack or see if gimmick
vertical output. Gimmick (C1) touching is leaning against chassis.
chassis.

Poor dot size or shape. MU shield on CRT Set scope selector switch to external direct to
positioned improperly. eliminate pickup from amplifiers. If dot shape
Power transformer tilted does not improve, move MU shield and/or
incorrectly. change transformer tilt for best dot.

Unit completely dead. 1. Check OFF Standby-ON 1. Switch all the way to right. Push circuit
switch, circuit breaker. breaker into reset.

Unit completely dead. 2. V7 & V8 2. Replace if necessary

Unit completely dead. 3. R75, R76, & R71 3. Replace if necessary

Unit completely dead. 4. C22, C36, & C37 4. Replace if necessary

Insufficient intensity or V7, V8, V9 Replace V7, V8, or V9 if necessary.

brightness.

Insufficient vertical V1, V2, or V3, R77, C40A, Replace if necessary.

output. C41C

Figure 191 A troubleshooting chart

generator delivers a sinusoidal output at an accurately An oscilloscope is not only useful for studying
calibrated frequency ranging anywhere from audible waveforms, but also it measures voltage accurately,
to microwave frequencies. A digital multimeter dis- in spite of the fact that voltage frequency may range
plays its measurements digitally rather than as analog from 0 (direct current) to 15 MHz.
readouts. A wattmeter is an instrument that measures Where troubleshooting takes place often
the magnitude of the power in an electric circuit. It determines the instruments used. Usually, trouble-
may read watts, kilowatts, or megawatts.) shooting in the field limits the kinds of instruments.
Any troubleshooter must be familiar with the On the other hand, searching for circuit faults in a
test instruments. The most complicated instrument shop or laboratory allows the use of virtually any
is an oscilloscope, mainly because of its versatility. specialized instrument.
Troubleshooting Techniques and Safety 177

A STEP-BY-STEP TROUBLESHOOTING TABLE

Step Procedure Normal Indication Action

1 Connect voltmeter + to 24VDC ± 1.2 Normal: Go to Step 2.

TP 12, Figure 32, and – Abnormal: Check D6 circuit.
to TP 11.

2 Connect voltmeter + to 24VDC ± 2.4 Normal: Go to Step 3.

TP 13. Abnormal: Check Q3, D4, C3 circuit.

3 Connect voltmeter + to 16VDC ± 0.8 Normal: Go to Step 4.

TP 14 and – to TP 10. Abnormal: Check D7 circuit.

4 Connect voltmeter + to 15VDC ± 1.5 Normal: Go to Step 5.

TP 15. Abnormal: Check Q4, D5, C4 circuit.

5 Connect voltmeter + to 6.2VDC ± 0.3 Normal: Go to Step 6.

TP 16 Abnormal: Check D12 circuit.

6 Connect voltmeter + to 0.3VDC ± 0.015 for 0 to Normal: Go to Step 7.

TP 17 1V or 0.25 to 1.25VDC Abnormal: Check A10 circuit.
inputs or 1.45VDC ± 0.07
for 1 to 5VDC inputs

7 Connect voltmeter + to -16VDC ± 0.8 Normal: Go to Step 8.

TP 18 Abnormal: Check D8 circuit.

8 Connect voltmeter + to -15VDC ± 1.5 Normal: Go to Step 9.

TP 19 Abnormal: Check Q5, D5, C5 circuit.

Figure 192 A step-by-step troubleshooting table

TROUBLESHOOTING STEPS ward signs of trouble usually lead the troubleshooter

directly to a faulty component. On the other hand, the
Troubleshooting should be carried out in a logical
failure of an obscure or small component on a printed
fashion. A logical method usually prescribes a natural
circuit board can truly test a technician’s skills.
or obvious approach. A logical approach follows a
Whether obvious or obscure, troubleshooting
step-by-step procedure. Each step either pinpoints
begins with a study of the problem‘s symptoms.
the trouble as being in a particular section or elimi-
A troubleshooter should determine the symptoms
nates the section as the trouble source.
either through direct observation or from a knowl-
edgeable operator of the equipment. The latter is
Determine and Interpret particularly important if the faulty equipment is
Trouble in electronic circuitry always produces one located some distance away, because it allows the
or more signs of malfunction. Modern large systems troubleshooter to bring the needed manuals and
typically provide extensive warning signal circuits equipment to the job.
that produce visual or audible evidence of system Troubleshooting is partly an intuitive endeav-
trouble. Such signal systems may indicate that a valve or. For example—
has failed to close or open properly, that pressure or 1. if a system is totally inoperative, it is likely
temperature has gotten out of bounds, or that power that a failure has occurred near the power
has been lost to a part of the system. Such straightfor- end of the system.
 TP24 TP27 TP23 TP26 TP43

TP44

TP25

TP22

TP17

TP10(1) TP42

TP21
TP20

TP16

TP41

TP3 TP13

TP40

TP37

TP39
TP4
TP38
TP5

TP1

TP2

TP11(2)

TP12

TP14

TP19

TP18 TP15

Figure 193 Diagram of test points

 AC VOLTAGE TOO LOW
BEGIN
TROUBLESHOOTING
HERE 10 26

VOLTAGE LOW
ADJUST

VOLTAGE OK
CHECK CHECK
SYMPTOM CONNECTIONS OUTPU T VOLTAGE
LOW AC AND WIRES VOLTAGE LEVEL POT:
OUTPU T TO A1 NO LOAD CHECK
OUTPU T REPLACE
R2
VOLTAGE OK VOLTAGE LOW

1 24 46

BAD
VOLTMETER BAD

VOLTAGE LOW
CHECK
REPLACE CHECK ENGINE RPM:
PANEL PANEL ADJUST IF
VOLTMETER VOLTMETER NEEDED: CHECK

GOOD
CHECK OUTPUT RESISTANCE
R2
VOLTMETER OK VOLTAGE OK

27 28 33 47

ADJUST
VOLTAGE LOW

VOLTAGE OK
VOLTAGE OK

APPLY GAIN AN D CHECK CHECK

LOAD: CHECK REPLACE
DROOP POTS:

GOOD
RESISTANCE RESISTANCE

BAD
OUTPU T R1
CHECK R3 R1
VOLTAGE OUTPU T
FUSE BLOWS BAD GOOD
VOLTAGE LOW VOLTAGE LOW

25 23
VOLTAGE LOW

CHECK LOAD CHECK REPLACE

REPLACE BALANCE: REPLACE ROTATING BAD
FUSE R3

BAD
CORRECT RECTIFIERS RECTIFIERS
IF NECESSARY CR 1–CR 6

VOLTAGE OK GOOD
LOAD VO LTAGE

AT NO LOAD
25% OF FULL

MEASURE
FIELD
VOLTS
AT F 1 & F 2 REPLACE
A1
GREATER THAN MODUL E
25% FULL LOAD

LEGEND

ENGINE RUNNING FO R 6 7 8
NEXT TEST
CAUTION! THERE CAN BE MEASURE
VOLTAGE IN THE VO LTAGE L3 RESISTANCE
CALCULATE MEASURE
REGULATOR ASSEMBLY AND
R = V/I

TROUBLE-
GOOD

REQUIRED RESISTANCE
THE OUTPUT WIRES DURIN G RESISTANCE L4, L5, & L6 SHOOTING
THE TEST. FROM NAME COMPLETE
PLATE VALUES
STOP ENGINE FOR NEXT TEST
R ≠ V/I BAD
REFERENCE TO VERIFICATION
PROCEDURE

(+)(–) POLARITY FOR OHMMETER

LEADS
> GREATER THAN REPLACE REPLACE
L3 FAULTY UNI T
< LESS THAN
>> MUCH GREA TER THAN

Figure 194 Flow diagram for troubleshooting generator controls

180 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

2. if some parts of a system are operating At any rate, if the substitution technique is ap-
satisfactorily, these parts offer an oppor- propriate—that is, if spare modules or circuit cards are
tunity to proceed by a process of elimina- available and the manufacturer’s troubleshooting guides
tion—that is, if one part works, then the or charts indicate that its use is satisfactory, then—
fault is probably in some other part. 1. turn off power before substituting modules
A good troubleshooter notes the symptoms and or printed circuit cards.
refers to the manufacturer or supplier’s manuals to 2. be aware that a module or card may have
see if the symptoms are listed in the troubleshoot- failed because of a fault in another part of
ing guide. the system; consequently, the substitute
module or card might also be damaged
Assemble the Tools and Instruments when it is placed in use.
If the trouble lies at a remote location, familiarity with Assuming that substitution of one of the cards
the system really pays off. Otherwise, the technician or modules succeeds in solving the difficulty, closely
may take tools and equipment to the location that are observe the equipment’s operation for a short time.
not related to the system. If a spare parts kit for the Watch carefully for any sign that the trouble will
faulty equipment is available, it should also be carried return. If satisfied that the problem is solved—
to the site. Moreover, any modular components that
1. retain the faulty module for repair, if fea-
can be substituted in the faulty system should also be
sible, or ensure that a new spare is made
taken to the site. Also, the technician should consider
available without delay.
whether the failed system is inside or outdoors, far
2. make a permanent record of the symptoms
from suitable power sources.
of trouble and the steps followed to cor-
Keep a pad and pencil handy to record obser-
rect the matter, noting part numbers and
vations involving voltage and resistance values and
system sections involved.
waveform comments. A pad and pencil should be a
part of the instrument and tool kit.
CIRCUIT TESTING
Make a Visual Inspection Sometimes substitution does not clear up the
Once at the location, make a visual inspection before difficulty, either because it is not applicable or be-
using instruments to trace trouble. Turn off power to cause the trouble is not in modules or cards that can
the assembly to be inspected. If discrete components be substituted. In such cases, test and measuring
are part of the assembly, damage might be obvious. instruments must be employed. Always follow the
Sometimes, faulty components can be smelled. Resis- recommendations for troubleshooting found in the
tors and transformers are good candidates for these manufacturer or installer’s manuals or literature.
observations. Then, look for broken connections and
poor solder joints on printed circuit boards (a rarity Locate the Difficulty
in commercial equipment). Finally, make sure that Using information available from circuit diagrams,
all components and assemblies that plug in are in such as waveforms and values of resistance and volt-
place and tight. age, measure and observe their shapes and values
with the appropriate instruments. Where deviation is
Apply Module or Card Substitution Technique observed, consider which malfunctioning component
Where applicable, the substitution technique is the may be causing the problem. Measure the suspected
quickest way of returning the malfunctioning equip- component if practicable.
ment to normal operation. But before applying the Once a faulty component is located, attempt to
technique, be careful to avoid electric shock and make diagnose why it failed. Troubleshooters should ask—
every effort not to cause further damage. Most solid- 1. was it simply a component that had an in-
state devices operate on low DC voltage, but video herent weakness and failed under normal
display units are high-voltage, low-current users. conditions?
Also, the primary source of power is usually 120–230 2. was it overloaded by another malfunction-
VAC, 60 Hz, which is very dangerous. ing component? Except for resistors, it is
Troubleshooting Techniques and Safety 181

difficult to tell whether a unit failed from failures are among the worst sort of trouble, espe-
overload. Even a resistor can burn up in cially when they recur often, because they can be
normal service if its value changes. For difficult to solve. Intermittent malfunctions in control
example, assume that a 2-watt, 1,000-ohm equipment are similar to a watch that will not run a
resistor operates with 40 volts across it. In full day without stopping a few times.
this case, normal power across the resistor Components changing value, shorting out, or
is 1.5 watts. Suppose, however, that the opening up because of heat or other environmental
resistor changes value to 500 ohms. The conditions can cause intermittent troubles. In discrete
current doubles to 80 milliamperes, and component assemblies, the use of special sprays to
power dissipation rises to I2R, or 0.0064 cool the components or devices to accelerate heating
× 500 = 3.2 watts, which is well above the may speed detection of faulty components. However,
resistor’s 2-watt power rating. do not use sprays on printed circuits or modules
containing integrated circuits.
Repair and Replace Components Where possible, substituting cards or modules
Once the cause of circuit failure has been located, the is a good approach to solving intermittent problems.
major part of troubleshooting has been accomplished. Generally, the failure symptoms point to the part
It is usually easier to repair a fault than to find it. Good of the system producing the trouble. Occasionally,
repair practices require skills that are attained mainly wholesale replacement of large assemblies is the
through experience and practice. However, general only solution when the problem cannot otherwise
guidelines are available. For example— be determined.
1. use proper tools to work on electronic as-
semblies; improper tools and work habits
FIELD TROUBLESHOOTING
can cause damage.
2. printed circuit cards and compact modu- Most modern automated oil leases have remote signal
lar assemblies are rugged, but misuse can systems that pinpoint trouble in the field. Automated
inflict damage to mounted components and systems usually automatically shut down systems
the foil-like circuit wiring—therefore, only if conditions occur that threaten the environment
use desoldering devices and small soldering or equipment. Typical shutdown devices include
irons that have the proper heat range. those that close in flowing or pumping wells when
3. avoid damaging solid-state components by the lease tanks are full. Another type of shutdown
using too much heat or by exposing them device cuts off power to a pumping well when a
to static charges; static charges can ruin sucker rod string breaks.
MOSFET components. Other trouble indicated at a central control
4. if a module or a card is substituted to repair point include failure of flow valves to open or
a system, troubleshoot the faulty card and close, malfunctioning of a sediment and water (S&W)
restore it to operational quality if possible. monitor, loss of power to electric motors, and erratic
5. enter a list of repairs and comments in a performance of various transducers in the field: those
logbook associated with the equipment that transmit pressure, flow, and temperature val-
and note what was done with faulty ues, for example. (A transducer is a device actuated
components; order new modules, cards, by power from one system and supplying power to
or other parts to ensure that replacement another system, usually in a different form.)
parts remain available.
REMOTE TERMINAL UNITS
TROUBLESHOOTING INTERMITTENT A greatly automated lease, one capable of transmit-
MALFUNCTIONS ting information to and receiving commands from a
Occasionally, an operator reports a failure in a system; distant point of control, contains a remote terminal unit
then, when the technician arrives on the scene, the (RTU). An RTU is the central point on the lease that
failure has cleared up of its own accord. Intermittent receives command signals from the distant control
point and relays the signals to the wells, pumps, tank
182 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

batteries, and custody transfer units in the field. The Technicians should become familiar with a
RTU also receives feedback from these points and lease and learn its system before trouble develops.
relays the feedback to the distant control point. Wire For example, they should determine the number and
circuits normally connect the RTU to units in the field. location of the terminal strips that connect incoming
However, the RTU may communicate with the distant lines from various lease units to the RTU. It is also
control point with wire circuits or by microwave radio. helpful to know a VOM’s indications when it is ap-
For troubleshooters, the RTU is the place to plied to certain terminals.
start for diagnosing trouble in the field. They can
pinpoint most difficulties from the RTU with a VOM.
FIELD TROUBLESHOOTING INSTRUMENTS
When a valve fails to respond, for example, trouble-
shooters can determine if its control relay is getting A multimeter that operates on internal batteries
the proper signal from the RTU. Moreover, they can serves for most troubleshooting in the field. If a
determine whether the transducers are sending a technician is expected to troubleshoot AC motor
signal to the RTU. circuits, a clamp-on ammeter-voltmeter is a useful
To be successful, troubleshooters should be addition. Also, a small and portable oscilloscope is
thoroughly familiar with the system. For example, useful for troubleshooting the RTU, particularly if
they should— trouble develops in parts of its telemetry section. An
1. know the overall layout of the field; they oscilloscope can also be used in some instances to
should know the field’s electric power pinpoint trouble in most S&W monitor installations.
source and the location of the transform- The signal pattern can be studied at the RTU.
ers, circuit breakers, and other equipment.
Also, they should know the location of the SHOP TROUBLESHOOTING
wells, tank batteries, vapor recovery units,
A shop designed to troubleshoot electronic instru-
custody transfer units, valves, flow lines,
mentation systems can quickly locate malfunctioning
and the RTU.
elements. Sophisticated test and measuring instru-
2. be aware of the type of transducers used to
ments, along with literature and diagrams, can make
monitor pressure, temperature, and flow;
troubleshooting much easier than in the field.
they should know their manufacturer and
signals they produce. Instruments
3. know how the flow valves operate; they
Most well equipped shops have—
should know whether they are electrically
or electropneumatically operated. • digital and analog multimeters,
4. be familiar with the shutdown devices on • single and dual-trace oscilloscopes,
the producing wells—for example, they • signal generators,
should know if strain gauges indicate • frequency counters,
parted rods or if liquid level floats in the • transistor testers, and
tanks indicate tank levels. • capacitor testers.
5. know the type of signal the S&W monitor A shop may also have special equipment intended for
delivers to the RTU; they should know the particular instrumentation elements, such as special
indications of normal operation as well as power supplies, electronic analogs, and pulse generators.
the indications of failure of the tempera-
ture or capacity probe circuit. Features and Organization
6. know the components, modules, and the
In many cases, a foreman directs a shop that serves a
terminal strips in the RTU.
company with extensive instrumentation and control
This information can be gathered from several
systems. Usually, a crew works under the direction of
sources, including the installer’s drawings and litera-
the foreman. Their responsibilities may extend beyond
ture. The information probably will not be available
the repair of instruments. They may also stock spare
as a single form unless someone collects it from
parts and order replacements. Moreover, the shop may
various sources.
keep equipment records and repair histories.
Troubleshooting Techniques and Safety 183

