BASIC RADAR SYSTEMS

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Radar is an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging. The term "radio" refers to the
use of electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in the so-called radio wave portion of
the spectrum, which covers a wide range from 10 4 km to 1 cm. Radar systems
typically use wavelengths on the order of 10 cm, corresponding to frequencies of
about 3 GHz. The detection and ranging part of the acronym is accomplished
by timing the delay between transmission of a pulse of radio energy and its
subsequent return.
If the time delay is t, then the range may be determined by the simple
formula:
R = ct/2

where c = 3 x 108 m/s, the speed of light at which all electromagnetic waves
propagate.
The factor of two in the formula comes from the observation that the radar pulse must
travel to the target and back before detection, or twice the range.

A radar pulse train is a type of amplitude modulation of the radar frequency

carrier wave, similar to how carrier waves are modulated in communication systems.
In this case, the information signal is quite simple: a single pulse repeated at
regular intervals. The common radar carrier modulation, known as the pulse train
is shown below. The common parameters of radar as defined by referring to Figure 1.

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Figure 2.

PW = pulse width. PW has units of time and is commonly expressed in s. PW is

the duration of the pulse. RT = rest time. RT is the interval between pulses. It is
measured in s. PRT = pulse repetition time. PRT has units of time and
is commonly expressed in ms. PRT is the interval between the start of one pulse
and the start of another. PRT is also equal to the sum, PRT = PW+RT. PRF = pulse
repetition frequency. PRF has units of time -1 and is commonly expressed in Hz (1 Hz
= 1/s) or as pulses per second (pps). PRF is the number of pulses transmitted per
second and is equal to the inverse of PRT. RF = radio frequency. RF has units of time -
1
or Hz and is commonly expressed in GHz or MHz. RF is the frequency of the carrier
wave which is being modulated to form the pulse train.

Mechanization

A practical radar system requires seven basic components as illustrated below:

Figure 3

Transmitter. The transmitter creates the radio wave to be sent and modulates it to
form the pulse train. The transmitter must also amplify the signal to a high power
level to provide adequate range. The source of the carrier wave could be a Klystron,

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Traveling Wave Tube (TWT) or Magnetron. Each has its own characteristics and
limitations.

Receiver. The receiver is sensitive to the range of frequencies being transmitted and
provides amplification of the returned signal. In order to provide the greatest range,
the receiver must be very sensitive without introducing excessive noise. The ability to
discern a received signal from background noise depends on the signal-to-noise ratio
(S/N).

The background noise is specified by an average value, called the noise-equivalent-

power (NEP). This directly equates the noise to a detected power level so that it may
be compared to the return. Some receivers monitor the background and constantly
adjust the SNR to maintain a constant false alarm rate, and therefore all called CFAR
receivers.

Power Supply. The power supply provides the electrical power for all
the components. The largest consumer of power is the transmitter which may
require several kW of average power. The actually power transmitted in the pulse
may be much greater than 1 kW. The power supply only needs to be able to provide
the average amount of power consumed, not the high power level during the actual
pulse transmission. Energy can be stored, in a capacitor bank for instance, during the
rest time. The stored energy then can be put into the pulse when transmitted,
increasing the peak power. The peak power and the average power are related by the
quantity called duty cycle, DC. Duty cycle is the fraction of each transmission cycle
that the radar is actually transmitting. Referring to the pulse train in Figure 2, the duty
cycle can be seen to be:

DC = PW / PRF

Synchronizer. The synchronizer coordinates the timing for range determination. It

regulates that rate at which pulses are sent (i.e. sets PRF) and resets the timing clock
for range determination for each pulse. Signals from the synchronizer are
sent simultaneously to the transmitter, which sends a new pulse, and to the display,
which resets the return sweep.

Duplexer. This is a switch which alternately connects the transmitter or receiver to

the antenna. Its purpose is to protect the receiver from the high power output of the
transmitter. During the transmission of an outgoing pulse, the duplexer will be aligned
to the transmitter for the duration of the pulse, PW. After the pulse has been sent, the
duplexer will align the antenna to the receiver. When the next pulse is sent, the
duplexer will shift back to the transmitter. A duplexer is not required if the
transmitted power is low.

Antenna. The antenna takes the radar pulse from the transmitter and puts it into the
air. Furthermore, the antenna must focus the energy into a well-defined beam which
increases the power and permits a determination of the direction of the target. The
antenna must keep track of its own orientation which can be accomplished by a
synchro-transmitter. There are also antenna systems which do not physically move but
are steered electronically (in these cases, the orientation of the radar beam is already
known a priori).