Once equipment reaches the shop for repair, Keep in mind that electricity always flows
it may or may not remain the responsibility of along the path of least resistance. Also, current, and
the field troubleshooter, depending on the shop’s not voltage, damages the human body. While voltage
policy. The shop is the logical place to stock circuit is required to produce electrical current, the magni-
cards and modules to replace those that have been tude of the current is also related to the conductivity
found faulty in the field. Regardless of who does of the body. A dirty and sweaty body offers lower
the troubleshooting on the faulty pieces, the shop resistance to either current flow or lethal shock than
offers a good environment for the work. Usually, the a clean and dry body.
shop allows technicians plenty of time to follow the When someone is shocked, the most important
manufacturer’s troubleshooting guides. thing is to get the victim away from the source of the
Further, large elements of a control system can shock. However, never subject yourself to the same
be handled in shops having only moderate facilities. source of electricity. Rather, safely disconnect the
Elements such as a multitrace recorder combined with power first. Once power has been definitely turned
a three-mode controller can be repaired and calibrated off, summon medical help immediately. Calm the
through the use of standards having high accuracy. victim and make him or her as comfortable as pos-
(A multitrace recorder is an instrument that senses, sible. If the victim’s heart has stopped beating, start
or traces, and records two or more signals generated cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and continue
by a component to which the recorder is attached. it until medical help arrives.
A three-mode controller is an instrument that con-
tinuously measures the value of signals generated Shock Levels
by three variable quantities or conditions and acts to Different current levels cause the body to respond to
control any deviation from a desired preset value.) shock in different ways. For example, static electricity
is generated when a person moves his or her shoes
on a dry surface. Touching a metal doorknob or other
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
conductive body can discharge the electricity. Cur-
While electricity improves operations and reduces rent then flows off the person’s skin with a loud zap.
the work of personnel, it can also cause serious in- The current in the discharge does not flow through
jury if not handled properly. Since electricity cannot the body; instead, it flows but only on the body’s
be seen, personnel sometimes get a false feeling of surface. The sensation and the effect are minor.
security when working around it. However, electric- Under controlled conditions, very high volt-
ity can be as dangerous as a rotating flywheel and age can be applied to the human body without
cause serious injury or death. Therefore, technicians damaging it as long as the current levels are be-
should develop a cautious attitude toward electricity low certain levels. For example, a person can be
and consider it a threat. subjected, without harm, to thousands of volts of
electricity as long as the amperage is small. Lots of
Electrical Hazards volts and little amperage only raise hair on the head
Injury from electricity can come in several forms. and do no harm. In such cases, electrical generators
Hazards include electrical shock, electrical flashes or transformers supply the voltage. They have very
from arcs, and explosions from the release of energy high internal impedance, which limits the amount
and the flying shrapnel and material. of current flow to a low level.
The next level of shock can occur at voltage lev-
Electrical Shock els normally associated with 120-volt AC appliances.
Electrical shock occurs when persons place their body While voltages at this level can be lethal, many people
in a live electrical circuit. For example, shock can oc- have had the experience of being shocked when ac-
cur when standing on a surface that is an electrical cidentally coming in contact with a live circuit at this
ground and touching a live circuit with another part level. The sensation is one of tingling throughout the
of the body. Another way is to place one hand on an body and an inability to control muscles. In most
electrical circuit potential and the other hand on a cases, the body’s reaction causes a person to release
different electrical potential. the live circuit.
184 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Generally, severe shock occurs at voltages provide a low resistance path between a live
above 120 volts AC and at current flows above 10 mil- electrical source, you, and a ground. Never
liamperes. High currents cause loss of muscle control, touch or operate equipment while standing or
which nullifies a person’s ability to release the elec- in contact with water. Do not operate electri-
trical object and remove the body from the hazard. cal appliances while taking a shower or bath.
Sustained exposure to the electrical source can cause Exercise extreme care when washing down
burns, heart fibrillation, and heart stoppage. areas around motors and generators.
Table 28 shows current levels and the body’s re- 2. Portable equipment, such as an electric drill,
sponse to them. Keep in mind that Ohm’s law states that can pose threats if the insulation is frayed
current is voltage divided by resistance (I = V/R). Thus, or damaged or the electrical cord is spliced
the lower a body’s resistance, the higher the current is incorrectly. Also, do not drill into a surface
for a given voltage. Current levels in Table 28 are in mil- without knowing whether live electrical
liamperes (ma)—that is, one-thousandth of an ampere. circuits are behind it.
3. A metallic surface may appear to be a me-
TABLE 28
chanical support; however, it may also be
Body Response to Various Current Levels
an electrical part. For example, bus bars,
Current connecting lugs, tie joints, and male plugs
Levels Body Response appear to be merely mechanical but in reality
are also electrical. Never touch equipment
0.4 ma Slight sensation on the hand whose function is unknown.
1.1 ma Threshold of shock perception 4. Avoid disconnecting electrical equipment
1 to 8 ma Unpainful shock; muscle while it is operating. Unplugging live and
control not lost
operating circuits causes arcing and sparks,
which may injure your eye or hand. Also, it
8 to 15 ma Hazardous and uncomfortable may damage the receptacle and plug.
shock; can cause cardiac arrest
5. When working on electrical equipment, be
if shock lasts long enough sure all power is off and the disconnected
16 ma Painful shock; usually, the let- equipment is tagged with a sign and locked
go threshold; probability of out with your lock to prevent accidental
cardiac arrest increases at this application of power by other personnel.
point upward Further, if you see a locked and tagged
out circuit, do not unlock it for any reason.
16 to 20 ma Painful shock; victim cannot let
Always assume that locked and tagged out
go of energized object; muscle
equipment is being worked on.
control lost
6. Never apply power to circuits or equipment
20 to 50 ma Painful shock and severe muscle unless it has been inspected for proper op-
contraction eration and you have checked that no other
50 to 100 ma Heart and nerve damage; severe personnel are in any danger.
burns and strong possibility of
death Arc Flashes

100+ ma Probable death; in most persons, When air ionizes in the presence of a voltage, current
instantaneous death results flows through the air to produce a white or bluish arc.
An electric arc produces intense heat and radiation
that can cause severe skin burns, eye damage, and
Hazardous Conditions
other injuries. Moreover, an arc can start a fire if it
Electrical hazards occur under many conditions. It is occurs near combustible material.
therefore vital to be constantly alert to the possibility The intensity of an arc is influenced by several
of shock. Some points to keep in mind follow. factors, including—
1. Water and electricity do not mix. Avoid work- • the magnitude of the current,
ing on wet or damp surfaces because water can • the voltage across the electrode gap,
Troubleshooting Techniques and Safety 185

• the number of phases involved, and TABLE 29

• whether the arc occurs in the open or in an Arc Flash Energy
enclosure.
Single- Three-
Besides the intensity of the arc, the injury Single- phase arc phase arc
incurred from an arc is also influenced by— Fault phase (enclosed (enclosed
• the arc’s duration, current arc (in in box) in box)
(amps) open air) factor = 2 factor = 3.4
• the distance between the arc and the person,
• the type and fit of clothing worn, 2.5 4.9 8.3
2,000 cal/cm2 cal/cm2 cal/cm2
• the percentage of the body burned, and
5.0 9.9 16.8
• age and health factors.
4,000 cal/cm2 cal/cm2 cal/cm2
Scientists have analyzed arcs and determined
7.5 15.0 25.5
the incident energy they pack. This analysis can guide 6,000 cal/cm2 cal/cm2 cal/cm2
personnel who work on, around, or with electrical
10.1 20.2 34.3
equipment in selecting the proper personal protective
8,000 cal/cm2 cal/cm2 cal/cm2
equipment (PPE) for flash protection. Researchers
present the energy and intensity of arcs in calories per 12.8 25.5 43.4
10,000 cal/cm2 cal/cm2 cal/cm2
square centimetre (cal/cm2). Factors that influence arc
intensity include the amount of fault current in the 19.6 39.3 66.8
system, size of arc’s gap, supply voltage, number of 15,000 cal/cm2 cal/cm2 cal/cm2
phases, distance from arc’s centerline to the worker, 26.9 53.8 91.5
and whether the arc is in air or in an open box. 20,000 cal/cm2 cal/cm2 cal/cm2
Table 29 shows the results of software calcula- 60.4 120.8 205.4
tions that determined the flash energy from an arc. Fig- 40,000 cal/cm2 cal/cm2 cal/cm2
ures in the table demonstrate the energy and thermal 115.8 231.6 393.7
exposure acting on a person subjected to an arc under 65,000 cal/cm2 cal/cm2 cal/cm2
certain conditions. In Table 29, the conditions are that
(1) the arc lasts 10 cycles of the AC, (2) the arc’s length
is 12 in. (30 cm), (3) the worker is 12 in. (30 cm) from Because of the ever-present danger of sparks or
the arc, and (4) the equipment is powered by 4,160 arcs being developed around electrical equipment,
VAC. The resulting energy is in cal/cm2. care and consideration must be taken when the equip-
These figures can be used to select the appropri- ment is installed in or near atmospheres that contain
ate PPE for those working near equipment that may hydrocarbons. The American Petroleum Institute
arc, to identify areas and distances that are dangerous (API) publishes Recommended Practice for Classification
for observers, and to plan electrical maintenance and of Locations for Electrical Installations at Petroleum Facili-
repair with confidence. ties, RP 500, that classifies certain areas within produc-
tion facilities for potential hazards. (RP 500 is available
Flammable Gas Hazards from the American Petroleum Institute; the web
Another hazard exists when electrical equipment is address is [Link].) RP 500 was derived from
used in the vicinity of combustible gases. Combustible NEC, Article 500. In response to the recommended
gases include hydrocarbon gases that occur around practices, manufacturers have designed equipment
oil and gas facilities. Combustible gases ignite into an and companies have established procedures for plac-
explosive flame at a given temperature. The tempera- ing electrical systems in hazardous areas.
ture at which they ignite depends on whether the gases To summarize API RP 500—
evolve from flammable liquids or volatile solids, or 1. If an explosive gas mixture exists or may
whether the material itself is a gas. The National Electric exist under normal conditions of opera-
Code (NEC), Article 500, lists ignition temperatures for tion or maintenance, the area is designated
which equipment has been approved when used in the as a class I, division 1 area. Therefore,
presence of gases and combustible materials.
186 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

explosion-proof, enclosed equipment built to When installing intrinsically safe equipment,

the National Electrical Manufacturers Asso- always refer to standards such as the NEC’s Article
ciation’s (NEMA’s) standard 7, or equipment 500-1, and to the manufacturer’s specifications and
rated for class I, division 1, must be used. recommendations. Intrinsically safe equipment bears
2. If an explosive gas mixture exists or may exist a tag stating that it is intrinsically safe and the condi-
only in the event of equipment failure and tions in which it is safe to be used.
such failure does not cause a simultaneous Intrinsically safe also means that the compo-
electrical failure, then the area is designated nent or equipment is a part of an intrinsically safe
as class I, division 2. Equipment must be system. The equipment is designed within controlled
suitable for class I, division 2, areas but not barriers to make it intrinsically safe. Removal of these
necessarily explosion proof. In some cases, barriers eliminates its intrinsically safe rating. Intrin-
totally enclosed, fan-cooled equipment, such sically safe systems must be designed and maintained
as AC induction motors, may be used. in accordance with the NEC’s Article 500-1.
3. If an area has no reasonable chance of a
Purging
gas leak, and is more than 10 ft (3 m) from
process equipment, it is unclassified. In One method used in the petroleum industry to pre-
chemical plants, gas plants, and refineries, vent explosions and make an electrical installation
general purpose or rain-tight equipment safe is to purge equipment with continuous fresh and
is normally acceptable unless procedures clean air, which removes combustible gas that may
dictate otherwise. be present before operation. By purging the equip-
ment with adequate airflow and pressure, the need
Explosion-Proof Equipment to house equipment in explosion-proof enclosures
is eliminated.
One of the most popular methods used to operate
Certain precautions must be followed in such
electrical equipment in class 1, division 1 and class 1,
installations, however, as outlined in NEC Article
division 2 areas is to place the electrical components
501-8 and in the National Fire Protection Agency’s
in an explosion-proof enclosure. The enclosure is
(NFPA’s) regulation 496. Precautions include:
constructed of heavy-gauge cast aluminum or other
1. The amount of air pressure provided for
metal that can sustain an internal explosion resulting
purging must maintain a positive pressure,
from combustible gas and electrical sparks. Manufac-
be totally enclosed, and provide a complete
turers machine the covers to a smooth finish, which
purging cycle to remove 10 volumes of air
helps keep explosive flames from escaping from the
before the equipment is operated.
enclosure when it is bolted or screwed together.
To complete the installation, an explosion- 2. The source of the fresh air must be assured
proof enclosure should have seals placed in the con- so that contamination from other sources
duit that contains wiring or metal-clad cable should of gas is eliminated and the exhaust must
be used to prevent an explosion from going to other be diverted to a safe location.
parts of the electrical system. 3. A sensor must be provided to detect loss
of airflow, activate an alarm, and safely
Intrinsic Safety turn off the equipment until purging is
resumed.
Equipment that is called intrinsically safe has certain
assumptions associated with it. In general, the label, 4. Detection of potential hazards that may oc-
intrinsically safe, suggests a component or equipment cur during normal operation of the equip-
that is incapable of producing sufficient energy to ig- ment, such as overheating or overloads,
nite combustible mixtures under normal or abnormal must be provided and a safe shutdown
conditions. This assumption must be made knowing implemented.
the conditions in which the component will be used, Typically, production operations do not use
the type of gas present, the maximum ambient tem- purging; however, certain drilling applications, such
peratures present, and the energy available from an as control enclosures on the rig floor and DC motors
intrinsically safe device. used to power rigs, do use purge systems.
Troubleshooting Techniques and Safety 187

Grounding b. rigid metal conduit.

Several reasons exist for grounding electrical equip- c. the metal sheath of metal-clad (MC)
ment. One is to protect the operator of electrical cables. In large-sized cables where the
equipment from being subjected to high, and poten- metal sheath alone is not adequate, a
tially deadly, voltages when a live wire accidentally ground wire is included in the cable.
touches its enclosure. Another is to provide a path d. on new installations, all power feeders
for fault currents (short circuits) so that protective (480, 208, and 120 volts) must have an
devices such as fuses and circuit breakers can oper- internal equipment-grounding conduc-
ate and isolate the fault condition. Still another is to tor in addition to all other ground paths.
establish a drain source for any electrical noise that 3. On steel platforms or rigs, the structure
may interfere with sensitive electronic equipment. should be considered ground.
Grounding establishes a zero voltage reference
4. On concrete platforms, a grounding con-
for a voltage supply since the operator’s body is usu-
ductor or conductors adequately sized for
ally at ground potential. Any voltage source that is
maximum faults and connected to an earth
connected to ground is then at zero voltage because it is
ground are required.
shorted through the low-resistance ground connection.
5. NEC allows the resistance to ground of
Grounding also can operate protective circuit
the grounding electrode to be as high as
devices such as fuses, circuit breakers, and ground
25 ohms depending on the circuit’s kVA
fault detectors. If a circuit is properly grounded, all
size and power conductors. However, for
other voltages are referenced to it. If one of the circuits
improved personnel protection, the resis-
that normally operates above ground accidentally
tance to ground should be 1 ohm or less.
comes in contact with ground because of insulation
breakdown, accidental contact, and the like, very 6. The grounding conductor shall not be a
high current flows, which causes the protective fuse load current-carrying conductor.
or circuit breaker to operate. 7. Grounding conductors and connections
If a circuit is not referenced to ground, contact shall be approved and made of corrosion-
with ground potential may not cause the protective resistant materials or adequately coated to
device to operate. In such a case, if an accidental protect against corrosion.
ground was maintained without detection, accidental 8. Grounding circuits shall be installed to
shock or equipment damage could occur. minimize the possibility of physical dam-
Companies have established criteria for ages. For mechanical reasons, it is recom-
grounding based on NEC, Article 250. In addition mended that no ground conductor outside
to these requirements, standardized grounding in- a raceway be smaller than No. 6 AWG.
dustry practices include:
1. All metal parts of equipment containing Grounding Methods
electrical components that do not carry In all equipment installations, whether portable or
electricity shall be grounded to prevent fixed, at least one earth ground should be established.
any rise in voltage on such parts in relation NEC, Article 250-83, specifies that the ground be
to earth or structure near such equipment. attached to a fixed metal frame when the frame is
The resistance between equipment enclo- effectively grounded to an earth ground.
sures and the ground circuit should be less Bonding is the next most effective means of
than 1 ohm. providing a ground for equipment reference and
2. The grounding conductor should be low personnel protection. The housings or structures
enough in resistance and have adequate of electrical equipment that do not carry electricity
current-carrying capacity to safely handle should be bonded together through welding or with
any expected ground fault currents. Ac- a substantial cable or wire braid as specified in NEC,
ceptable conductors include— Article 250-94.
a. copper conductors no smaller than that Even in portable systems, such as skid-mounted
required by NEC’s Table 250-95. equipment, the skids and equipment housings should
188 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

be bonded together with copper braid or conduc- may not exist that indicates that the ground has oc-
tors to assure a ground bond. In some permanent or curred because of insulation breakdown or accidental
semipermanent installations, welding the structures connection. In such a case, devices called ground
to each other and establishing a low-resistance con- fault detectors and indicators are used. These devices
nection can accomplish bonding. incorporate sensors, such as transformers or resistors,
Regardless of how the bond or grounding is in a common ground circuit. In some cases, the power
established, a technician should always test the bond system continues to operate without disconnection
or ground with an ohmmeter after the work has been because of operating considerations.
completed to assure that the desired continuity and When a ground in the main system occurs,
resistance levels have been met. ground currents flow in the detector’s sensors, and
the detector illuminates a lamp or activates an au-
Dissimilar Metals dible alarm. A technician should promptly locate
Where possible, similar metals should be used for the ground faults and repair the problem to prevent
electrical equipment connections. When dissimilar injury to personnel or damage to equipment.
metals are brought in contact with each other, oxides
Ground Detecting Systems
can form. These oxides can create a high-resistance
contact that generates heat, which damages equip- A typical ground fault sensor used in low-voltage
ment. If dissimilar metals are used, such as copper installations is the high-resistance type. A high-
and aluminum, technicians should apply a chemical resistance sensor (typically 200 ohms) is placed in the
on all aluminum lugs to keep aluminum oxide from neutral ground circuit of the 480-volt, three-phase,
forming. A better solution is to use cadmium-plated generating system, or a wye-connected transformer,
copper lugs rather than aluminum lugs. In any in- to detect a ground fault with the aid of a voltage
stallation where dissimilar metals are used, frequent sensitive relay. It is usually located in a generator
inspection and surveys using infrared heat detectors switchgear cabinet and operates an alarm.
are recommended. Because ground fault currents are limited to
1.38 amperes with a 200-ohm neutral ground resistor,
the power system may continue to operate; however,
Circuit Protective Devices
the fault should be located and corrected as soon
Equipment manufacturers and designers provide
as practical. A ground fault voltmeter indicates 277
several electrical and mechanical devices to protect
volts when a ground fault exists. High-impedance
equipment users. Among the mechanical devices are
faults on a voltmeter show up as voltages between
insulating equipment that prevents current flow from
0 and 277 volts.
the voltage source to ground, barriers that isolate
Similar ground detecting methods are used
one voltage level from another, and enclosures that
in high-voltage systems (those over 1 kV), but the
prevent the accidental touching of live electrical parts.
resistance used for detecting the ground fault is
Electrical devices provide automatic detection
considered to be either a low-resistance type or high-
of equipment fault conditions. These include fuses,
resistance type.
circuit breakers, and overload devices. Also, devices
Low-resistance ground fault detection in high-
that sense an unwanted ground condition (caused,
voltage systems consists of a resistor connected to the
for example, by wiring insulation breakdown) can
neutral of the generator or transformer. When a ground
sound an alarm, indicate the problem, or interrupt
fault occurs, a relay or similar device senses the fault,
the electrical circuit.
current flows through the resistor, and trips the main
circuit breaker to off. In the case of generators, a low-
Ground Fault Detectors resistance ground fault system also de-excites (cuts off
In many systems, ground fault detectors are used to de- exciting current to) the generator to prevent further
tect grounds and provide a visual alarm in equipment voltage from being developed into the ground fault.
whose electrical output cannot be readily grounded. High-resistance ground fault detection in high-
These systems are referred to as floating because they voltage systems uses a bus-connected, three-phase
are not directly connected to a ground reference. transformer with a wye connection primary and
Whenever a ground occurs in such systems, evidence broken delta connection secondary. (A delta connec-
Troubleshooting Techniques and Safety 189

tion is a combination of three components connected states that AFCIs must be installed in all residential
in series to form a triangle similar to the Greek letter dwellings built after January 1, 2002.
delta.) The wye primary uses a resistor connected to
its neutral and is further connected to ground. The
SAFETY SUMMARY
secondary broken delta uses a resistor-relay connected
It is very important to understand the dangers associ-
to the open portion of the secondary that is operated
ated with electricity. Injury can occur when it is least
when the primary has a ground fault occur on one of
expected. A shock can cause serious internal injuries
its phases. When the relay detects a ground fault, it
and death. An electrical flash can produce burns that
causes generator circuit breakers to trip, which isolates
vary from mild to life threatening. To avoid shock,
the fault and de-excites the generators.
turn the power off whenever work is being performed
Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCIs) on or near electrical equipment. If the power cannot
be turned off for maintenance or repair, wear proper
In areas where personnel are frequently exposed to
personal protective equipment (PPE) to prevent shock
water, such as in bathrooms, kitchens, or at outdoor
and burns from arc flashes. To select the proper PPE,
receptacles, devices called ground fault circuit inter-
refer to OSHA regulations and NFPA 70E.
rupters (GFCIs) are installed. A GFCI is a fast-acting
circuit breaker that senses very small ground fault
currents and which breaks the circuit when it detects REVIEW QUESTIONS
such faults. When a GFCI detects a ground fault cur-
1. The modular concept of modern sol-
rent greater than 5 mA, it opens the circuit (typically id-state electronic systems provides for
120 VAC power) to protect personnel. GFCIs can also _____________ troubleshooting practices.
be installed in main circuit breaker panels to protect
2. The date of the failure or malfunction of equip-
a complete branch circuit.
ment and details of its correction should be a
Arc Fault Circuit Interrupters (AFCIs) matter of entry in ______________________.
Recent fire investigations have revealed that insula- 3. Before attempting to troubleshoot a new or
tion failure and accidental contact can create arcing unfamiliar piece of equipment, what source
between circuit conductors, which does not produce of information should be consulted?
enough current to trip protective circuit breakers 4. What is the most popular form of trouble-
or fuses. Such intermittent arcing can cause a fire shooting instrument?
and substantial damage. GFCIs cannot sense arcing
5. Oscilloscopes are more complex than most
because the current does not go to ground; rather,
other instruments, partly because they have
the current arcs between load carrying conductors
more extensive ____________________ than
or inside a partially broken conductor.
most instruments.
In the U.S., residential electrical fires cause 700
deaths, 3,000 injuries, and $700 million in property 6. A step-by-step procedure is designed to
damage each year. Electrical faults cause several of pinpoint trouble in a particular section or
these fires. Arcing causes electrical fires that start free that section from suspicion through a
without warning. Sputtering electric arc faults between process of _________________.
damaged and deteriorating wiring kindle the fires by 7. Once symptoms of a malfunction are noted,
generating heat in nearby combustible material. the troubleshooter should refer to the
An arc fault circuit interrupter (AFCI) has a coil __________________.
and electronic circuits within a circuit breaker. When
8. Where it is applicable, the _______________
an AFCI detects arcing, the circuit breaker trips to
is an expeditious way to restore equipment
isolate the circuit from additional voltages and arcs.
to normal operation.
The NEC introduced the AFCI in 1999, but with
few details or instructions for its implementation. 9. A module or card that has failed is removed,
The 2002 edition of the NEC recognized the AFCI and a good replacement card is substituted.
and incorporated it in Section 210.12. Section 210.12 If it fails immediately, where does the fault
probably lie?
190 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

10. If it is not feasible to repair a faulty compo- 14. A foremost requirement for troubleshooting
nent or module without delay, what step an automated lease is ____________________
should be taken? with the system.
11. It is usually an easier task to ________________ 15. If a technician is expected to troubleshoot AC
a fault than to find it. power circuits, ______________ is a handy
addition to the tool kit.
12. In discrete component assemblies, it is
sometimes permissible to use special 16. Troubleshooting in a shop is usually
sprays to _______________________ a easier because of the better availability of
suspected component. Such sprays should __________ __________ and __________
not be used on printed circuits or those __________.
containing _______________. 17. To avoid shock or arc flash injury, personnel
working near, on, or with electrical equip-
13. The ______________________ is the central
ment should wear ________________.
point on a lease where command signals are
received from a distant control point and
relayed to various units on the lease.
 Glossary

A American standard code for information inter-

change (ASCII) n: in computer science, a standard for
A abbr: ampere. assigning numerical values to the set of letters in the
AC abbr: alternating current. Roman alphabet and to typographic characters. For
addend n: one of a collection of numbers to be added. example, in ASCII code, the binary number 1001011 is
assigned the letter K, and the binary number 1011110
AFCI abbr: arc fault circuit interrupter. is assigned the typographic character ^.
air n: a colorless, odorless, tasteless, gaseous mix- American War Standard (AWS) n: outdated
ture, mainly nitrogen (approximately 78 percent) specification for supplies and equipment purchased
and oxygen (approximately 21 percent) with lesser by the military in World War II. It has been replaced
amounts of argon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, neon, by military specification (MIL).
helium, and other gases.
American wire gauge (AWG) n: a standard that as-
air-cored coil n: in a coil of wire carrying electric cur- signs a number (a gauge) to electrical wires of various
rent, the central interior portion of the coil in which diameters, or sizes. The largest AWG wire is listed as
only air exists. 0000, which is often written as ⁴⁄₀, and has a diameter
alnico n: a metal alloy of aluminum, nickel, and of 460 mils, or 0.46 inches. (A mil is 0.001 inches.) A
one or more of the elements cobalt, copper, and wire often used in small household appliances, such
titanium. This alloy is used to make strong perma- as small table lamps, is 16 gauge, which is 51 mils, or
nent magnets. 0.051 inches, in diameter. The smallest is 40-gauge
wire, which is 3.1 mils, or 0.0031 inches in diameter.
alnico magnet n: a permanent magnet made from
As the AWG number increases, the gauge (thickness)
the alloy alnico. See alnico.
of the wire decreases.
alternating current (AC) n: current that flows in one
ammeter n: an instrument for measuring electric
direction in a circuit and then reverses flow. Reversal
current in amperes.
of current flow happens rapidly—for example, in
many AC circuits in the United States, reversal hap- amp abbr: ampere.
pens 60 times in 1 second. ampere (A) n: the fundamental unit of electrical
alternation n: in an alternating current generator, the current; 1 ampere = 6.28 × 1018 electrons passing
rising and falling of induced positive and negative through the circuit per second. One ampere delivers
voltage as the coil rotates from 0 to 180 degrees to 1 coulomb in 1 second.
produce positive voltage and from 180 to 360 degrees ampere-hour n: a unit of electricity equal to the
to produce negative voltage. The rising and falling amount produced in 1 hour by a flow of 1 ampere.
of positive voltage from 0 to 180 degrees is one al- See ampere.
ternation. The rising and falling of negative voltage
ampere-hour rating n: a measure of a battery’s abil-
from 180 to 360 degrees is also one alternation. One
ity to produce current in terms of ampere-hours. For
positive and 1 negative alternation is 1 cycle.
example, if a battery has an ampere-hour rating of
alternator n: an electric generator that produces 30, the battery could produce 1 ampere of current for
alternating current. a 30-hour period.
AM abbr: amplitude modulation. amplifier n: an electronic device for increasing the
magnitude of a quantity such as an electrical mea-
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) n:
surement signal. Amplifiers may be used to increase
serves as a clearinghouse for nationally coordinated
a transmitted and received measurement signal.
voluntary standards for fields ranging from informa-
tion technology to building construction. Address: amplitude n: a measure of the extent of a vibratory
11 W. 42nd Street, 13th floor; New York, NY 10036; movement, or an oscillation. It expresses the maxi-
(212) 642-4900; [Link]. mum deviation that a periodically varying quantity
takes from its normal value of zero.

191
192 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

amplitude modulation (AM) n: the varying (modu- artificial magnet n: a bar or other shape of soft iron or
lating) of a wave in which the height (amplitude) of hard steel alloy that is magnetized by placing the bar or
the wave is the characteristic varied in accordance other shape in a magnetic field. Magnetite (lodestone)
with the intelligence to be transmitted. Compare is a natural magnet; other magnets are thus artificial.
frequency modulation.
As sym: arsenic.
analog adj: 1. of or pertaining to an instrument or
ASCII abbr: American standard code for information
equipment that measures a continuous variable
interchange.
that is proportional to another variable over a given
range. For example, temperature can be represented aspect ratio n: the ratio of a screen’s (or frame’s)
or measured as voltage, its analog. 2. pertaining to width to the screen’s height. For television sets in the
devices, data, circuits, or systems that operate with U.S. and Great Britain, for example, the TV screen’s
variables that are represented by continuously mea- aspect ratio is 3 to 4, which means that if the screen’s
sured voltages or other quantities. Compare digital. height is 3 inches, its width is 4 inches; or, if its height
is 12 inches, its width is 16 inches.
AND gate n: a circuit that has two or more input-
signal ports that deliver an output only if and when atom n: the smallest quantity of an element capable
every input port is simultaneously energized. of either entering into a chemical combination or
existing alone.
angle of declination n: the difference, in angular
degrees, between magnetic north and true north. atomic particle n: one of the small bits of matter
that makes up an atom, such as an electron, proton,
annunciator n: a signaling device that operates
or neutron.
electromechanically and serves to indicate visually
or visually and audibly whether current is flowing, attenuating probe n: in electronics, a small device (a
has flowed, or has changed direction of flow in one probe) that is put into contact with or inserted into a
or more circuits. circuit to make measurements of the circuit and that
reduces (attenuates) the strength of the value (such as
anode n: in a semiconductor diode, the terminal to-
voltage) being measured in the circuit. The amount of
ward which forward current flows from an external
attenuation is usually expressed as a ratio—for exam-
circuit. See diode.
ple, a 10-to-1 probe reduces the value’s strength by 10.
apparent power n: the vector sum of the power in audio transformer n: an iron-core transformer used
watts plus the reactive power in volt-ampere reactive to bring together (to electronically couple) circuits
(VAR) in a circuit. See reactive power. that carry audio frequencies.
aquadag n: the graphite coating on the inside of cer- augend n: a quantity to which another quantity is
tain cathode-ray tubes. It collects secondary electrons added.
emitted by the face of the tube.
average current rating n: in a solid-state diode, the
arc fault circuit interrupter (AFCI) n: a special type amount of current that the diode is designed to
of circuit breaker that has a coil and special electronic handle over a range of operating current in a circuit,
circuitry that can sense the small fault currents cre- from a minimum to a maximum amount.
ated by arcing between components and that trips
AWG abbr: American wire gauge.
the circuit to prevent fires caused by arcing.
AWS abbr: American War Standard.
arithmetic converter n: in a computer, a circuit or
component that changes (converts) electronic signals axial lead (pronounced “leed”) n: in an electronic
into units that additional circuitry can add, subtract, component such as a composition resistor, a single
multiply, divide, or compare. wire (a lead) that exits each end of the component
from the component’s center and to which the electri-
armature n: a part made of coils of wire placed
cal connections are made to the circuit in which the
around a metal core, in which electric current is
component is installed. Compare radial lead.
induced in a generator, or in which input current
interacts with a magnetic field to produce torque in
a motor. B
arsenic (As) n: a chemical element that occurs as back electromotive force (emf) n: 1. voltage induced
a brittle, steel-gray hexagonal mineral and that is in the primary winding of a transformer that opposes
added as an impurity to semiconductors to give them the incoming line voltage. 2. voltage induced in the
a negative charge. armature of a motor by the magnetic field in which it
is turning. Also called counter emf and countervolt-
age. See electromotive force.
Glossary 193

back emf abbr: back electromotive force. blocking diode n: a diode that restricts (blocks)
bar magnet n: a piece of hard steel in the shape of a the flow of current in an undesirable direction in a
rectangular-shaped rod (a bar) that has been strongly circuit. See diode.
magnetized and holds its magnetism. It is therefore Boolean logic n: a system of symbolic logic based on
a type of permanent magnet. See permanent magnet. algebraic symbols representing such logical opera-
base n: 1. a substance capable of reacting with an acid tions as AND, OR, and NOR.
to form a salt. A typical base is sodium hydroxide borrowing n: in the mathematical operation of
(caustic), with the chemical formula NaOH. For ex- subtraction, the act of taking the number 1 from the
ample, sodium hydroxide combines with hydrochloric tens, hundreds, or other column to the left of the
acid to form sodium chloride (a salt) and water. This ones column, and placing it to the left of the number
reaction is written chemically as NaOH + HCl → NaCl in the ones column, to raise the number in the ones
+ H2O. 2. in a junction transistor, the region that lies column to the next higher order digit. This action
between the transistor’s emitter and collector and into reduces the number that was borrowed from by
which minority carriers are injected. The base is the 1. Borrowing then continues, if necessary, in each
transistor’s control terminal and receives current from subsequent column to the left until the solution is
an external source into its region. See collector, emitter. achieved. For example, to subtract 679 from 831, 1 is
battery n: an electricity storage device consisting of borrowed from 3 in the tens column of 831, which
two or more galvanic cells. See galvanic cell. leaves 2. Nine is then subtracted from 11 to leave
2. Next, 7 is subtracted from 12, because 1 was bor-
battery charger n: an electrical device (a rectifier) that
rowed from the hundreds column to make 12. This
converts alternating current into direct current and
action leaves 5. Finally, 6 is subtracted from 7 in the
is used to reestablish the battery’s ability to produce
hundreds column, which was reduced by 1 when it
current by reversing the chemical reaction that occurs
was borrowed from earlier. This action leaves 1. So,
in a secondary (wet cell) battery when it discharges.
the answer is 152.
See rectifier.
braided wire n: see stranded wire.
BCD abbr: binary coded decimal.
breakaway torque n: see starting torque.
bias n: direct-current voltage applied to a transistor
control electrode to establish a desired operating breakdown torque n: see pullout torque.
point. British thermal unit (Btu) n: a measure of heat energy
binary coded decimal (BCD) code n: a system of equivalent to the amount of heat needed to raise 1
number representation in which a binary number pound of water 1°F at or near its point of maximum
represents each digit of a decimal number. density (39.1°F). Equivalent to 0.252 kilo-gram calo-
ries or 1,055 joules.
binary number n: a method of representing numbers
using only the digits 0 and 1 in which successive dig- brush n: a carbon block used to make an electrical
its are interpreted as coefficients of successive powers connection between the rotor of a generator or a mo-
to the base 2. For example, the decimal number 3 is tor and a circuit.
10 in binary numbers and the decimal number 4 is Btu abbr: British thermal unit.
11 in binary numbers.
buffer n: 1. in solid-state electronics, an isolating
binary point n: the character, or the location of an circuit in a computer that prevents the action of
implied symbol, that separates the integral part of a driven circuit from affecting the corresponding
the numerical expression from its fractional part in driving circuit. 2. an electric circuit or component
binary notation. that prevents an undesirable electrical interaction
bipolar adj: of a material capable of assuming a between two circuits or components.
positive or negative electric charge, such as a bipolar bus n: an assembly of electrical conductors for collect-
transistor. ing current from several sources and distributing it to
bistable adj: capable of assuming either of two stable feeder lines so that it will be available where needed.
states; (pronounced bi-stable). Also called bus bar.
bistable mutivibrator n: see flip-flop circuit. bus bar n: see bus.
blanking pulse n: in an oscilloscope, a positive or
negative square-wave variation in electrical power C
(a pulse) that switches off a part of the oscilloscope’s
C sym: 1. carbon 2. coulomb.
screen for a predetermined length of time.
194 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

cable n: in electronics, a wire made of a conducting als immersed in or surrounded by a liquid or solid
material such as copper or aluminum. Usually, cable chemical (an electrolyte) that reacts with both metals.
is braided from several single strands of wire into a channel n: the main current path between the source
single conductor that is easier to bend than a solid and drain electrodes in a field-effect transistor.
wire of the same gauge.
chassis n: the framework to which the components
can-type capacitor n: a capacitor whose components of a radio, television, or other electronic equipment
are housed inside a small, can-shaped cylinder. See are attached.
capacitor.
chemical reaction n: a change in which a substance
capacitive coupling n: in electronics, the transfer
or substances is changed into one or more new
of energy from one circuit to another through a
substances.
capacitor.
chip n: 1. the shaped and processed semiconductor
capacitive reactance n: the impedance of current
die that is mounted on a substrate to form a transistor,
flow in an alternating current circuit (the reactance)
diode, or other semiconductor device. 2. an integrated
caused by a capacitor in the circuit.
microcircuit performing a significant number of func-
capacitor n: an electrical device that, when wired in tions and constituting a subsystem.
the line of an electrical circuit, stores a charge of elec-
choke n: in electronics, an inductance used in a circuit
tricity and returns the charge to the line when certain
to present high impedance to frequencies above a
electrical conditions occur. Also called a condenser.
specified frequency range without appreciably limit-
carbon (C) n: a naturally abundant nonmetallic ele- ing the flow of direct current.
ment that occurs in many inorganic and in all organic
compounds, exists freely as graphite and diamond circuit n: a complete electrical path from one terminal
and as a constituent of coal, limestone, and petro- of a source of electricity to the other, usually con-
leum, and is capable of chemical self-bonding to form nected to a load. When the circuit is closed, electric
an enormous number of chemically, biologically, and current flows through it; when it is opened, the cur-
commercially important molecules. rent flow stops.

carry v: in the mathematical operation of addition, circuit diagram n: see schematic.

to perform the necessary actions to obtain a correct circular mil (cmil) n: the cross-sectional area of a
answer when the sum of the digits in a given position wire or cable expressed in thousandths of an inch
equals or exceeds the base of the number system. For (a milli-inch).
example, when adding 352 and 49 in the decimal
cladding n: in electronics, braided or solid aluminum
system, 9 is added to 2 in the ones column, which
or other material that surrounds insulated wires or
equals 11. In this case, 1 is written below the ones
cables. Cladding protects the wire or cable from being
column and the other 1 is added (carried) to the 5 in
damaged by blows or forces from external sources,
the tens column of 352, making the 5 a 6. Then, 6 is
such as dropped objects, foot traffic, and the like.
added to 4 and a 0 placed below the tens column. The
1 is carried to the 3 in the hundreds column, making clamp-on meter n: an AC voltmeter-ammeter that has
it 4. The answer is 401. a magnetic core in the form of hinged jaws that can be
clamped around a current-carrying wire to measure
cathode n: the terminal of a semiconductor diode
AC voltage or amperage. Also called a snap-on meter.
that is negative with respect to the other terminal
when the diode is biased in the forward direction. clip v: in electronics, to prevent the amplitude of a
See diode. waveform from exceeding a specified level while
preserving the shape of the waveform at amplitudes
cathode ray n: a stream of electrons, such as those
less than the specified level.
emitted by a heated filament in a tube, or those emit-
ted by the cathode of a gas-discharge tube when the clipper n: an electronic circuit used to prevent the
cathode is bombarded by positive ions. amplitude of a waveform from exceeding a specified
level while preserving the shape of the waveform at
cathode-ray tube (CRT) n: an electron tube in which
amplitudes less than the specified level. Also called
a beam of electrons can be focused to a small area and
a limiter.
varied in position and intensity on a surface.
clipping n: in electronics, the act of preventing the
CCA abbr: cold cranking ampere.
amplitude of a waveform from exceeding a specified
cell n: a device that delivers an electric current as the level while preserving the shape of the waveform.
result of a chemical reaction; a receptacle, such as a Also called limiting.
jar, tube, or box, that contains two dissimilar met-
Glossary 195

clock n: see timing circuit. compound n: a substance formed by the chemical

cmil abbr: circular mil. union of two or more elements in definite propor-
tions; the smallest particle of a chemical compound
Co sym: cobalt.
is a molecule.
coax abbr: shortened form of coaxial cable.
condenser n: see capacitor.
coaxial cable (coax) n: electrical conducting wire
(cable) that has a center wire covered by polyethylene conductivity n: the ability to transmit or convey (as
insulation. A second conductor of braided copper (or heat or electricity); the opposite of resistivity.
other conductor such as aluminum) fits over the poly- conductor n: a material with a high concentration of
ethylene insulation. Finally, a vinyl cover protects the free electrons. It readily carries (conducts) an electric
braided conductor. The braided conductor protects, current.
or shields, the center conductor from extraneous and
conduit n: solid or flexible metal or other tubing
undesirable electrical interference that may affect the
through which insulated electric wires are run.
signal being carried by the center conductor.
conservation of energy n: see law of conservation of
cobalt (Co) n: a metallic element used chiefly in al-
energy.
loys.
coefficient n: a number that serves as a measure of Constantan n: an alloy of 55 percent copper and 45
some property or characteristic and that is commonly percent nickel; often used in making precision wire-
used as a factor in computations. wound resistors.