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Display. The display unit may take a variety of forms but in general is designed to
present the received information to an operator. The most basic display type is called
an A-scan (amplitude vs. Time delay). The vertical axis is the strength of the return
and the horizontal axis is the time delay, or range. The A-scan provides no
information about the direction of the target.

Figure 4

The most common display is the PPI (plan position indicator). The A-scan
information is converted into brightness and then displayed in the same relative
direction as the antenna orientation. The result is a top-down view of the situation
where range is the distance from the origin. The PPI is perhaps the most natural
display for the operator and therefore the most widely used. In both cases, the
synchronizer resets the trace for each pulse so that the range information will begin at
the origin.

Radar performance

All of the parameters of the basic pulsed radar system will affect the
performance in some way. Here we find specific examples and quantify this
dependence where possible.

Pulse Width

The duration of the pulse and the length of the target along the radial direction
determine the duration of the returned pulse. In most cases the length of the
return is usually very similar to the transmitted pulse. In the display unit, the
pulse (in time) will be converted into a pulse in distance. The range of values
from the leading edge to the trailing edge will create some uncertainty in the
range to the target. Taken at face value, the ability to accurately measure range
is determined by the pulse width.

Radar Frequency

Finally, the frequency of the radio carrier wave will also have some
affect on how the radar beam propagates. At the low frequency extremes, radar
beams will refract in the atmosphere and can be caught in "ducts" which result in
long ranges. At the high extreme, the radar beam will behave much like visible light
and travel in very straight lines. Very high frequency radar beams will suffer high

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losses and are not suitable for long range systems.

The frequency will also affect the beam-width. For the same antenna size,
a low frequency radar will have a larger beam-width than a high frequency one.
In order to keep the beam-width constant, a low frequency radar will need a large
antenna. A simple model for the radar power that returns to the receiver is thus:

Pr = Pt G 1/4R2 1/4R2 Ae

The terms in this equation have been grouped to illustrate the sequence from
transmission to collection. Here is the sequence in detail:

G =  Gdir

The transmitter puts out peak power Pt into the antenna, which focuses it into a beam
with gain G. The power gain is similar to the directional gain, Gdir, except that it must
also include losses from the transmitter to the antenna. These losses are summarized
by the single term for efficiency, . Therefore the radar energy spreads out uniformly
in all directions. The power per unit area must therefore decrease as the area
increases. Since the energy is spread out over the surface of a sphere the factor of
1/4R2 accounts for the reduction.

The radar energy is collected by the surface of the target and reflected. The radar
cross section  accounts for both of these processes. The reflected energy spreads out
just like the transmitted energy.

The receiving antenna collects the energy proportional to its effective area, known as
the antenna's aperture, Ae. This also includes losses in the reception process until the
signal reaches the receiver. Hence the subscript "e" for "effective." The effective
aperture is related to the physical aperture, A, by the same efficiency term used in
power gain, given the symbol . So that

Ae = A

Our criterion for detection is simply that the received power, Pr must exceed the
minimum, Smin. Since the received power decreases with range, the maximum
detection range will occur when the received power is equal to the minimum, i.e.
Pr = Smin. If you solve for the range, you get an equation for the maximum theoretical
radar range:

Perhaps the most important feature of this equation is the fourth-root dependence. The
practical implication of this is that one must greatly increase the output power to get a
modest increase in performance. For example, in order to double the range, the
transmitted power would have to be increased 16-fold. You should also note that the
minimum power level for detection, Smin, depends on the noise level. In practice, this
quantity constantly be varied in order to achieve the perfect balance between high

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sensitivity which is susceptible to noise and low sensitivity which may limit the
radar's ability to detect targets. Example: Find the maximum range of the AN/SPS-49
radar, given the following data

Antenna Size = 7.3 m wide by 4.3 m tall

Efficiency = 80 %
Peak power = 360 kW
Cross section = 1 m2
Smin = 1 x 10-12 W

We know from the previous example, that the directional antenna gain,
Gdir = 4/ = 4/(.05 x .07) = 3430

The power gain,

G = Gdir
G = 2744.
Likewise, the effective aperture,
Ae = A .8(7.3 x 4.3)
Ae = 25.1 m2.

Therefore the range is R = ,

Or R = 112 km.

Continuous Wave Radar

Principle of Operation
As opposed to pulsed radar systems, continuous wave (CW) radar systems emit
electromagnetic radiation at all times. Conventional CW radar cannot measure range
because there is no basis for the measurement of the time delay. Recall that the basic
radar system created pulses and used the time interval between transmission and
reception to determine the target's range. If the energy is transmitted continuously
then this will not be possible.