coil n: see solenoid. contactor n: a switch used to open or close an electric

circuit.
cold cranking ampere (CCA) n: a measure of a bat-
tery’s ability to provide current to start (crank) an converter n: a device for changing alternating cur-
engine when the engine is started cold—that is, when rent to direct current or direct current to alternating
the engine has not been running for several hours, current; usually, if the device changes AC to DC, it
such as overnight. is called a rectifier.
collector n: in a junction transistor, a semiconductive copper n: a ductile, malleable, reddish-brown metal-
region through which the primary flow of charge lic element that is an excellent conductor of heat and
carriers leaves the base of the transistor. The collector electricity and is widely used for electrical wiring,
is the transistor’s output terminal and is connected water piping, and corrosion-resistant parts, either
to the positive polarity of voltage from the supply pure or in alloys such as brass and bronze. Copper’s
through a resistor. See base (def. 2), emitter. chemical symbol is Cu.
color code n: in electronics, the indication of resistor core n: in electricity, the interior and central part of
and capacitor values by the application of 12 differ- a coil; it may be air or a solid material such as iron.
ent colors and no color. Each color, or lack thereof, See solenoid.
is assigned a numerical value and also indicates a
multiplier as well as the power rating. By correctly core loss n: in a transformer, the reduction (loss) in
reading the color sequence, the resistance or capacity, electrical energy that occurs in the core of the trans-
as well as the power rating, of a resistor or a capacitor former’s windings. See core.
can be determined. corona effect n: a phenomenon that occurs when high
commutator n: a series of bars connected to the ar- voltage is transmitted through uninsulated conduc-
mature coils of an electric motor or generator. As the tors. At very high voltages, the voltage ionizes the
commutator rotates in contact with fixed brushes, the surrounding atmosphere and the atmosphere also
direction of flow of current to or from the armature begins to conduct electricity. See ionization.
is in one direction only. cos abbr: cosine.
composition n: a special material made of conduc-
cosec abbr: cosecant.
tive and nonconductive substances, which, when
blended and formed into a resistor, give the resistor cosecant (cosec) n: in a right triangle, the ratio of the
a specific resistance. hypotenuse to the side opposite a given angle.
composition resistor n: a resistor made of conductive cosine (cos) n: in a right triangle, the ratio of the
and nonconductive materials, which are combined length of the side adjacent to an acute angle to the
and formed into a relatively small cylinder. Axial or length of the hypotenuse.
radial leads in the resistor provide a way to connect cotan abbr: cotangent.
the resistor to a circuit.
196 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

cotangent n: in a right triangle, the ratio of the side D

adjacent to a given angle to the side opposite.
d’Arsonval movement n: an electronic assembly
coul abbr: coulomb. used in a meter that consists of a magnet, a moving
coulomb (C, coul) n: the amount of electric charge coil, a jewel pivot bearing, and a pointer. The pointer
that crosses a surface in 1 second when a steady cur- sweeps across a dial that can be marked with numeri-
rent of 1 ampere is flowing across the surface. cal values expressing current, voltage, resistance, or
counter electromotive force n: see back electromotive whatever is appropriate to the application of the me-
force. ter. It is named after one of its inventors, the French
physiologist Jacque-Arsène d’Arsonval.
counter emf n: see back electromotive force.
DC abbr: direct current.
countervoltage n: see back emf.
DC inductor n: see choke.
coupling n: in electronics, the relation between two
circuits that permits energy transfer from one to the decade n: a group or set of ten, as a period of ten
other, usually through a wire, resistor, transformer, years or a set of ten resistor values.
capacitor, or other device. decimal number n: a base 10 numbering system that
covalent bond n: see electron-pair bond. includes 10 numbers ranging from 0 to 9; numbers in a
system wherein place values are read in powers of 10.
cross-multiply v: in mathematics, to multiply the
numerator of each of two fractions by the denomi- decimal point n: a dot written either on or slightly
nator of the other to eliminate the fractions from the above the line that is used as the point at which place
equation. For example, in the two fractions ²⁄₃ × ¹⁄₂, values change from positive to negative powers of 10
the 2 in the numerator of the first fraction and the 2 in the decimal numbering system.
in the denominator of the second fraction are cross- declination n: 1. the angle, variable with geographic
multiplied to cancel each other. position, between the direction in which a magnetic
CRT abbr: cathode-ray tube. needle points and the true meridian. 2. a turning
aside or swerving.
crystal n: a substance formed by the solidification
of a chemical element, a compound, or a mixture decoder n: 1. an electronic device that converts binary
that has a regularly repeating internal arrange- numbers to decimal numbers. Compare encoder. 2. a
ment of its atoms. For example, quartz and silicon demodulator. See demodulate.
are crystals. delta connection n: in electronics, a combination
current (I) n: the flow of electric charge or the rate of of three components connected in series to form a
such flow, measured in amperes. triangle similar to the Greek letter delta. Also known
as a mesh connection.
current gain n: that part of the current flowing into
the emitter of a transistor that flows through the base demodulate v: in electronics, to recover the informa-
region and out the collector. tion transmitted by a modulated wave. See modulate.

current surge rating n: a measure of a solid-state demodulator probe n: in electronics, a small device
diode’s ability to operate properly when the circuit (a probe) that is placed on or inserted in a circuit and
in which the diode is installed experiences momen- that detects (demodulates) a modulated carrier wave
tary and intermittent surges in current flowing in and allows the demodulated signal to be displayed
the circuit. on an oscilloscope’s screen for analysis.
cycle n: in an alternating current generator (an denominator n: in a mathematical fraction, the term
alternator), one positive and one negative alterna- or number that divides the other term or number
tion constitutes 1 cycle. As a generator’s coil rotates (called the numerator), and is written below the line.
through a magnetic flux to induce voltage in the coil, For example, in the fraction ⁷⁄₁₅, 15 is the denominator.
the magnetic flux induces positive voltage as it rotates detector n: in an electronic receiver, the stage in the
from 0 to 180 degrees. It also induces negative volt- receiver that recovers (demodulates) the modulated
age as the coil rotates from 180 to 360 degrees. Each signal the receiver originally gets (receives). A modu-
positive and negative voltage is one alternation and lated signal is a signal that is varied by its amplitude,
the two constitute a cycle. See alternation. frequency, or phase. See modulate.
cycle counter n: see frequency counter. detector probe n: see demodulator probe.
cycles per second n: see hertz (Hz). dielectric n: a substance that is an insulator, or non-
conductor, of electricity.
Glossary 197

dielectric constant n: the value of dielectricity as- of the battery, through the light bulb, and through
signed to a substance. A substance that is a good another wire back to the battery’s other terminal.
insulator has a high dielectric constant, whereas a discontinuous DC current pulse n: the intermittent
poor insulator has a low one. and irregular fluctuation (a pulse) of direct current
dielectric strength n: the ability of a dielectric ma- flowing in a circuit. DC current pulses create heat in
terial to withstand the effects of voltage applied to the circuit and can affect the operation of solid-state
it. It is usually measured in terms of the amount of diodes whose temperature rating is not sufficient to
voltage per mil, or thousandths of an inch, required withstand the heat created by such pulses.
to break down the material. distribution transformer n: an electrical device de-
differential signal n: in a circuit, an indicator (a signed to reduce voltage from primary distribution
signal) that is the voltage difference between two levels, usually 7,200 or 12,400 volts, to utilization
junctions (nodes), neither of which is at ground voltages of 480, 240, or 120 volts. See power trans-
potential. former (def. 1).
differentiating circuit n: a circuit whose output dividend n: in mathematical division, the quantity
voltage is proportional to the rate of change of the that is divided by another quantity. For example, in
input voltage. 9 ÷ 3 = 3, 9 is the dividend.
digit n: a character that represents a numeric char- divisor n: in mathematical division, the quantity by
acter. See number. which another quantity is divided. For example, in
digital adj: pertaining to data in the form of digits, 12 ÷ 3 = 4, 4 is the divisor.
especially electronic data stored in the form of a doping n: the addition of impurities to a semicon-
binary code. Compare analog. ductor to achieve a desired characteristic, such as
digital logic n: 1. a system that describes a statement producing n- or p- type material. See n-type structure,
or condition in a true-false, yes-no, either-or, or on-off p-type structure.
manner. Digital logic is used in computer operating double-pole, double-throw (DPDT) switch n: a six
systems and in automatic switching and control terminal electrical switch that simultaneously con-
systems. 2. adj: of or pertaining to the various types nects one pair of terminals to either of other pairs
of solid-state devices such as gates, flip flops, and of terminals.
other on-off circuits used to perform problem-solving
double-pole, single-throw (DPST) switch n: an elec-
functions in the many types of digital computers.
trical switch with four terminals that simultaneously
digital multimeter n: in electronics, a multimeter opens or closes two separate circuits or both sides of
that is constructed such that its measurements are the same circuit.
displayed digitally rather than as analog readouts.
DPDT abbr: double-pole-double throw.
See multimeter.
DPST abbr: double-pole, single-throw.
diode n: 1. a solid-state electronic device that restricts
current flow chiefly in one direction. 2. a radio tube drain n: the region into which majority carriers flow
that contains an anode and a cathode. in a field-effect transistor. It is comparable to the col-
lector in a bipolar transistor. See field-effect transistor,
diode junction voltage n: in a circuit in which a diode
majority carrier.
is used, the voltage generated at the point where the
diode (the junction) is wired into the circuit. Junction dry cell n: a primary cell, such as a flashlight battery,
voltage is 0.7 volts and when multiplied by the cur- in which the electrolyte is a paste. The term “dry”
rent flowing in the circuit results in wattage, which is misleading, because moisture is necessary for the
takes the form of heat. electrolyte to function.
direct coupling n: in electronics, the joining (cou- dual-trace oscilloscope n: an oscilloscope that can
pling) of two circuits with a nonfrequency-sensitive compare two waveforms on the face of its single
device, such as a wire, resistor, or battery, so that both cathode-ray tube.
direct and alternating current can flow through the dwell n: in conventional automobile ignition systems
coupling path. For an oscilloscope to measure direct (those that are not solid-state), the number of degrees
current, its circuits must be direct coupled. through which a distributor cam rotates from the time
direct current (DC) n: in an electric circuit, current that the contact points close to the time that they open
flow in one direction only. An example of a simple again. Also called dwell angle.
DC circuit is a battery, a wire, and a light bulb, where- dwell angle n: see dwell.
in current flows through the wire from one terminal
198 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

dwell meter n: an electronic measuring device that, electrolytic capacitor n: a capacitor that consists of
when properly connected to an automobile’s ignition two electrodes separated by an electrolyte. A dielec-
system, measures the number of degrees through tric film is formed on the surface of one electrode.
which a distributor cam rotates from the time that electromagnet n: a magnet consisting of a coil of
the contact points close to the time that they open conducting wire wound around a soft iron or steel
again (the dwell). core; the core is strongly magnetized when current
flows through the coil, and is almost completely
E demagnetized when current flow ceases.
E abbr: volt. electromagnetic induction n: voltage created when a
conductor cuts across, or is cut by, a magnetic field.
eddy current n: an electric current induced within
the body of a conductor when the conductor either electromechanical relay n: a device used to open
moves through a magnetic field or is in a region or close electrical circuits (a relay) that is made up
where a change occurs in the magnetic lines of force. of mechanical parts that are actuated by electricity.
eddy-current loss n: in the core of a transformer, electromotive force (emf) n: 1. the force that drives
losses in power caused by eddy currents in the core. electrons and thus produces an electric current. 2.
Eddy current is induced in the core by the same the voltage or electric pressure that causes an electric
magnetic lines of force (flux) that induce voltage in current to flow along a conductor. 3. a difference of
the windings. potential, or electrical, flow through a circuit against
a resistance.
EEPROM n: see electrically erasable programmable
read-only memory. electron n: a particle in an atom that has a negative
charge. An atom contains the same number of elec-
EIA abbr: Electronics Industries Alliance.
trons and protons (which have a positive charge).
electrically erasable programmable read-only Electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom.
memory (EEPROM) n: an integrated-circuit memory Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) n: an organiza-
chip that has an internal switch to permit a user to tion that writes, promulgates, and publishes Recom-
erase the contents of the chip and write new contents mended Standards (RSs) for electronic and physical
into it by means of electrical signals. devices and their means of interfacing. For example,
electrically neutral n: a condition in an electrical RS-232 is a standard that defines a computer’s serial
circuit or component in which no electrical charge port, connector pins, and electrical signaling process.
exists. The circuit or component is uncharged—that EIA was founded in 1924 as the Radio Manufacturers
is, it has neither a positive nor a negative charge. Association. Address: 2500 Wilson Blvd., Arlington,
electric circuit n: see circuit. VA 22201; (703) 907-7500; [Link].

electric coil n: see inductor. electron pair n: a pair of valence electrons that form
a nonpolar bond between two neighboring atoms.
electricity n: the physical phenomena arising from See valance electron.
the behavior of electrons and protons that is caused
electron-pair bond n: the combining of atoms (the
by the attraction of particles with opposite charges
bonding) in which each atom of a bond pair contrib-
and the repulsion of particles with the same charge.
utes one electron to form a pair of electrons. Also
electric motor n: an electric device that converts elec- called covalent bond. See electron pair.
tric energy to mechanical energy. Compare generator.
electron tube n: an almost obsolete electronic de-
electric potential n: work that must be done against vice in which electrons move through a vacuum or
electric forces to bring a unit charge from a reference gaseous medium within an airtight glass (or other
point to another point. It is also called electromotive material) container. Also called radio tube; tube;
force and voltage. vacuum tube; or, in Great Britain, valve.
electric relay n: see relay. element n: one of more than a hundred simple sub-
electrochemical cell n: see galvanic cell. stances that consist of atoms of only one kind and
electrode n: a conductor of electric current as it leaves that either singly or in combination make up all mat-
or enters a medium such as an electrolyte, a gas, or ter. For example, the simplest element is hydrogen,
a vacuum. and one of the most abundant elements is carbon.
Some elements, such as radium and uranium, are
electrolyte n: a chemical that, when dissolved in radioactive.
water, dissociates into positive and negative ions,
thus increasing its electrical conductivity. emf abbr: electromotive force.
Glossary 199

emitter n: in a junction transistor, the region from FET abbr: field-effect transistor.
which charge carriers that are minority carriers in field effect n: the local change from the normal value
the transistor’s base are injected into the base and that an electric field produces in a semiconductor’s
control the current flowing through the transistor’s charge-carrier region. The field effect is used in field-
collector. Base and collector currents are combined in effect transistors.
the emitter region and it serves as the outlet for total
current in the transistor. See base (def. 2), collector. field-effect transistor (FET) n: a transistor in which
the resistance of the current path from source to
encoder n: an electronic device that converts decimal
drain is varied (modulated) by applying a transverse
numbers to binary numbers. Compare decoder.
electric field between grid or gate electrodes. The
engine n: a machine for converting the heat content electric field varies the thickness of the depletion layer
of fuel into rotary motion that can be used to power between the gates to reduce conductance.
other machinery. Compare motor.
filament n: in an incandescent light bulb, a metal-
EPROM abbr: erasable programmable read-only lic wire or ribbon through which electric current is
memory. passed to make it produce light.
equation n: in mathematics, a statement that each of film n: a thin skin or membrane. In electronics, it is
two expressions is the same as (is equal to) the other. used in the manufacture of one type of resistor.
For example, a = b is an equation as is 2 + 5 = 3 + 4.
film resistor n: a resistor made from a thin skin or
erasable programmable read-only memory membrane (a film). Carbon film, metal film, or metal-
(EPROM) n: an electronic integrated circuit whose lic oxide film may be used to make resistors whose
stored data (memory) is placed there by the manu- resistances are very accurate, usually within 5 percent
facturer and that cannot be programmed electrically of the desired resistance.
with permanent information provided by the manu-
facturer. The data can only be accessed (read) by a filter n: in electronics, a device in a circuit that senses
user; a user cannot change it. and allows desired electronic constituents to pass
through it to the remainder of the circuit and at the
Esaki tunnel diode n: see tunnel diode. same time senses and removes or weakens (attenu-
exciting current n: the back electromotive force that ates) electronic constituents not desired in the circuit
flows through the primary winding of a transformer beyond the point of the filter’s placement in the
when no loads are connected to the secondary wind- circuit. v: to remove or attenuate (weaken) electronic
ing. See back electromotive force. constituents not desired in the circuit beyond the
point in the circuit where a filter is placed.
exclusive or (XOR) n: in computer science, an in-
struction that performs its operation on a bit-by-bit filter choke coil n: a winding (coil) with a laminated
basis for its two operand words, usually storing the iron core used in a power supply’s filter system to
result in one its operand locations. Also called XOR. pass direct current and simultaneously impede the
See operand. passage of alternating current.
exponent n: in mathematics, a number or symbol, flip-flop circuit n: a type of electronic circuit in which
such as the 3 in x3, placed to the right of and above either of two active devices may remain conducting,
another number, symbol, or expression, denoting the with the other nonconducting, until the application
power to which that number, symbol, or expression of an external pulse.
is raised to. Also called power. flux n: the lines of force in a magnetic field.
flux density n: the number of lines of force in a square
F inch of the cross-sectional area of the core in a coil,
F symbol: farad. or solenoid.
flux linkage n: the product of the number of turns in
farad (F) n: the unit of electrical capacitance. One
a coil and the magnetic flux passing through the coil.
farad is equal to the capacitance of a capacitor that
has a potential difference of 1 volt between its plates FM abbr: frequency modulation.
when the charge of one of its plates is 1 coulomb, forward bias n: where a p-type and n-type semicon-
there being an equal and opposite charge on the other ductor are joined, the condition that occurs when
plate. See coulomb. the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the
Fe sym: iron. lead on the p-type semiconductor and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to the lead on the
feedback n: in an electric circuit, the return of a por-
n-type semiconductor. Forward biasing attracts free
tion of the output current of the circuit to its input.
200 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

electrons in the n-type material across the junction electrolyte, which is capable of producing voltage
toward the positive terminal, and attracts holes in and current. Two or more galvanic cells constitute
the p-type across the junction toward the negative a battery. Often, and erroneously, a galvanic cell is
terminal. A forward-biased p-n junction offers low called a battery. A battery consists of two or more
resistance and current flows freely across it. Compare galvanic cells.
reverse bias. See n-type structure, p-type structure. galvanic corrosion n: a type of corrosion that occurs
forward voltage drop n: the voltage across a semi- when a small electric current flows from one piece of
conducting diode or special transistor that carries metal equipment to another. It is particularly preva-
current in a forward direction. lent when two dissimilar metals are present in an
free electron n: an electron on the outer shell of an environment in which electricity can flow (as when
atom that moves readily from one atom to another. two dissimilar conductors in a circuit are connected).

free hole n: a space (hole) in an atom that is not bound galvanometer n: an instrument that detects or mea-
to an impurity in a semiconductor. A free hole is the sures a small electric current by movements of a
opposite of a free electron and is a positive charge. magnetic needle or of a coil in a magnetic field. It can
See free electron. be adapted with shunts or resistors to measure larger
currents or voltage. See resistor, shunt.
frequency n: the number of cycles completed by a
periodic quantity in a unit time—for example, the gate n: in solid-state electronics, one of the electrodes
number of complete alternations (cycles) per second in a field-effect transistor. See field-effect transistor.
of alternating electric current. gate-controlled turnoff n: in a semiconductor, the
action of switching the semiconductor from its non-
frequency counter n: an electronic device used to
conducting, or off, state to its conducting, or on state,
measure the frequency of a signal by counting the
by applying a negative pulse to its gate terminal.
number of cycles in the signal during a predeter-
mined time interval. gate-turnoff silicon-controlled rectifier (GTO-SCR)
n: a silicon-controlled rectifier that can be turned off
frequency modulation (FM) n: the varying (modulat-
by applying current to its gate. GTO-SCRs are mainly
ing) of a wave in which the instantaneous frequency
used for direct-current switching because turnoff
of the modulated wave differs from the carrier
can be achieved in a fraction of a microsecond. See
frequency by an amount proportional to the instan-
silicon-controlled rectifier.
taneous value of the modulating wave. Compare
amplitude modulation. gauge n: in electrical circuits, a measure of the di-
ameter (thickness) of the wire or other device that
full adder n: a logic element in an electrical circuit
conducts electricity through a circuit or from one
that operates on two binary digits and a carry digit
point to another. In general, gauges for wire conduc-
from a preceding stage to produce as output a sum
tors range from 24 to ⁴⁄₀ (0000). Some common sizes
digit and a new carry digit.
are 6, 12, and 16 with 6-gauge wire being larger in
full load n: in electronics, the greatest amount of diameter than 16-gauge wire. See American wire gauge.
electric power (the greatest load) that a circuit or de-
Ge sym: germanium.
vice is designed to carry under specified conditions.
generator n: a machine that changes mechanical
function n: a mathematical rule between two sets
energy into electrical energy in the form of direct
that assigns to each member of the first set exactly
current. Compare electric motor.
one member of the second.
geographic pole n: either of two points that lie at
either end of an imaginary line drawn through the
G rotational axis of the earth; one is the North Pole and
Ga sym: gallium. the other is the South Pole. Compare magnetic pole.
gage n: variation of gauge. germanium (Ge) n: a brittle, silvery-gray metallic
element in the carbon family. It is a rare metal used
gallium (Ga) n: a silvery-white metallic element often
in semiconductors, alloys, and glass.
added as an impurity to semiconductors to create a
positive charge in the semiconductor. GFCI abbr: ground fault circuit interrupter.
galvanic adj: of, relating to, or producing a direct gigohm (Gohm, GΩ) n: 1 billion (1,000,000,000)
current of electricity. ohms. Sometimes expressed as 1,000 megohms or
109 ohms.
galvanic cell n: an electrical device that contains two
dissimilar metals suspended in or surrounded by an GΩ abbr: gigohm, or 1 billon (1,000,000,000) ohms.
Glossary 201

Gray code n: a modified binary code in which se- hole n: in electronics, the space left in atoms as free
quential numbers are represented by expressions that electrons flow from one atom to another. Like free
differ only in one bit. Because the expressions differ electrons, holes also flow from atom to atom but in
by only one bit, errors are minimized. the opposite direction from electrons. In electronics,
ground n: a conducting path, intentional or acciden- conventional current flow is shown as hole flow and
tal, between an electric circuit or equipment and the not electron flow. Consequently, circuit diagrams for
earth, or a conducting body serving in place of the electronic devices show current flowing from the
earth. v: to connect electrical equipment to earth positive terminal to the negative terminal.
or to a conducting body, which serves in place of hole-electron pair n: in a p-type semiconductor, that
the earth. which occurs when an impurity atom with only three
ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) n: a fast- valence electrons is placed in a semiconducting mate-
acting circuit breaker that senses very small ground rial with four valence electrons. The fourth electron
fault currents and which breaks the circuit when it is left without an electron to pair with, which results
detects such faults. in a hole. The hole conducts current.
ground fault detector n: in an electric circuit, a device hookup wire n: wire or cable used to connect com-
that senses very small ground fault currents that ponents in an electronic device.
could flow through the body of a person standing
hot-carrier diode n: see Schottky diode.
on damp ground while touching a live conductor.
GTO-SCR abbr: gate-controlled silicon-controlled hot terminal n: see positive terminal.
rectifier. hydrogen (H) n: a flammable, colorless, odorless, taste-
less gas whose chemical symbol is H and that usually
H occurs as the diatomic molecule H2. It is lighter than
air; indeed, it is the lightest element in the universe.
H sym: 1. hydrogen. 2. henry. 3. magnetizing force.
hypotenuse n: in a right triangle, the side opposite
H2SO4 form: sulfuric acid.
the right angle. See right triangle.
hairspring n: a thin spiraled recoil spring that regu-
hysteresis n: the lagging of changes in the magnetiza-
lates the motion of a pointer in a meter or a clock.
tion of a substance behind changes in the magnetic
half adder n: a logic element in an electronic circuit field as the magnetic field is varied.
that operates on two binary digits, but no carry digits,
from a preceding stage to produce as output a sum hysteresis loss n: in a transformer, the conversion
digit and a carry digit. of electrical energy to heat in the core of the trans-
former’s winding because of hysteresis (the lagging
henry (H or L) n: a unit of inductance in which an of changes in the core’s magnetic field as the trans-
induced voltage (electromotive force) of 1 volt occurs former’s magnetic field is varied). See hysteresis.
in a circuit when the current changes at the rate of 1
ampere per second. Hz sym: hertz.

hertz (Hz) n: a unit in the metric system used to

measure frequency in cycles per second. I
hexadecimal number n: a number based on pow- I sym: current.
ers of 16 that uses the decimal digits 0 to 9 and if-then operation n: a statement that asserts that
six more digits represented by the letters A, B, if one thing is true then another thing is also true.
C, D, E, and F. A hexadecimal number is usually Mathematically, the operation is, “If p, then q.”
written with the subscript 16 to indicate that it is IGBT abbr: insulated-gate bipolar transistor.
a hexadecimal number. For example, 84D1F16 is a
hexadecimal number. impedance (Z) n: in an alternating current (AC)
circuit, the circuit’s total opposition to current flow.
high-frequency adj: in electronics, involving the Impedance is similar to resistance in a direct current
rapid cycling of alternating current, radio waves, or (DC) circuit. Just as resistance is measured in ohms,
sound waves. so too is impedance. When connecting certain AC
holding current n: the minimum current required components, such as a microphone to an amplifier, it
to maintain a switching device, such as a silicon- is important for both components to have the same,
controlled rectifier, in a closed, or conducting, state or very close to the same, impedance; otherwise, the
after it is energized or triggered. connected components may not operate properly.
202 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

implication n: see if-then operation. insulator n: a material with a very low concentra-
tion of free electrons that resists the flow of electric
impressed voltage n: in an electrical circuit, voltage
current.
applied to the circuit or to a device in the circuit.
integer n: any positive or negative number includ-
induced current n: the flow of an electric charge,
ing 0.
measured in amperes, that is the result of induced
voltage. See induced emf. integrated circuit n: an interconnected arrangement
of active and passive electronic elements incorporat-
induced emf n: electromotive force (voltage, or elec-
ed (integrated) with a single semiconductor substrate
tricity) that is developed in a conductor by moving
or deposited on the substrate by a continuous series
the conductor within a magnetic field or moving the
of compatible processes, and capable of performing
magnetic field in relation to the conductor.
at least one complete electronic circuit function.
induced voltage n: see induced emf.
integrating amplifier n: an operational amplifier
inductance n: the property of an electric circuit or of with a feedback, or shunt, capacitor in which the
two neighboring circuits wherein an electromotive waveform at the output is the integral (usually over
force is generated by induction in one circuit by a time) of the input.
change of current in itself or in the other. See induction.
International System of Units (SI) n: a system of
inductance coil n: see inductor. units of measurement based on the metric system,
induction n: the production of an electric charge, adopted and described by the Eleventh General
magnetism, or electromotive force in an electric Conference on Weights and Measures. It provides
conductor, a magnetizable body, or an electric circuit an international standard of measurement to be fol-
by the proximity of a similarly energized body or by lowed when certain customary units, both U.S. and
the variation of the magnetic flux without contact. metric, are eventually phased out of international
induction motor n: an alternating-current motor in trade operations. The symbol SI (Le Système In-
which the primary winding on a part (usually the ternational d’Unités) designates the system, which
stator) is connected to a source of power, and the involves seven base units: (1) metre for length, (2)
secondary winding (usually on the rotor) carries kilogram for mass, (3) second for time, (4) Celsius for
current induced by the magnetic field of the primary temperature, (5) ampere for electric current, (6) can-
winding. dela for luminous intensity, and (7) mole for amount
of substance. From these units, others are derived
inductive coupling n: in electronics, the transfer without introducing numerical factors.
of energy from one circuit to another through the
inductance provided by a transformer. inverter n: an electronic device that converts direct
current into alternating current.
inductive filter n: see LC filter.
inverter circuit n: a logic circuit (also called a NOT
inductive reactance n: the retarding effect on the pas- circuit) with one input and one output that inverts
sage of alternating current through a circuit because the input signal at the output—that is, the output
of inductance. See inductance. signal is a logical 1 if the input signal is a logical 0
inductor n: in an electrical circuit, a coil of wire that and vice versa.
introduces inductance or magnetic flux into the cir-
inverting input n: in an operational amplifier, a type
cuit. It may also react mechanically to changing mag-
of input wherein if the input signal is changed, the
netic flux. Also called electric coil, inductance coil.
output is also changed. For example, if the inverting
in phase n: in alternating current circuits, the phe- input increases in voltage, the output voltage inverts,
nomenon that occurs when the voltage and the or decreases. Also called minus input. Compare
current have the same frequency and strength at the noninverting input.
same instant in the cycle.
ion n: an atom or a group of atoms charged either
inrush current n: the heavy current that develops positively (a cation) or negatively (an anion) as a
when an induction motor is started at full voltage. result of losing or gaining electrons.
It usually decreases gradually as the speed increases
ionization n: the process by which a neutral atom
and drops sharply when the motor reaches full speed.
becomes positively or negatively charged through
insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) n: in the loss or gain of electrons.
semiconductors, a transistor that combines low
forward voltage drop, gate-controlled turnoff, and ionize v: to give a neutral atom either a positive or
high switching speed. It is used in high-powered negative charge; after being ionized, the neutral atom
converters. becomes an ion. See ion.
Glossary 203

iron (Fe) n: 1. a heavy, magnetic, malleable, and keeper n: a soft iron bar placed between the poles
ductile element occurring in the earth’s crust in many of a permanent magnet when it is not being used.
types of ores. 2. a loose term used in the oilfield for A keeper protects the magnet’s poles from being
any tool or device generally made of metal, whether demagnetized if the magnet is dropped or struck
it contains iron or not. with a hard object.
iron-cored coil n: in a coil of wire that carries electric kilohm (kohm, kΩ) n: 1,000 ohms.
current, the placement of a length of soft iron in the
kΩ abbr: kilohm.
central interior part of the coil.
kiloline n: in magnetic circuits, an expression of the
flux density of a coil’s core in thousands of lines; usu-
J
ally expressed as kilolines per square inch.
JEDEC abbr: JEDEC Solid State Technology Associa-
kilovolt ampere (kVA) n: a rating applied to trans-
tion.
formers in which a transformer’s power is expressed
JEDEC Solid State Technology Association (JEDEC) as 1,000 volt-amperes (VA).
n: originally known as the Joint Electron Device
kilowatt (kW) n: a metric unit of power equal to ap-
Engineering Council (JEDEC), this association is the
proximately 1.34 horsepower; 1,000 watts. See watt.
semiconductor engineering standardization body of
the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA), a trade as- kinetic energy n: energy possessed by a body because
sociation that represents all areas of the electronics of its motion. It is equal to one-half the mass of the
industry. JEDEC was originally created in 1960 as a body times the square of its speed.
joint activity between EIA and the National Electri-
knee n: on a graph that plots magnetizing force
cal Manufacturing Association (NEMA), to cover the
versus flux density for coil cores, the point on the
standardization of discrete semiconductor devices
curve of a particular material where further increases
and later expanded in 1970 to include integrated
in flux density fails to result in significant gains in
circuits. In spite of the name change, the associa-
magnetizing force.
tion is usually abbreviated as JEDEC. Address: 2500
Wilson Blvd., Arlington, VA 22201; (703) 907-7534; kohm abbr: kilohm.
[Link]. kVA abbr: kilovolt ampere.
JFET abbr: junction-type field-effect transistor. kW abbr: kilowatt.
Joint Electron Device Engineering Council (JEDEC)
n: a now defunct consortium of manufacturers that
devised standards mostly for computer memory L
modules. Replaced in 1998 by the JEDEC Solid State L abbr: 1. litre. 2. henry.
Technology Association.
ladder logic n: a method used to describe the arrange-
junction n: in solid-state electronics, a region of ment of electromechanical relays in a control system.
transition between two semiconducting regions in Usually, a schematic drawing of such relays consists
a semiconducting device—for example, the region of vertical lines called rails and horizontal lines called
where the p and n materials come into contact. rungs. Consequently, the schematic resembles the
junction transistor n: a transistor in which emit- rails and rungs of a ladder.
ter and collector barriers are formed between the latch circuit n: an electronic circuit that reverses and
semiconductor regions of opposite conductivity maintains its state each time power is applied.
(the region where the p and n materials come into
lattice n: the regular geometrical arrangement of
contact). Also called a junction-type field-effect tran-
points or objects over an area in space—for example,
sistor (JFET).
the arrangement of atoms in a crystal. See crystal.
junction-type field-effect transistor (JFET) n: see
law of conservation of energy n: the principle that
junction transistor.
energy cannot be created or destroyed, although it
can be changed from one form to another, such as
K mechanical energy to electrical energy.

K sym: dielectric constant. LCD abbr: liquid crystal display.

LC filter n: a low-pass filter that smooths the DC
kcmil abbr: one thousand circular mils. See circular
output voltage of a rectifier. It consists of one or
mil.
more sections in series, each section consisting of an
204 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

inductor on one of the pair of conductors in series linear taper n: in a potentiometer with multiple wind-
with a capacitor between the conductors. Also known ings, the uniform winding of the resistance wire that
as inductive filter, pi (π) filter. makes up the potentiometer’s control. A linear taper
lead (Pb) (pronounced “led”) n: a chemical element, provides the potentiometer with directly propor-
the symbol of which is Pb, which is a heavy, soft, tional control—that is, turning the potentiometer’s
malleable, and ductile bluish white metal. It is often control directly varies the potentiometer’s resistance.
used in batteries, solder, and radioactivity shields. For example, turning the control one-fourth turn
decreases or increases the resistance by one fourth.
lead (pronounced “leed”) n: in electronics, a wire,
Compare logarithmic taper.
usually insulated, which, when placed in an electrical
circuit, connects two points in the circuit. line loss n: the reduction in (or the loss of) electrical
energy that occurs when electricity flows though a
lead-acid battery n: a storage battery in which the
conductor (a line).
electrodes are grids of lead and lead peroxide that
change in composition during charging and discharg- lines of force n pl: see magnetic lines of force.
ing, and the electrolyte is dilute sulfuric acid. liquid crystal display (LCD) n: an electronic digital
lead-acid cell n: an electrical device, often part of a display that consists of two sheets of glass separated
battery, that consists of lead and lead peroxide plates by a sealed-in, normally transparent, liquid crystal
immersed in a liquid solution (an electrolyte) that is material. The outer surface of each glass sheet has a
usually sulfuric acid. Such a cell produces voltage transparent conductive coating etched into character-
and current. forming segments that have leads going to the edges
leakage current n: in an electrical component, such of the display. Voltage applied between front and back
as a capacitor, that employs a dielectric (insulator) electrode coatings disrupts the orderly arrangement of
to separate conductive elements in the component molecules, which darkens the liquid enough to form
and prevent the flow of electricity between the visible characters although no light is generated.
conductive elements, the relatively small amount of load n: in electronics, a device that consumes electric
electricity that flows between the conductors because power.
no dielectric is a perfect insulator. Consequently,
load loss n: in a transformer, the reduction (loss) of
some current flows, or leaks, from one conductive
electrical energy that occurs when the transformer
element to another.
is loaded—that is, when electricity is being drawn
leakage reactance n: in a coil, or winding, in which from it.
electrical current is flowing, the current that escapes,
or leaks, from it. This leakage, in turn, tends to load voltage n: see voltage drop.
hold back, or impede, the flow of current through lo-cap probe n: in electronics, a probe that attenuates
the winding. In this case, the impedance to flow is (reduces) the strength of a signal being measured by
termed reactance. the probe. See attenuating probe.
LED abbr: light-emitting diode. lodestone n: a kind of naturally occurring iron oxide
Lenz’s law n: a rule that states that an induced elec- that has magnetic properties and therefore attracts
tromotive force (voltage) generates a current that iron or steel. Also called magnetite.
induces a counter magnetic field that opposes the logarithm n: the exponent that indicates the power to
magnetic field generating the current. which a number is raised to produce a given number.
For example, the logarithm of 100 to the base 10 is 2.
light-emitting diode (LED) n: a semiconductor de-
vice that has two electrodes or terminals (a diode) logarithmic adj: of or pertaining to a logarithm, as a
and emits light when voltage is applied to it. LEDs logarithmic scale. See logarithm.
are used in electronic displays such as calculators, logarithmic scale n: a range of values—a scale—on
wrist watches, and so on. which actual distances from the origin are propor-
tional to the logarithms of the corresponding scale
limiter n: see clipper.
numbers. Unlike an arithmetic scale, where distances
limiting n: see clipper. from the origin relate directly to the number, values
linearity n: in electronics, the relationship between on a logarithmic scale indicate a proportional relation.
two quantities that occurs when a change in one of the For example, the Richter scale of earthquake intensity
quantities produces a directly proportional change is logarithmic; thus, an earthquake with an intensity
in the other quantity. of 4.0 on the Richter scale is much more than twice
as intense as an earthquake with an intensity of 2.0.
Glossary 205

logarithmic taper n: in a potentiometer, the winding magnetic flux n: see flux.