CW radar can measure the instantaneous rate-of-change in the target's range.

This is accomplished by a direct measurement of the Doppler shift of the returned
signal. The Doppler shift is a change in the frequency of the electromagnetic wave
caused by motion of the transmitter, target or both. For example, if the transmitter is
moving, the wavelength is reduced by a fraction proportional to the speed it is moving
in the direction of propagation. Since the speed of propagation is a constant, the
frequency must increase as the wavelength shortens. The net result is an upwards
shift in the transmitted frequency, called the Doppler shift.

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Figure 1. Doppler shift from moving transmitter

Likewise, if the receiver is moving opposite to the direction of propagation, there will
a increase in the received frequency. Furthermore, a radar target which is moving will
act as both a receiver and transmitter, with a resulting Doppler shift for each. The two
effects caused by the motion of the transmitter/receiver and target can be combined
into a net shift the frequency. The amount of shift will depend of the combined speed
of the transmitter/receiver and the target along the line between them, called the line-
of-sight (LOS).

Police often use CW radar to measure the speed of cars. What is actually measured is
the fraction of the total speed which is towards the radar. If there is some difference
between the direction of motion and the line-of-sight, there will be error. Fortunately
for speeders, the measured speed is always lower than the actual.

CW radar systems are used in military applications where the measuring the range
rate is desired. Of course, range rate can be determined from the basic pulsed radar
system by measuring the change in the detected range from pulse to pulse. CW
systems measure the instantaneous range rate, and maintain continuous contact with
the target.

The Doppler shift can be calculated with knowledge of the transmitter/receiver and
target speeds, here designated as s 1 and s2 respectively, and the angles between their
direction of motion and the line-if-sight, designated 1 and 2. The combined speed in
the line-of-sight is

s = s1 cos1 + s2 cos2.

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Figure 2. Calculating the relative speed in the line-of-sight.

This speed can also be interpreted as the instantaneous rate of change in the range, or
range rate. As long as the problem is confined to two-dimensions, the angles also
have simple interpretations: 1 the relative bearing to the target. The difference
between the course of the transmitter/receiver and the true bearing to the target. This
follows the old nautical rule:

Relative Bearing = True Bearing - Heading

Due to the characteristics of the cosine function, it makes no difference whether angle
is positive or negative (strictly speaking, relative bearings are always positive and
range from 0 to 3590). 2 = the target angle (relative bearing of transmitter/receiver
from target). Computed in an identical manner as the relative bearing, except that the
target's course is substituted for the heading and the reciprocal bearing is used instead
of the true bearing to the target. The reciprocal bearing is found by:

Reciprocal Bearing = True Bearing 1800

Again, it does not matter is this result is positive, negative or even beyond 360 0, although the proper
result would be in the range of 0-3590. Assuming that the range rate is known the shift in returned
frequency is

f = 2s/
where  is the wavelength of the original signal. As an example, the Doppler shift in
an X-band (10 GHz) CW radar will be about 30 Hz for every 1 mph combined speed
in the line-of-sight.
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Use of radars system:
i. Detect the presence of a target (as object of detection)
ii. To determine location of object.
iii. To measure range and angle from a target.
iv. Calculate speed of a target
v. Control traffic etc

Classification of Radar systems set (1) and Set (2)

Depending on the desired information, radar sets must have different qualities and
technologies. One reason for these different qualities and techniques radar sets are
classified.

Figure Radar systems classified according to specific function

Imaging Radar / Non-Imaging Radar
An Imaging Radar forms a picture of the observed object or area. Imaging radars have
been used to map the Earth, other planets, asteroids, other celestial objects and to
categorize targets for military systems.

Primary Radar
A Primary Radar transmits high-frequency signals which are reflected at targets. The
arisen echoes are received and evaluated. This means, unlike secondary radar sets a
primary radar unit receive its own emitted signals as an echo again. Example of
primary radar Primary Surveillance Radar (PSR), the primary radar unit has a major
quality: It works with passive echoes. The transmitted high-frequency impulses are
reflected by the target and then received by the same radar unit.
Secondary Radar
At these radar sets the airplane must have a transponder (transmitting responder) on
board and this transponder responds to interrogation by transmitting a coded reply
signal. This response can contain much more information, than a primary radar unit is
able to acquire (E.g. an altitude, an identification code or also any technical problems
on board. Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) Secondary radar units work
according to another principle: These work with active answer signals. The secondary
radar unit transmits and also receives high-frequency impulses, the so called
interrogation. This isn't simply reflected, but received by the target by means of a

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transponder which receives and processes. After this the target answers with another
frequency.