of the resistance wire in such a manner that turning
magnetic iron ore n: see magnetite.
the potentiometer’s control knob varies the resistance
nonproportionately. That is, turning the control knob magnetic lines n pl: see magnetic lines of force.
one-quarter turn increases or decreases the resistance magnetic lines of force n pl: the magnetism that
by a factor different from one-fourth—for example, emanates from a magnet’s north pole and travels in
two or four times more. Compare linear taper. the atmosphere around the magnet to its south pole.
logic n: 1. the study of the principles of reasoning, magnetic north n: a region located in the north
especially of the structure of propositions as distin- polar region of the earth toward which magnetic
guished from their content; logic also includes the compasses point. Its location is different from true,
study of method and validity in deductive reason- or geographic, north. Compare true north.
ing. 2. the nonarithmetic operations performed by a
computer, such as sorting, comparing, and matching magnetic pole n: 1. either of two regions that are lo-
that involve yes-no decisions. cated in the polar areas of the northern and southern
hemispheres and toward which a compass needle
logical AND operation n: a process in logical reason-
points from any direction throughout adjacent re-
ing whereby two related statements, or premises,
gions. Compare geographic pole. 2. either of the poles
must be true before a correct conclusion can be
of a magnet.
drawn. For example, if one premise is “that dog is
panting,” and the other premise is that “the tempera- magnetic repulsion n: the phenomenon that like
ture is 98°,” then the conclusion, “when the tempera- poles (north-north or south-south) of a magnet repel,
ture is 98°, that dog pants,” may be correctly drawn. or repulse, each other.
logical NOT operation n: a process in logical reason- magnetism n: physical phenomena that include a
ing whereby a true statement is made false by making magnet’s or lodestone’s attraction for iron and the
a false statement. forces associated with moving electricity; magnets
and electric current exhibit these phenomena, which
logical OR operation n: a process in logical reason-
are characterized by fields of force.
ing whereby if either or both of two statements, or
premises, are true, then a correct conclusion can be magnetite n: the mineral form of black iron oxide,
drawn. For example, the statement that “if 50 tons Fe3O4, that often occurs with magnesium, zinc, and
of iron or 50 tons of coal overload a truck, then the manganese and is an important ore of iron. Also
truck is overloaded,” is a correct conclusion. Either called lodestone, magnetic iron ore.
50 tons of iron or 50 tons of coal overload the truck. magnetizing current n: the part of exciting current
logic gate n: an electronic circuit that provides the that is 90 degrees out of phase with the impressed
action of comparing, selecting, making references, voltage on the circuit of a transformer and that pro-
matching, sorting, and merging where yes-or-no duces magnetic flux in the transformer’s winding.
(logic) quantities are involved. See exciting current.
low-capacitance probe n: see lo-cap probe. magnetizing force (H) n: in an electric coil, or sole-
noid, the ampere-turns per inch of the length of the
coil’s core to be magnetized. Just as a voltage drop, or
M loss of voltage, occurs along the length of a conduc-
magnet n: a metal that has the property of attracting tor that is carrying current, a magnetomotive drop
ferrous (iron) and certain other metals to it. occurs along the length of the magnetic circuit. The
longer the magnetic circuit, the greater is the mag-
magnetic attraction n: the principle that the opposite
netomotive force required to magnetize the core to
(north and south) poles of a magnet attract each other.
the desired amount.
magnetic circuit n: the path magnetic lines of force
magneto n: a device (an alternator) that produces
(flux lines) take in an electrical device that employs
alternating current for distribution to the ignition
magnets in its operation. A magnetic circuit is analo-
system of some internal-combustion engines. See
gous to direct current flowing in a conductor such
alternator.
as wire or cable.
magnetomotive force (mmf) n: in a magnetic circuit,
magnetic deviation n: see declination.
the force that creates magnetic lines of force (mag-
magnetic field n: the space that magnetic lines of netic flux); it is analogous to electromotive force, or
force produced by a magnet or a current-carrying voltage, in an electric circuit.
conductor occupy.
206 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

magnet wire n: wire used as windings in electro- μF abbr: microfarad.

magnets, transformers, motors, and generators. Its mF abbr: microfarad.
insulation must be thin so that it can be wound sev-
MFD abbr: manufacturer’s abbreviation for mirco-
eral times around a core; thick insulation would not
farad; often stamped on the body of the capacitor.
allow it to be wound an adequate number of times.
So, instead of a plastic coating, varying grades of mH abbr: millihenry.
enamel or varnish are baked onto magnet wires to mica n: a silicate mineral characterized by sheet
provide good insulating properties. cleavage—i.e., it separates into thin sheets. Biotite is
majority carrier n: the type of carrier, either electron ferromagnesian black mica, and muscovite is potassic
or hole, that makes up more than half the carriers in white mica. Sometimes mica is used as a lost circula-
a semiconductor. tion material in drilling and as a dielectric (insulator)
in electrical components such as capacitors.
mass n: the quantity of matter a substance contains,
mica capacitor n: a capacitor whose dielectric (insu-
independent of such external conditions as the buoy-
lating material) is made from mica. See capacitor, mica.
ancy of the atmosphere or the acceleration caused
by gravity. microfarad (mF, μF) n: one-millionth (10–6) of a farad.
See farad.
master oscillator n: an oscillator that establishes the
carrier frequency of the output of an amplifier or microprocessor n: a single silicon chip on which
transmitter. See oscillator. the arithmetic and logic functions of a computer are
placed.
master switch n: an electrical component, usually
wired in parallel with other switches, that controls mil n: a distance equal to 0.001 (¹⁄₁,₀₀₀, or 10–3) inches.
the flow of electricity in the circuit. When closed, the MIL abbr: military standards.
switch allows electricity to flow through the circuit.
mil-foot n: a measurement of the length of a wire
When open, no electricity can flow. When the master
or conductor based on its cross-sectional diameter;
switch is open, other switches in the circuit do not
a wire that is 1 foot long and has a diameter of 0.001
operate.
inches is 1 mil-foot.
matrix n: in mathematics, a rectangular array of
military standard (MIL) n: specifications for equip-
numbers from vector space.
ment and procedures purchased by U.S. military
matter n: anything that occupies space and can be forces. One source of MILs is Global Engineering
perceived by one or more senses; a physical body, Documents, 15 Inverness Way East, Englewood, CO
a physical substance, or the universe as a whole; 80112: 303-397-7956 or 800-854-7179; [Link].
something that has mass and exists as a solid, liquid, [Link].
gas, or plasma.
millihenry (mH) n: one-thousandth of a henry, or
maximum working voltage rating n: in a capacitor, 10–3 henrys.
the largest amount of voltage that can be applied milli-inch n: a measure of the diameter of an electrical
to the capacitor under normal operating conditions wire or cable expressed in thousandths of an inch.
without damaging or destroying it. For example, if a wire’s diameter is 0.1 inches, it is
MC abbr: metal clad. also 0.1 × 1,000 or 100 milli-inches.
megohms (Mohms, MΩ) n: 1,000,000 ohms. Some- mil size n: see circular mil.
times expressed as 106 ohms.
minuend n: in mathematics, the quantity from which
metal-clad (MC) cable n: in electricity, a bundle of another quantity is to be subtracted. For example, in
several wire conductors, each of which is individu- the expression 38 – 23 = 15, 23 is the minuend.
ally insulated, that is surrounded by a strong metal
minus input n: see inverting input.
covering.
mixture n: a physical combination of two or more
metallic oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor
elements or components that maintain their chemical
(MOSFET) n: a field-effect transistor whose gate is
identity; no chemical reaction is involved.
insulated from the semiconductor’s substrate by a
thin layer of silicon dioxide. mmf abbr: magnetomotive force.
metallic oxide varistor (MOV) n: a semiconductor modulate v: in electronics, to vary the amplitude,
with two electrodes whose resistance depends on the frequency, or phase of a signal’s wave. Modulating
voltage flowing through it. Its resistance decreases a wave with electronic information enables the wave
as applied voltage increases. Also called a voltage- to carry the information over a distance. A receiver,
dependent resistor.
Glossary 207

when tuned to the correct frequency, can demodu- N

late the wave to make the information available for
NAND circuit n: a logic circuit whose output signal
interpretation and understanding.
is a logical 1 if all of its inputs is a logical 0, and
Mohm abbr: megohm, or 1,000,000 ohms. whose output signal is a logical 0 if all of its inputs
MΩ abbr: megohm, or 1,000,000 ohms. are a logical 1.
molecule n: the smallest particle of a substance that nanofarad (nF) n: one-billionth (10–9) of a farad. See
retains the properties of the substance. It is composed farad.
of one or more atoms. National Electrical Manufacturers Association
MOSFET abbr: metal oxide semiconductor field-effect (NEMA) n: an organization created in 1926 by the
transistor. merger of the Electric Power Club and the Associ-
ated Manufacturers of Electrical Supplies. NEMA
motor n: any of various power units, such as hydrau-
provides a forum for the standardization of electri-
lic, air, or electric devices, which develop energy or
cal equipment to ensure the manufacture of safe,
impart motion. Compare engine. See electric motor.
effective, and compatible electrical products. NEMA
motor slip n: see slip. also makes contributions to the electrical industry by
MOV abbr: metallic oxide varistor. shaping public policy development and operating as
a central confidential agency for gathering, compil-
multimeter n: an electronic testing instrument ing, and analyzing market statistics and economics
that features several ranges for measuring voltage, data. Address: 1300 North 17th Street, Suite 1847,
current, and resistance. Also called a volt-ohm- Rosslyn, VA 22209; (703) 841-3200; [Link].
milliammeter.
National Electric Code (NEC) n: a document spon-
multiplicand n: in mathematics, the quantity that is sored by the National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA),
multiplied by another quantity. For example, if 6 is the National Electric Code (NEC) establishes stan-
multiplied by 2, 6 is the multiplicand. dards for safe electrical installations. Electricians,
multiplier n: 1. in mathematics, the quantity that electrical contractors, engineers, and inspectors use
multiplies another quantity. For example, if 6 is the NEC as a guide when installing electrical wiring.
multiplied by 2, 2 is the multiplier. 2. in electronics, Most cities and other authorities in the U.S. require
an indication that one quantity should be multiplied that houses, buildings, factories, etc., be wired to
by another quantity, usually in multiples of ten. meet NEC standards.
For example, if an electronic component is stamped National Fire Protection Agency (NFPA) n: founded
2k (or, sometimes, 2K), the k (or K) stands for kilo in 1896, an organization that provides fire, electrical,
and indicates that 2 should be multiplied by 1,000 to and life safety to the public. The mission of the inter-
arrive at 2,000. (The lower case k is the preferred ab- national nonprofit NFPA is to reduce the worldwide
breviation for kilo, but manufacturers sometimes use burden of fire and other hazards on the quality of life
K.) An M (short for mega) after a number indicates by providing and advocating scientifically-based con-
that the preceding number should be multiplied by sensus codes and standards, research, training, and
1 million; a G (short for giga) after the number in- education. Address: 1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy,
dicates the preceding number should be multiplied MA 02169; [Link].
by 1 billion. (The capital letters M and G are used to
NEC abbr: National Electric Code.
abbreviate mega and giga.)
needle valve n: a device that controls the rate of flow
multitrace recorder n: in electronics, an instrument in a line (a valve), which contains a sharp-pointed,
that senses (traces) and records two or more signals needlelike plug that is driven into and out of a cone-
generated by a component to which the recorder is shaped seat to control accurately a relatively small
attached. rate of fluid flow.
multivibrator oscillator n: a special type of oscillator negative charge n: a phenomenon that occurs at the
that uses two tubes, transistors, or other electronic atomic level of elements whereby the element has a
devices in which the output of each tube, transistor, surplus of electrons—that is, it has a lower electric
or device is coupled to the input of the other with potential. Compare positive charge.
resistors and capacitors (or other devices) to obtain
in-phase feedback voltage. Multivibrator oscillators negative feedback n: the return of a portion of the
are used in oscilloscopes to produce a large range of output current of a circuit to its input (feedback)
sweep frequencies. in which the portion returned is 180 degrees out
of phase with the input signal. This out-of-phase
208 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

feedback decreases the amount of amplification in NOT circuit n: see inverter circuit.
the circuit and stabilizes it with respect to time or npn transistor n: a transistor in which n-type material
frequency. Negative feedback reduces distortion and is placed on each side of p-type material. One side of
noise in the amplifier. the n-type material is an emitter and the other side is a
negative terminal n: the terminal of a battery or other collector. The p-type material sandwiched in between
voltage source away from which electrons flow and the two n-type materials is the base. The emitter is
toward which holes flow. See hole, terminal. negative with respect to the base, while the collector
NEMA abbr: National Electrical Manufacturers As- is positive with respect to the base.
sociation. n-type structure n: in a semiconductor material such
neutral adj: of or relating to a particle, an object, or as silicon, the arrangement of atoms in the material in
a system that has neither a positive nor a negative such a manner that electron flow occurs between the
electric charge; of or relating to a particle, object, or atoms and thus creates a negative charge. Compare
system that has a net electric charge of zero. p-type structure.

neutron n: an electrically neutral subatomic particle nucleus n: the positively charged central region of
in the nucleus of an atom, whose mass is about 1,845 an atom, composed of protons and neutrons and
times that of the electron. A neutron is stable when containing almost all of the mass of the atom.
bound in an atomic nucleus. It and the proton form number n: 1. in mathematics, a member of the set
nearly the entire mass of atomic nuclei. of positive integers; one of a series of symbols of
nF abbr: nanofarad. unique meaning in a fixed order that can be derived
by counting. A member of any of the further sets of
NFPA abbr: National Fire Protection Agency.
mathematical objects, such as negative integers and
Ni sym: nickel. real numbers. 2. a symbol or a word used to represent
Nichrome n: the trademarked name of a nickel- a number.
chromium alloy that has high electrical resistance numerator n: in a mathematical fraction, the term or
and the ability to withstand high temperatures; it is number that is divided by the other term or number
often used as the elements in electric heaters. (called the denominator), and is written above the
nickel (Ni) n: a silver-gray, ductile, malleable, and line. For example, in the fraction ⁸⁄₉, 8 is the numerator.
tough metal used in alloys, plating, coins, ceramics,
and electronic circuits. O
no-load loss n: in a transformer, losses in electrical O sym: oxygen.
energy that occur in the primary, secondary, and core
octal number n: a number in a base 8 numbering
of the transformer; no-load losses occur whether the
system that is represented by the digits 0 through 7.
transformed is loaded or is not loaded.
Usually, an octal number is written with the subscript
nonconductor n: a material through which little or 8 to indicate that it is an octal number. For example,
no free electrons can flow. 62708 indicates an octal number.

noninverting input n: in an operational amplifier, a ohm (Ω) n: a unit for measuring electrical resistance.
type of input wherein if the input signal is changed, the One ohm is equal to the resistance through which a
output is also changed. For example, if the noninverting current of 1 ampere will flow when a potential dif-
input increases in voltage, the output voltage also in- ference of 1 volt exists across a circuit.
creases. Also called plus input. Compare inverting input. ohmic adj: of or relating to the resistance of an object
NOR circuit n: an electrical circuit in which output or a material in terms of ohms. See ohm.
voltage appears only when a signal is absent from ohmmeter n: an electrical instrument that measures
all its input terminals. the resistance of a conductor in ohms. It may be
calibrated to read in ohms or megohms.
north magnetic pole n: a point on the earth’s surface
near the north polar region to which a magnetic ohms-adjust potentiometer n: an adjustable resistor
compass points regardless of the compass’s location (a potentiometer) on an ohmmeter that, when turned,
on earth. The north magnetic pole is located several varies the resistance in the meter’s circuit. Varying
miles from the North Pole (the north geographic the resistance adjusts the meter’s pointer to indicate
pole); consequently, navigators must correct for this the appropriate resistance of the circuit or component
difference when plotting courses or precisely locating being tested.
a particular area.
Glossary 209

Ohm’s law n: a rule that explains the behavior of elec- orifice valve n: a device (a valve) that controls the
trical flow through a conductor. It is stated as R = E/I, flow of fluid in a line, which contains an opening (an
where R = resistance in ohms, E = voltage in volts, and orifice) the size of which is varied by a mechanically,
I = current in amperes. The law states that resistance, hydraulically, pneumatically, or electrically operated
voltage, and current are interrelated and that modifying piece that contacts the orifice.
or changing one value in an electrical circuit modifies oscillation n: any effect that varies periodically be-
or changes the others. It is therefore used to calculate tween two values.
resistance, voltage, and current in electrical circuits.
oscillator n: an electronic circuit that produces high
ohms/mil-ft abbr: ohms per mil-foot. frequencies without rotational force being required.
ohms per mil-foot (ohms/mil-ft) n: in electronics, Oscillator voltages produce output current that pe-
a measure of the resistance of a wire based on the riodically reverses, or oscillates.
wire’s gauge and length; in general, the heavier oscilloscope n: a test instrument that uses a cathode-
(thicker) and longer the wire is, the more resistance ray tube to make visible on a fluorescent screen the
it presents. See mil-foot. instantaneous values and waveforms of electrical
oil-filled capacitor n: a capacitor whose dielectric quantities that rapidly vary as a function of time or
(insulating material) is paper but which is enclosed other quantity.
by an oil-filled metal container. See capacitor. oxidation n: a chemical process in which oxygen com-
ones column n: in mathematics, the column of num- bines with a compound and causes the compound to
bers written in the far right-hand column in a group lose electrons and gain a more positive charge. For
of numbers having more than one digit. For example, example, when exposed to air (which contains about
in the number 3,583, three is in the ones column. It is 21 percent oxygen), iron rusts, which means that part
a way of denoting that the number 3,583 contains 3 of the iron chemically combines with the oxygen in
ones. In addition, 3,583 contains 8 tens, 5 hundreds, the air and oxidizes, or becomes rusty. The rust is
and 3 thousands. Numbers with only one digit have typically a red iron oxide, which gives iron rust its
only a ones column. characteristic color.
op-amp abbr: operational amplifier. oxide film n: a thin layer of material (a film) that is
coated with metallic oxides and is often used as a
open circuit n: in an electrical circuit, a phenomenon
dielectric in capacitors. See capacitor, dielectric.
that occurs when a component, such as a wire, breaks
or otherwise fails so that the component can no longer oxygen (O) n: a nonmetallic element constituting 21
carry current. For example, a broken wire in a circuit percent of the atmosphere by volume that occurs as
causes an open circuit. a diatomic gas, O2, and in many compounds such as
open-loop amplifier n: an electronic device that in- water and iron ore. It combines with most elements,
creases, or amplifies, a signal without feedback from is essential for plant and animal respiration, and is
any part of the circuit. See feedback. required for nearly all combustion.

operand n: in computer science, any one of the quan-

tities entering into or arising from an operation. See P
operation. paper capacitor n: a capacitor whose dielectric (in-
operation n: in computer science, a process or proce- sulating material) is made from paper. See capacitor.
dure that obtains a unique result from any permis- parallel adj: of an electrical circuit in which the
sible combination of operands. See operand. components are assembled such that current flows
operational amplifier (op-amp) n: an electronic de- through two or more paths. Compare series.
vice that increases the magnitude or power level of parallel circuit n: a circuit with two or more paths
an electric current (an amplifier) and that has high through which the current flows. The total current
direct-current stability and high immunity to oscil- equals the sum of the currents through the various
lation, which is achieved by a high amount of nega- paths; the voltage is the same throughout the circuit.
tive feedback in the circuit in which the amplifier is Compare series circuit.
installed. See negative feedback.
Pb sym: lead.
OR function n: an instruction that performs the
logical operation “or” on a bit-by-bit basis for its two peak inverse voltage n: see peak reverse voltage.
or more quantities entering into or arising from an peak reverse voltage n: the maximum instantaneous
operation (its operand), usually storing the result in anode-to-cathode voltage in the reverse direction that
one of the operand locations. See operand. is applied to a diode in an operating circuit.
210 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

peak voltage n: the instantaneous increase (peak) in pixel n: the basic and smallest part of the composition
voltage that occurs when voltage flows in an alternat- of an image on a television screen, computer monitor,
ing current (AC) circuit. In an AC circuit, the voltage or similar cathode-ray tube.
not only reverses direction, but also increases for a PLC abbr: programmable logic controller.
moment (peaks) at the point when it reverses direction.
plus input n: see noninverting input.
permanent magnet n: a magnet usually made of hard-
ened steel that is strongly magnetized and retains its pnp transistor n: a transistor in which p-type material
magnetism after the removal of the magnetizing force. is placed on each side of n-type material. One side of
the p-type material is an emitter and the other side
permeability n: the property of a magnetizable is a collector. The n-type material is sandwiched in
substance that determines the degree to which it between the two p-type materials in the base. The
modifies the magnetic lines of force (the flux) in emitter is positive with respect to the base, while the
the region occupied by the substance in a magnetic collector is negative with respect to the base.
field; specifically, it is the ratio of the induction to the
magnetizing force in the substance. polarity n: the quality of being either negative or
positive; in magnetism, the north or south pole of
permissible operating temperature n: in a solid-state a magnet.
diode, a measure of the diode’s ability to handle heat
pole n: 1. either end of an axis through a sphere.
that is generated by voltage and current that occurs
2. either of the regions bordering the extremities of
where the diode is connected, or joined, to a circuit.
the earth’s rotational axis, which are the North Pole
pf abbr: power factor. and the South Pole. 3. a magnetic pole. 4. in electricity,
pF abbr: picofarad. either of two oppositely charged terminals, as in an
electric cell or battery. 5. a long, slender, and usually
PFD abbr: manufacturer’s abbreviation for picofarad;
cylindrical object, such as fishing pole.
sometimes imprinted on the body of a capacitor.
polyphase n: in electronics, a phenomenon in which
phase n: in electronics, the part of a period through
a circuit has several alternating electromotive forces
which the time variable of a periodic quantity, such
(emfs) of the same frequency and sine wave form. A
as alternating current, has moved. Phase is measured
polyphase generator has two or more circuits in the
at any point in time from an arbitrary time origin.
field windings. adj: having or utilizing two or more
In the waveform of alternating current, where the
phases of an alternating-current power line. See phase.
waveform is sinusoidal in shape and where positive
polarity is above a zero line and negative polarity positive charge n: a phenomenon that occurs at the
is below the zero line, phase is measured at the last atomic level of elements whereby the element has a
point at which the quantity passed through a zero deficiency of electrons—that is, it has a higher electric
position from a negative to a positive direction. potential. Compare negative charge.
phase shift n: a change in the phase of a periodic positive terminal n: the terminal of a battery or other
quantity, such as the waveform generated by alter- voltage source toward which electrons flow and from
nating current. See phase. which holes flow. See hole, terminal.
photovoltaic cell n: a device that detects or measures potential n: see electric potential.
electromagnetic radiation by generating voltage (po- potential difference n: see electromotive force.
tential) at the junction between two types of material
potential hill n: in solid-state semiconductors, an
when radiant energy (as from the sun or other light
energy barrier created by the semiconductor’s space-
source) strikes it.
charge region, which must be overcome by the ap-
photovoltaic diode (PVD) n: a special solid-state di- plication of external voltage to the semiconductor
ode to which has been added a special impurity that to make current flow across the junction where an
causes the diode to produce voltage when exposed n-type and p-type semiconductor are joined. See
to bright light, such as the sun. n-type structure, p-type structure, space-charge region.
pi (π) filter n: see LC filter. potentiometer n: 1. a resistor having a continuously
picofarad (pF) n: 1 trillionth (10–12) of a farad. See adjustable sliding contact that is usually mounted on a
farad. rotating shaft. By rotating the shaft, the voltage flowing
through the potentiometer is varied as desired. A po-
pigtail lead n: on an electronic component, such as a
tentiometer is mainly a voltage divider. 2. a device that
composition resistor, a single wire (a lead) that exits
measures an electromotive force by comparing it with
the component from either end and to which the
a known potential difference. See resistor.
electrical connection to a circuit are made.
Glossary 211

power n: 1. the source or the means of providing resistors, to a high of 20 percent for E6 resistors, with
energy. 2. the time rate at which work is done. 3. an values of 5 and 10 percent in between the extremes.
exponent, as the 3 in x3. primary n: see primary winding.
power distribution system n: an arrangement of
primary cell n: a unit that produces electricity from
many pieces of equipment, such as transformers, con-
the chemical reaction of conductors of dissimilar
ductors, switches, heat sinks, fans, poles, and towers,
metals through an electrolyte. In a primary cell, the
which serve to deliver (distribute) electrical power
chemical energy has its origin within the cell, and
from its source to its point of use. Power sources in-
the chemical reaction is not reversible. Also, the elec-
clude hydroelectric generation by dams, natural gas
trolyte is not liquid; rather, it is a moist solid, often
(or other fuel) fired steam turbines to drive electrical
called “dry.” See dry cell, wet cell.
generators, wind generators, and solar generators.
primary loss n: in a transformer, the reduction (loss)
power factor (pf) n: the ratio of true power to ap-
in electrical energy that occurs in the primary wind-
parent power in an alternating current circuit. True
ing of the transformer.
power is always less than apparent power. See ap-
parent power. primary maximum capacity n: in a transformer, the
product of the maximum volts and amperes of the
power law n: the rule that allows a person to deter-
primary.
mine the power a circuit is capable of producing. The
law consists of three variables: E or V, measured in primary winding n: in a transformer, the first of two
volts; current, I, measured in amperes; and power, windings (coils) to which electrical energy flows to
P, measured in watts. In equation form, the power induce electrical energy in the second coil, which is
law is P = EI or P = VI. called the secondary winding. Compare secondary
winding.
power rating n: 1. in electricity, the power available
at the output terminals of a component or a piece of product n: in mathematics, the quantity that results
equipment that is operated according to the manu­ when two or more quantities are multiplied together.
facturer’s specifications. 2. in electronics, the amount For example, in the equation 2 × 8 = 16, 16 is the
of power a component, such as a resistor, is capable of product.
handling without malfunctioning or failing. Ratings programmable logic controller (PLC) n: a device
are usually given in watts so that a component with used to manage, or control, another device or devices
a power rating of 2 watts means that it is capable of that govern the operation of a system or process. An
handling 2 watts of power. operator, using an attached computer, can program
power supply n: a source of electrical energy, such the controller to maintain a given set of desirable
as a battery, an electrical line, or a set of components circumstances and to respond to changes or upsets
with a transformer in an electronic device, that fur- in the system or process using ladder logic, which is
nishes electrical power to the semiconductor devices a logic system that operates much like the rungs on a
of an electronic circuit with the proper voltages and ladder—that is, before the next rung on the ladder can
currents for their operation. be scaled, the controller must determine that certain
conditions are met on the current rung.
power transformer n: 1. a transformer that takes
power from a generating station and steps up the proton n: the positively charged elementary particle
voltage for transmission, or that takes power from that occurs with the neutron in an atomic nucleus.
the transmission line and steps down the voltage to p-type structure n: in a semiconductor material such
the primary distribution level of 7,200 or 12,400 volts. as silicon, the arrangement of atoms in the material
2. a relatively small transformer used in an electronic in such a manner that few electrons are able to flow
circuit to obtain the proper voltage required by the between the atoms; a positive charge is thus created.
circuit to operate. See distribution transformer. Compare n-type structure.
power triangle n: a right triangle derived from a pullout torque n: the greatest turning force (torque)
vector diagram of inductive and capacitive VAR under which an electric motor can operate without
(VARH and VARC) and watts. A power triangle allows sharply losing speed.
relationships between reactive power and real power
pulse generator n: 1. in electronics, a generator that
to be easily seen. See reactive power, real power, VAR.
produces repetitive pulses or signal-initated pulses.
preferred resistance values n: in electronics, a set of 2. an electrical device that produces very short surges
standard values for resistors that manufacturers use of high-voltage or high-current power by discharging
as a guide for making resistors of various tolerances. capacitors in parallel or in series.
Preferred values range from a low of 1 percent for E96
212 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

PVD abbr: photovoltaic diode. receiver n: electronic equipment used for receiving
Pythagorean theorem n: in mathematics, the prin- modulated radio waves and converting them into the
ciple stating that in a right triangle, the square of original intelligence, such as into sounds or pictures,
the length of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of or converting to desired useful information as in a
the squares of the lengths of the other two sides. See radar receiver.
hypotenuse, right triangle. reciprocal equation n: in parallel electronic circuits,
the equation
Q 1
RT = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + etc.
quotient n: in mathematical division, the quantity R1 R2 R3 R4
that results when one quantity is divided by another.
For example, where 6 ÷ 2 = 3, 3 is the quotient. which states that total resistance (RT) in the circuit
is equal to 1 divided by the sum of 1 divided by the
resistance of each resistor (R) in the circuit, which are
R indicated as R1, R2, R3, R4, and so on.
R abbr: resistance, rel. recommended standard (RS)-232 n: an Electronic
raceway n: in electricity, a tube or channel that holds, Industries Alliance (EIA) standard that describes the
guides, and protects electric wires. requirements for the interface between data process-
radial lead (pronounced “leed”) n: in an electronic ing and data communications equipment. It is widely
component, a wire (a lead) that exits each end of the used to connect computers to peripheral devices.
component and is arranged so that the leads are at- rectifier n: an electrical device that converts alternat-
tached to the component in a radial manner to the ing current into direct current.
end of the component. Compare axial lead. rectify v: to change an alternating current to direct
Radio Manufacturers Association (RMA) n: a now current.
defunct association that published manufacturing rel (R) n: a proposed unit to express reluctance in
standards for electronic components. RMA evolved a magnetic circuit. The rel has not, however, been
into the Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA). See universally accepted.
Electronic Industries Alliance. relay n: a device in an electric circuit that senses
radio tube n: see electron tube. electrical variations in the circuit and then makes
random-access memory (RAM) n: electronic data or breaks one or more connections in the same or
stored in such a manner as to allow a user to access another electric circuit.
and program it, and then read from it, erase it, and reluctance n: in electromagnetics, a measure of the
reprogram it. opposition presented to magnetic lines of force (flux)
RC circuit n: see resistance-capacitance circuit. in a magnetic circuit; it is analogous to resistance in
an electric circuit.
reactance n: in an alternating current circuit, the
remainder n: in mathematical division, a quantity that
impedance of current flow caused by capacitive or
results when one quantity does not divide evenly into
inductive components.
another quantity. For example, 7 ÷ 2 = 3 with a remain-
reactive power n: the value of the power in an electric der of 1. That is, 2 goes into 7 three times with 1 left over.
circuit obtained by multiplying the effective value
remote terminal unit (RTU) n: that part of an auto-
of the current in amperes, the effective value of the
mated lease that relays signals from the central com-
voltage in volts, and the sine of the angular phase
puter to the end devices and relays status and alarm
difference between current and voltage.
conditions from the end devices to the computer.
read-only memory (ROM) n: a device for stor- residual magnetism n: the relatively small amount
ing electronic data in permanent, or nonerasable, of magnetism that virtually all metallic objects
form—that is, the data cannot be accessed, rewrit- that contain iron retain as a result of the magnetic
ten, or altered by a user. It is usually a static elec- influences. It affects magnetic compasses by attract-
tronic or magnetic device that allows rapid access ing the compass needle away from actual magnetic
to the data. north to give a false reading.
real power n: the component of apparent power resistance (R) n: opposition to the flow of direct
that represents true work. Real power is expressed current caused by a particular material or device.
in watts and equals volt-amperes multiplied by the Resistance is equal to the voltage drop across the
power factor. circuit divided by the current through the circuit.
Glossary 213

resistance-capacitance (RC) circuit n: an electrical right triangle n: in mathematics, a triangle in which

circuit that has a resistance and a capacitance in se- one of the angles is a right angle. See right angle.
ries, and in which inductance is negligible. ring n: see shell.
resistance tolerance n: a measure of a resistor’s ac- ripple n: the alternating current component in the
curacy, usually stated in percent. For example, if a output of a direct current power supply, which arises
2,400-ohm resistor has a tolerance of 5 percent, its in the power supply because of incomplete filtering
resistance should vary no more than 5 percent of 2,400 or from a direct current generator.
ohms, either up or down; or its resistance should be
RMA abbr: Radio Manufacturers Association.
no less than 2,280 or more than 2,520 ohms.
RMS value abbr: root-mean-square value.
resistivity n: the electrical resistance offered to the
passage of current; the opposite of conductivity. ROM abbr: read-only memory.
resistor n: a component that tends to impede the flow root n: in mathematics, a number which, when raised
of electric current, usually without any inductive or to some exponent (or power), equals that number.
capacitive effects. For example, the root of 4 is 2 because 22 = 4.
retentiveness n: see retentivity. root-mean-square (RMS) value n: the square root
retentivity n: in magnetism, the tendency of an of the time average of the square of a quantity. For
unmagnetized iron or steel bar to retain, or hold, its a periodic quantity, the average is taken over one
magnetism after it is magnetized. Iron or steel with complete cycle.
low retentivity loses its magnetism relatively quickly, rotor n: the rotating part of an electric machine or
while an iron or steel with high retentivity keeps its device, such as the rotating armature of a motor or
magnetism relatively longer. generator, or the rotating plates of a variable capaci-
tor. A rotor is part of an induction-type alternating
retrace n: in an oscilloscope, the brief instant at which
current electric motor. Compare stator.
the voltage driving the oscilloscope’s beam suddenly
decreases and drives the beam to the left of the screen. Rowland’s laws n pl: several rules originated by
reverse bias n: where a p-type and an n-type semi- Henry A. Rowland, an American physicist working in
conductor are joined, a condition in which no current the mid-to-late 1800s, about the behavior of magnetic
flows in the semiconductors because the negative circuits. Perhaps his best-known law is the one for
terminal of a battery is connected to the lead of the magnetic circuits that is analogous to Ohm’s law for
p-type material and the positive terminal of the bat- current flow through wire circuits. Rowland’s law
tery is connected to the lead of the n-type material. for magnetic circuits is ∅ = F/R, where ∅ = magnetic
Compare forward bias. See n-type structure, p-type flux, F = magnetomotive force, and R = reluctance.
structure. RTU abbr: remote terminal unit.
reverse breakdown n: see Zener breakdown.
rheostat n: a resistor that is used to vary the electrical S
current flow in a system. S&W abbr: sediment and water. API Committee on
ribbon line n: a kind of conductor in which two Petroleum Measurement prefers this abbreviation to
wires are separated a short distance from each other the older “BS&W.”
by an insulating material. The conductor thus has
saturated core n: in magnetic circuits, the instant in
the appearance of a flat ribbon. Ribbon line is often
the core of a coil whereby the flux density reaches
used to attach a television antenna to the television
a level beyond which little or no additional density
set and has an impedance of 300 ohms. See impedance.
can be achieved by further increases in magneto­
right angle n: an angle of 90 degrees. motive force.
right-hand rule for coils n: the statement of the fact sawtooth oscillator n: an electronic circuit that
that if the coil is grasped in the right hand with the converts energy from a direct-current source to a
fingers wrapped around it in the direction of the cur- periodically varying electric output; its waveform
rent flow, the thumb points toward the north pole. has the shape of a sawtooth.
right-hand rule for conductors n: the statement sawtooth sweep generator n: an electronic device
of the fact that if the fingers of the right hand are that creates, or generates, an output voltage that
placed around a wire so that the thumb points in the has a waveform in the shape of a sawtooth. Such a
direction of the current flow, the fingers point in the generator produces sweep voltage for cathode-ray
direction of the magnetic field produced by the wire. tubes. See sweep voltage.
214 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

schematic n: a drawing of an electric circuit that semiconductor n: a solid (such as germanium or

uses several standard symbols to represent electrical silicon) whose electrical conductivity lies between
components and that shows the arrangement and that of a conductor and that of an insulator. Semi-
connections of the conductors and the components conductor materials are used in the manufacture of
in the circuit. diode rectifiers, transistors, and integrated circuits.
Schmitt circuit n: see Schmitt trigger. sequential logic device n: a component or element
Schmitt trigger n: pulse generator capable of as- that has at least one input channel, at least one out-
suming either of two stable states (a bi­stable pulse put channel, and at least one internal state variable,
generator) in which an output pulse of constant so designed and constructed that the output signals
amplitude exists only as long as the input voltage depend on the past and present states of the inputs.
exceeds a certain value. Also called a Schmitt circuit. series adj: of or pertaining to an end-to-end arrange-
See bistable. ment of electrical components in a circuit that forms
Schottky barrier diode n: see Schottky diode. a single path for current to travel.