Figure
Pulsed Radars: Pulse radar sets transmit a high-frequency impulse signal of high
power. After this impulse signal, a longer break follows in which the echoes can be
received, before a new transmitted signal is sent out. Direction, distance and
sometimes if necessary the height or altitude of the target can be determined from the
measured antenna position and propagation time of the pulse-signal.
Continuous- Wave Radar: CW radar sets transmit a high-frequency signal
continuously. The echo signal is received and processed. The receivers need not to be
mounted at the same place as the transmitter. Every firm civil radio transmitter can
work as a radar transmitter at the same time, if a remote receiver compares the
propagation times of the direct signal with the reflected one. Tests are known that the
correct location of an airplane can be calculated from the evaluation of the signals by
three different television stations.
Unmodulated CW- Radar: The transmitted signal of these equipment is constant in
amplitude and frequency. This equipment is specialized in speed measuring.
Distances cannot be measured. E.g. they are used as speed gauges for police.
Modulated CW- Radar: The transmitted signal is constant in the amplitude but
modulated in the frequency. Used by radar sets whose transmitting impulse is too long
to get a well distance resolution. Often this equipment modulates its transmitting
pulse to obtain a distance resolution within the transmitting pulse with the help of the
pulse compression. This propagation time measurement is an advantage of to the
equipment that an evaluation is carried out without reception break and the
measurement result is therefore continuously available. These radar sets are used
where the measuring distance isn't too large and it's necessary a continuous measuring
(e.g. an altitude measuring in airplanes or as weather radar. The distance from the
target is calculated by:

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 C 0.t
R
2
Where: C0 = speed of light = 3 ・ 108 m/s, Δt = measured time-difference [s], R =
distance altimeter to terrain [m]

Classification of Radar Set (2)

Set (2) Radar systems may be divided into types based on the designed use. This
section presents the general characteristics of several commonly used radar systems.

Figure

Air-defense Radars [military]

Air-Defense Radars can detect air targets and determine their position, course, and
speed in a relatively large area at maximum range above 300 miles, and the bearing
coverage is a complete 360-degree circle. Air-Defense Radars are usually divided into
two categories, Radar sets that provide only range and bearing information are
referred to as two-dimensional (2D) radars. And Radar sets that supply range, bearing,
and height are called three-dimensional (3D) radars.
Major Air-Defense Radar Applications are:
· Long-range early warning (including Airborne Early Warning, AEW)
· Ballistic missile warning and acquisition
· Height-finding
· Ground-controlled interception (GCI)
· Weapon Control Radar, Helicopter and Aircraft detection (HARD)
· Multi Function Radars
· Multi- Target Tracking Radar
· Mortar Locating Radar

A Mortar Locating Radar provides quick identification to pinpoint enemy mortar

positions in map co-ordinates, enabling artillery units to launch counter attacks. The
system electronically, scans the horizon over a given sector several times a second,
intercepting and automatically tracking hostile projectiles, then computing back along
the trajectory to the origin. The coordinates and altitude of the weapon are then
presented to the operator.

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Figure Mortar Locating Radar

Air Traffic Control (ATC) Radars [civil radar]

The following Air Traffic Control (ATC) surveillance, approach and landing radars
are commonly used in Air Traffic Management (ATM) these are categories of ATC
radars.

En Route Radars
En-route radar systems operate in L-Band usually. These radar sets initially detect and
determine the position, course, and speed of air targets in a relatively large area up to
250 nautical miles (NM).
Air Surveillance Radar (ASR)
Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) is approach control radar used to detect and display
an aircraft's position in the terminal area. These radar sets operate usually in E-Band,
and are capable of reliably detecting and tracking aircraft at altitudes below 25,000
feet (7,620 meters) and within 40 to 60 nautical miles (75 to 110 km) of their airport.
Precision Approach Radar (PAR)
The ground-controlled approach is a control mode in which an aircraft is able to land
in bad weather. The pilot is guided by ground control using precision approach radar.
The guidance information is obtained by the radar operator and passed to the aircraft
by either voice radio or a computer link to the aircraft.

Surface Movement Radar (SMR)

The Surface Movement Radar (SMR) scans the airport surface to locate the positions
of aircraft and ground vehicles and displays them for air traffic controllers in bad
weather. Surface movement radars operate in J- to X-band and uses an extremely
short pulse-width to provide an acceptable range-resolution. SMR are part of the
Airport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE).

Special Weather-Radar Applications

Weather radar is very important for the air traffic management. There are weather-
radars specially designed for the air traffic safety.

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