Schottky diode n: a diode formed by contact be- series circuit n: a circuit that has two or more electri-
tween a semiconductor layer and a metal coating. cal devices connected to form a single path for the
It is used as a special rectifier. Electrons or holes are electric current. The current is the same throughout
emitted from the area where the semiconductor and the circuit; the total voltage is the sum of the voltages
metal coating contact each other (the p-n junction) across each element of the circuit.
and move to the metal coating. It provides very fast shell n: a hypothetical spherical surface centered
switching speeds. Also called a hot-carrier diode, on the nucleus of an atom that contains orbiting
Schottky barrier diode. electrons.
SCR abbr: silicon-controlled rectifier. short n: see short circuit.
sec abbr: 1. second. 2. secant. short circuit n: a phenomenon that occurs in electrical
secant (sec) n: in a right triangle, the trigonometric circuits wherein two components carrying current
function that is the ratio of the hypotenuse to the side inadvertently come into contact and interrupt the cur-
adjacent to a given angle. rent path. For example, if two bare wires in a circuit
accidentally touch, current flows directly back to the
secondary n: short for secondary winding. See sec-
source of electricity without traveling its normal path.
ondary winding.
Often, because so little resistance exists, current flow
secondary cell n: a device that produces electricity is high enough to melt wires and other components.
from the chemical reaction of conductors of dissimilar
shunt n: a conductor joining two points in an electri-
metals through an electrolyte. In a secondary cell,
cal circuit to form a parallel or alternate path through
the electrolyte is a liquid solution and the chemical
which a portion of the current may pass.
reaction is reversible—that is, the secondary cell can
be recharged. It is often called a wet cell. See dry cell, SI abbr: International System of Units.
wet cell. Si sym: silicon.
secondary loss n: in a transformer, the reduction signal generator n: an electronic test instrument
(loss) of electrical energy that occurs in the secondary that delivers a sinusoidal output at an accurately
winding of the transformer. calibrated frequency ranging anywhere from audible
secondary winding n: in a transformer, the second to microwave frequencies. The frequency and ampli-
of two windings (coils) in which electrical energy tude of the device’s output are adjustable over a wide
is induced by the magnetic energy in the primary range. The output may be frequency- or amplitude
winding. Compare primary winding. modulated.

sediment and water (S&W) n: a material coexisting signal integrator n: an operational amplifier that
with, yet foreign to, petroleum liquid and requiring senses electronic signals in a circuit and electronically
a separate measurement for reasons that include arranges the signals so that they function together in
sales accounting. This foreign material includes free an efficient and logical way. See operational amplifier.
water and sediment (dynamic measurement) and/or silicon (Si) n: a nonmetallic element occurring exten-
emulsified or suspended water and sediment (static sively in the earth’s crust in the form of silicon diox-
measurement). The quantity of suspended material ide, or sand. Silicon usually occurs as dark-brown
present is determined by a centrifuge or laboratory crystals. It is used in glass, steel, semiconducting
testing of a sample of petroleum liquid. devices, concrete, brick, and other materials.
Glossary 215

silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) n: a semiconductor solid-state adj: relating to the properties, structure, or
device (a rectifier) that changes alternating current reactivity of solid material, especially relating to the
to direct current by means of a silicon control gate. arrangement and behavior of ions, molecules, elec-
Normally, an SCR acts as an open circuit, but rapidly trons, and holes in the crystals of a substance, such
switches to a conducting state when an appropriate as a semiconductor. The term distinguishes semicon-
gate signal is applied to the gate terminal. An SCR ducting electronic components that are composed of
conducts current in only one direction. Commonly and rely on solid materials for operation instead of
called an SCR or, erroneously, a thyristor. While one materials such as evacuated glass tubes.
type of thyristor is an SCR, another type exists, which solid wire n: in electronics, a conductor of electricity
is called a triac. See triac. that is drawn out of a conducting material (such as
silicon steel n: an iron alloy that contains carbon (a copper) to form a single cylindrical length of wire.
steel) and 0.5 to 4.5 percent silicon. Silicon steel is Compare stranded wire.
often used in electric transformer coils. The silicon source n: the terminal in a field-effect transistor from
allows the steel to be drawn into thin, flat plates that which majority carriers flow into the conducting
are ideal for transformer construction. See silicon. channel in the semiconductor’s material. See field-
simple circuit n: an electrical circuit that consists of a effect transistor.
single path from one terminal of the source of electro- south magnetic pole n: a point on the earth’s surface
motive force, through one electrical device, and back near the south polar region with which the south
to the terminal of the source of electromotive force. pole of a magnetic compass aligns regardless of the
sin abbr: sine. compass’s location on earth. The south magnetic pole
is located several miles from the South Pole (the south
sine (sin) n: a trigonometric function equal to the
geographic pole).
ratio of the side opposite a given acute angle to the
hypotenuse. space-charge region n: when p-type and n-type
semiconductors are joined, the area (the region) on
sine wave n: a undulating form (a wave) whose
the semiconductors in which free electrons flow from
amplitude varies as the sine of a linear function of
the n-type semiconductor to the holes of the p-type
time. See sine.
semiconductor. In this region, the n-type material
single-phase motor n: a motor energized by a single becomes slightly positive, and the p-type material
source of alternating voltage. becomes slightly negative. When this space charge
single-phase voltage n: voltage produced by an al- has been established, the junction is stabilized. No
ternating current circuit that has only two points of more electrons can flow across the junction because
entry, or one which, having more than two points of they are now repelled by the slight negative charge
entry, is intended to be so energized that the potential in the p-type material. See hole, n-type structure, p-
differences between all pairs of points of entry are type structure.
either in phase or differ by 180 degrees. SPDT abbr: single-pole, double-throw.
single-pole, double-throw (SPDT) switch n: an elec- speedup capacitor n: in a flip-flop circuit, a capaci-
trical switch with three terminals that connects one tor that speeds up the switching action in the circuit.
terminal to one of the other two terminals. Usually, two speedup capacitors are used.
single-pole, single-throw (SPST) switch n: an electri- spider n: in an electric motor, a structure consisting
cal switch with two terminals that is arranged so that of a hub, spokes, and a rim that supports the core of
the switch opens or closes one circuit. the motor’s rotor, or armature.
sinusoidal adj: having a magnitude (size) that varies SPST abbr: single-pole, single throw.
as the sine of an independent current. See sine.
squirrel-cage induction motor n: an electric motor
slip n: in an electric motor, the difference between the that uses a rotating device (a rotor) containing a sec-
optimal and the actual output of the motor. ondary winding that turns inside a stationary unit
slip ring n: a conducting ring that gives current to (a stator) that contains the primary winding. Electric
or receives current from the brushes in a generator current created by induction makes the motor work.
or a motor. See brush. See induction, induction motor, and squirrel-cage rotor.
snap-on meter n: see clamp-on meter. squirrel-cage rotor n: in an induction motor, the
rotating device (rotor) that consists of several copper
solenoid n: a cylindrical coil of wire that resembles a
bars running longitudinally along the outside of the
bar magnet when it carries a current so that it draws
rotor’s iron core. Because the copper bars surround
a movable core into the coil when the current flows.
216 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

the core longitudinally, the rotor resembles a cage such as to identify a particular element or elements
used to exercise squirrels in captivity. of a set, to denote a constant value or a variable, or, in
starting torque n: in an electric induction motor, the a chemical formula, to indicate the number of atoms
turning force (torque) that is affected by the resistance of a particular kind of molecule.
of the rotor’s winding. The greater the rotor wind- subtrahend n: in mathematics, the quantity that is
ing’s resistance, the greater is the starting torque subtracted from another quantity. For example, in
up to the point at which pullout torque occurs. See the equation 18 – 8 = 10, 8 is the subtrahend.
pullout torque.
sulfuric acid (H2SO 4) n: a colorless, oily liquid
stator n: the stationary (unmoving) part of an in- compound of hydrogen, sulfur, and oxygen
duction-type alternating-current electric motor. The (H2SO4), strongly poisonous and corrosive. It is
stator is the stationary part of a rotating motor, and formed when hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or sulfur di-
it contains the stationary parts of the magnetic circuit oxide (SO2) is mixed with water (H2O). Also called
and associated windings. Compare rotor. vitriolic acid.
steel n: a hard, strong, durable, and malleable alloy sum n: in mathematics, the quantity that results
of iron and carbon, which usually contains between when two or more quantities are added together. For
0.2 and 1.5 percent carbon. Steel often has other example, the sum of 2 + 2 is 4.
constituents such as manganese, chromium, nickel,
supply voltage n: in an electric circuit, the source
molybdenum, copper, tungsten, cobalt, or silicon, de-
of the electromotive force (voltage) in the circuit.
pending on the desired alloy properties, and widely
For example, a battery provides supply voltage in
used as a structural material.
some circuits.
steering diode n: a diode used in logic circuits to
guide (steer) voltages in the circuits from one point sweep voltage n: periodically varying voltage ap-
to another. See diode. plied to the deflection plates of a cathode-ray tube to
give a beam displacement that is a function of time,
step-down transformer n: a transformer in which frequency, or other data base.
applied voltage of one value is decreased to a lower
switch n: a manually, mechanically, or electronically
value by means of primary and secondary windings,
operated device for making, breaking, or changing
which are coils of conductive wire wound around the
the connections in an electric circuit.
transformer’s laminated steel core. In a step-down
transformer, more windings are made in the primary switchgear n: the aggregate of electronic devices in
than in the secondary, which decreases the voltage a circuit that bring other devices into the circuit into
in the secondary. Compare step-up transformer. See an operating or nonoperating state.
transformer. sync amplifier abbr: synchronization amplifier.
step-up transformer n: a transformer in which ap- sync control abbr: synchronization control.
plied voltage of one value is increased to a higher
synchronization amplifier n: in an oscilloscope, a
value by means of primary and secondary windings,
device that receives a small portion of the vertical
which are coils of conductive wire wound around
input signal and feeds it to the horizontal-sweep
the transformer’s laminated steel core. In a step-up
oscillator as a pulse that triggers the oscillator in step
transformer, fewer windings are made in the primary
with the vertical input signal.
than in the secondary, which increases the voltage
in the secondary. Compare step-down transformer. synchronization control n: in an oscilloscope, a
See transformer. device that varies the amount of pulse strength that
reaches the oscillator and that provides enough
stranded wire n: a conductor of electricity that is
pulse to stabilize the pattern displayed on the oscil-
made by interweaving several wires of relatively
loscope’s screen.
small gauge to obtain the effect of a single wire of
large gauge. In large gauge sizes, stranded wire is synchronous speed n: in a two-pole induction motor,
easier to bend than solid wire, so stranded wire is the maximum speed at which such a motor is capable
often used where large gauge wire is required and of operating. In a 60-Hz system, the synchronous
where it must be bent or curved rather sharply to fit speed is 3,600 revolutions per minute (rpm). Synchro-
into a particular installation. nous speed can be stated as the equation—
120 × frequency (hertz)
subscript n: in mathematics, a number or symbol synchronous speed (rpm) = .
written below and usually to the right of another number of poles
number or symbol for any of a number of purposes,
Glossary 217

T thyrector n: a solid-state silicon diode that behaves as

an insulator up to its rated voltage, and as a conduc-
tan abbr: tangent.
tor above its rated voltage. It protects components in
tangent n: in a right triangle, the ratio of the side op- AC circuits from voltage surges.
posite a given angle to the side adjacent to the angle.
thyristor n: a transistor that initiates but does not
telemetry n: the process of gathering data by elec- limit anode current except under certain operating
tronic or other kinds of sensing devices and transmit- conditions. As collector current is increased to a
ting those data to remote points. critical value, a thyristor gives a high-speed trigger-
temperature coefficient n: an expression of the ing action.
amount resistance increases in a material as the timing circuit n: a source of accurately timed pulses,
temperature increases. It is stated as degrees per used in synchronizing a digital computer or as a time
Celsius per ohm. base in a transmission system. Also called a clock.
temporary magnet n: a magnet usually made of soft torque n: the turning force that is applied to a shaft or
iron that loses its magnetism shortly after the mag- other rotary mechanism to cause it to rotate or tend
netizing force is removed from it. to do so. Torque is measured in foot-pounds, joules,
tens column n: in a column of numbers having more newton-metres, and so forth.
than one digit, the column immediately to the left of total power n: see apparent power.
the ones column. For example, in the number 3,284,
8 is in the tens column. It denotes that the number tractive force n: in an electromagnet, the force of
3,284 contains 8 tens. Besides 8 tens, the number also attraction that exists between an iron (or other fer-
contains 3 thousands, 2 hundreds, and 4 ones. rous material) bar placed close to the poles of the
electromagnet.
terminal n: 1. a screw, soldering lug, or other point
to which electric connections can be made. 2. one of transducer n: a device actuated by power from one
the electrical input or output points of a circuit or system and supplying power to another system,
component. usually in a different form. For example, a telephone
receiver receives electric power and supplies acoustic
test voltage n: in capacitors, voltage applied to a ca- power, or a photoelectric cell transforms light energy
pacitor that is higher than the capacitor’s maximum into electrical energy.
working voltage rating. Test voltage is applied to
ensure that a capacity can perform at its working transformer n: a device that uses the principle of in-
voltage without failing. See maximum working volt- duction to convert variations in current and voltage
age rating. in a primary circuit into variations of current and
voltage in a secondary circuit. It typically consists
thermoelectric device n: an electrical component that of two coils with different numbers of turns around
directly converts heat into electrical energy or directly a single iron core.
converts electrical energy into heat.
transistor n: a small electronic device containing a
thousand circular mil (kcmil) n: a measure of wire small block of semiconducting material to which at
diameter stated in thousands of circular mils. See least three electrical contacts are made, usually two
circular mil. rectifying contacts and one ohmic, or nonrectifying
three-mode controller n: an instrument that continu- contact. A transistor is used in circuits as an amplifier,
ously measures the value of signals generated by detector, or switch. Physicists at Bell Laboratories,
three variable quantities or conditions and acts to who invented the device in the late 1940s, coined
control any deviation from a desired preset value. the term by combining the words transfer and resis-
tor—that is, a transistor transfers a signal across a
three-phase voltage n: voltage generated in a circuit
resistor. See semiconductor.
that is energized by alternating-current voltages
that differ in phase by one-third of a cycle, or 120 triac n: a type of thyristor that switches current to
degrees. high levels from a low-level control signal in AC
and DC circuits. While triacs are similar to silicon-
thyratron n: a virtually obsolete electrical device, controlled rectifiers, triacs, unlike SCRs, are capable
similar to a vacuum tube, that is a hot-cathode gas of conducting current in both directions in the circuit;
tube in which one or more control electrodes initiate SCRs can conduct current only in one direction.
but do not limit anode current except under certain
operating conditions. Solid-state devices that perform trickle charge n: the continuous flow of direct current
the same function have replaced thyratrons. electricity into a cell or battery at a low rate to either
recharge the cell or battery or to maintain a charge
as the cell or battery is used.
218 BASIC ELECTRONICS FOR THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

trigonometric function n: in mathematics, the rela- compounds. For example, when the valence electrons
tionship, or function, such as the sine, cosine, secant, of sodium and chlorine combine, common table salt,
cosecant, tangent, and cotangent of an arc or angle or sodium chloride (NaCl), is formed.
expressed as the ratios of pairs of the sides of a right
valve n: British term for electron tube. See electron
triangle. See function.
tube.
triode n: a virtually obsolete electrical component,
VAR abbr: volt-ampere reactive.
which is a three-electrode vacuum tube that contains
an anode, a cathode, and a control electrode. Triode VARC abbr: volt-ampere reactive in circuits with
transistors have almost completely replaced triode capacitors.
tubes. VARH abbr: volt-ampere reactive in circuits with
true north n: the direction of the north geographic inductors. Also abbreviated var H.
pole—as opposed to the north magnetic pole,
VARL abbr: volt-ampere reactive in circuits with
which is several hundred miles away, toward
inductors. Also abbreviated varL.
Hudson Bay.
variable capacitor n: a capacitor that is constructed
truth table n: a table listing the results obtained from
of stationary and movable plates. A shaft attached
a logical proposition (a truth value) that result from
to the movable plate assembly is turned to rotate the
all the possible combinations of the truth values of
movable plates in and out of the stationary plates. As
its components. See truth value.
the area of the movable plates increases or decreases
truth value n: the result of a logical proposition, within the stationary plates, the capacity varies. See
which is either true or false. capacitor.
tube n: see electron tube. vector n: the representation of a quantity that gives
tunnel diode n: a diode with a special impurity that the quantity both magnitude and direction and the
causes the diode to have negative resistance at low components of which transform from one coordinate
voltages in the forward bias direction and a short system to another in the same manner as the compo-
circuit in the negative bias direction. Tunnel diodes nents of a displacement.
are used as oscillators and as microwave amplifiers. vector addition v: the adding together of the compo-
Also known as an Esaki tunnel diode. nents that constitute a vector. See vector.
turns ratio n: in a transformer, a comparison (the volt (E or V) n: the unit of electric potential, volt-
ratio) between the number of turns in the primary age, or electromotive force in the metric system. See
winding and the number of turns in the secondary electromotive force.
winding. See transformer.
voltage n: potential difference or electromotive force,
measured in volts.
U
voltage-dependent resistor n: see metallic-oxide
unipolar transistor n: a transistor that utilizes charge varistor.
carriers of only one polarity, such as a field-effect
voltage drop n: the voltage developed across an
transistor.
electrical component or conductor as current flows
unity n: in mathematics, the number 1; a quantity through a component or conductor.
regarded as 1. voltage gain n: in solid-state electronics, the increase
in voltage produced by a transistor.
V voltage regulator n: an electronic device, including
V sym: volt. certain solid-state diodes, that maintains a given
voltage across a circuit within required limits despite
VA abbr: volt-ampere. variations in voltage or load.
VAC abbr: volts alternating current. volt-ampere (VA) n: an expression of apparent, or
vacuum tube n: see electron tube. total, electric power in which power is the product
of volts times amperes.
valence electron n: a single electron or one of two
or more electrons in the outer shell of an atom that volt-ampere reactive (VAR) n: the reactive power
is responsible for the chemical properties of the in a circuit carrying alternating current when the
atom. Valence electrons of one atom combine with product of the root-mean-square value of the voltage,
the valence electrons of other atoms to form many expressed in volts, by the root-mean-square value of
Glossary 219

the current, expressed in amperes, and by the sine of XYZ

the phase angle between voltage and current, equals
XC sym: capacitive reactance.
1. See reactive power.
XOR abbr: exclusive or.
voltmeter n: an instrument used to measure, in volts,
the difference of potential in an electrical circuit. Y connection n: see wye connection.
volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) n: see multimeter. yoke n: a stationary piece of ferromagnetic material
without windings, which permanently connects two
VOM abbr: volt-ohm-milliammeter.
or more magnet cores.
Z sym: impedance.
W
Zener breakdown n: a phenomenon that occurs in
W sym: watt. semiconductor diodes when the electric field across
watt (W) n: the unit of power in the metric system, the space-charge region becomes high enough to pro-
equal to 1 joule per second, or 0.746 horsepower. duce a form of field emission that suddenly increases
the number of carriers in this region. This breakdown
wattless power n: see reactive power.
is typically several hundred to several thousand volts,
wattmeter n: an instrument that measures the mag- depending on the semiconductor’s construction, and
nitude of the power in an electric circuit. It may read is not destructive. Also called reverse breakdown,
watts, kilowatts, or megawatts. Zener effect.
wave n: in electronics, a disturbance that begins at Zener diode n: a solid-state diode that uses Zener
one point in a medium and goes to other points in breakdown to regulate voltage in a circuit in which
the medium without permanently displacing the it is installed. It operates on the principle that the
medium. voltage that occurs during breakdown is relatively
waveform n: in electronics, the pictorial representa- constant and therefore can be used to regulate volt-
tion of the shape (form) of a wave, which is obtained age. See Zener breakdown.
by plotting the displacement of the wave as a function Zener effect n: see Zener breakdown.
of time, at a fixed point in space. See wave.
zero potential n: the actual potential of the surface
weight n: the force with which a body is attracted of the earth taken as a point of reference. See electric
to the earth or to another celestial body equal to the potential.
product of the object’s mass and the acceleration of
gravity.
wet cell n: a secondary cell in which the electrolyte
is a dilute acid.
wire-wound resistor n: a resistor made from special
wire, usually Nichrome, that is wound around a
relatively small cylindrical core or tube. Wire-wound
resistors can handle large amounts of power and
maintain their ohmic value even under high tem-
peratures.
wye connection n: in an electric circuit, a component
that has three terminals to which conductors are con-
nected to install the component into the circuit. Also
called a Y connection.
 To obtain additional training materials, contact:

PETEX
The University of Texas at Austin
Petroleum Extension Service
1 University Station, R8100
Austin, TX 78712-1100
Telephone: 512-471-5940
or 800-687-4132
FAX: 512-471-9410
or 800-687-7839
E-mail: petex@[Link]
or visit our Web site: [Link]/ce/petex

To obtain information about training courses, contact:

PETEX
Houston training center
The University of Texas
2700 W. W. Thorne Blvd.
Houston, TX 77073
Telephone: 281-443-7144
or 800-687-7052
FAX: 281-443-8722
E-mail: petexhtc@[Link]
or visit our Web site: [Link]/ce/petex
Catalog No. 1.41040
ISBN 0-88698-199-9