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The term fluid refers to both gases and liquid. A fluid flows as a result of pressure
difference. Examples of fluid flow include the flow of water along a riverbed, flow of
hot water in central heating systems and convection currents. The study of moving
fluids is very important because of their varied applications in day, to, day life, for
example, the dynamic lift on a aeroplane wing, the working of a paint spray-gun and
the bunsen burner. A flowing fluid experiences internal friction, which is known as
viscosity, between its layers. In this chapter, it is assumed that the viscosity of any fluid
under discussion is negligible.

Types of Fluid flow

 Streamline/ steady flow
 Laminar Flow
 Turbulent flow
If all the particles of a fluid passing through any given point in the fluid have the same
velocity, then the flow is said to be streamline or steady. The path traced by the
particles is called the line of flow, which is represented by a line and an arrow, see
figure 10.1 (a). A streamline is a curve whose tangent at a given point is along the
direction of the displacement of the fluid particles at the point, see figure 10.1 (b).
When the streamline and the line of flow coincide, the flow is steady or streamline.
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Streamline flow

Laminar flow
This term is taken to mean steady flow. A moving fluid has many streamlines or layers.
The flow is laminar if the particles in a given sstreamlline or layer have the same
velocity. Which may be different from other particles in the adjacent parallel layers, see
figure 10.2 (a) and (b)
𝒗𝟏
𝒗𝟐
Tube of flow 𝒗𝟑
𝒗𝟒
𝒗𝟏< 𝒗𝟐 < 𝒗𝟑
𝒗𝟓
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Turbulent Flow
Turbulent fluid flow occurs when the speed and direction of the
fluid particles passing through a point vary with time.

This breaking of streamline into ripples (disorderly flow) is

referred to as turbulent flow. The ripples or eddies have a drag
effect on the object moving through the fluid.
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 Bodies shaped for streamline flow
Objects with sharper or pointed ends require relatively less force to
move through the fluid as they cause less turbulence (drag effect).
Objects with streamlined shapes cause less turbulence to a fluid flow

Bird Fish

Car Aero plane

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The arrangement in figure 10.7 can be used to study the effect of speed of
flow on streamlines.

Fig. 10.7: Effect of speed on streamlines

Reservoir A contains potassium permanganate solution, which is released in
controlled amounts into the water flowing through a cylindrical glass jacket C by
a fine jet B. the speed of water through C is varied by the clip D. If a small
amount of water is allowed to flow out through D, a fine coloured stream is
observed along the tube C, indicating a steady flow. But when a large amount of
water is allowed to flow out, the velocity of water in the tube C increases rapidly
and this breaks the coloured stream, indicating that turbulence has set in.
turbulence sets in when the fluid flow is beyond a certain velocity known as
critical velocity.
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 The Equation of Continuity
In deriving this equation, the assumptions made are that the fluid is:
• The fluid is flowing steadily (streamline flow)
• The fluid is incompressible. Change in pressure produces no change in
density.
• The fluid is Non-viscous.
Volume flux (flow rate)
Consider a tube of flow with region W having cross-section area of
AW and region X with cross-section Area AX.
The volume flux is the volume of a fluid passing through a given
section of a tube of flow per unit time, see figure 10.8.

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Let the velocity of the fluid thorough region X be vx and the average cross-
section area be Ax. If the distance covered by the fluid per unit time is dx
then the volume flux through that region is given by:
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑾 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝒘 𝒅𝒘
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 = =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑿 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑨𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 = =
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒕
𝒅𝒘
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑾 1𝑠 = =𝑽𝒘
𝒕
𝒅𝒙
𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑿 1𝑠 = = 𝑽𝒙
𝟏𝒔
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑾 = 𝑨𝒘 𝑽𝒘 =𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒊𝒏 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑾 = 𝑨𝒙 𝑽𝒙
𝑨𝒘 𝒗𝒘 =𝑨𝒙 𝒗𝒙
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 × 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝑲 = 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏t
𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 =𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐
This is the equation of Continuity
Therefore, it can be deduced that for a non-viscous steady flow, the area of
cross-section of the fluid is inversely proportional to the velocity of the fluid.
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Example 1

A lawn sprinkler has 40 holes, each of cross-section area 2.0 x 10−2 cm2 .
It is connected to a hose-pipe of cross-section area 1.6 cm2 . If speed of
the water in the hose-pipe is 1.2 ms −1 , calculate the:
(a) The flow rate in the hose-pipe
(b) The speed at which water emerges from the holes
Solution
(a) Flow rate
= cross-section area x speed
= 1.6 x 10−4 m2 x1.2 ms−1
=1.92 x 10−4 m3 s−1
(b) The flow rate is constant
Volume efflux (volume of water coming out)
=v x 2.0 102 x 10−4 x 40
= 8 x 10−5 v m3 s −1
Volume influx = Volume efflux
8 x 10−5 v = 1.92 x 10−4
v=2.4 ms −1
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Example 2

Water flows along a horizontal pipe of cross-section area 40 cm2 , which

also has a constriction of cross-section area 5 cm2 . If the speed at the
constriction is 4 ms −1 , calculate the:
(a) Speed in the wide section.
(b) Mass flux (take the density of water to be 1 x 103 kgm−3 )
Solution
(a) Volume flux in the wider section
= 40 x 10−4 x v
= Volume flux in the construction
=5 x 10−4 x 4
But volume flux = constant
40 x 10−4 v = 5 x 10−4 x 4
20 x 10−4
v=
40 x 10−4
= 0.5ms −4
Mass flux = density x volume t = 2 Kgs −1
=1 x 103 x 2 x 10−3
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Example 3

It is noted that 250 cm3 of fluid flows out of a tube, whose inner
diameter is 7 mm, in a time of 41 s. what is the average velocity of the
fluid in the tube?

Solution

Area A = πr 2 = 3.142 x (35 x 10−3 )2

= 3.85 x 10−5 m2
volume
Volume flux =
time
250 x 10−4 m2
=
41 s
= 6.098 x 10−6m2 s −4
Since volume flux = Av
Therefore 6.098 x 10−6 = 3.85 x 10−5 x v
6.098 x10−4
v=
3.85 x10−5
= 0.158 ms −4
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 Bernoulli’s effect

Stationary water

The pressure of a fluid at rest in a uniform horizontal tube

is the same at all points in the tube. However, if the fluid
flows. The pressure will vary from point to point, see figure
10.10.

A pressure gradient is needed to make a liquid flow through

a pipe. The cause of the pressure difference is the friction
between the liquid and the walls of the pipe.
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 Bernoulli’s effect
Apparatus
Glass tube with varying cross-section area and fitted with vertical tubes at X,
Y and Z. source of running water.

Explanation
Recall that pressure in stationary fluids is given by P = hpg (where p =
density). Hence, the pressure being exerted by the fluid in the narrow
constriction is lower than that of X and Z. it is also slightly lower at Z than at
X. recall also that the velocity of the fluid at the narrow constriction is higher
than that at the wider sections. Thus, the higher the speed of the fluid, the
lower the pressure it exerts. This relation is known as Bernoulli's effect,
which can be stated as follows:
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 Bernoulli’s effect
Provided a fluid is non-viscous, incompressible and its flow streamline, an
increase in its velocity produces a corresponding decrease in the pressure it
exerts.
The paper bridge.

When air is blown into the channel made by the books, the pressure under the
paper decreases and the atmospheric pressure acting on top of the paper
presses it down. The paper thus curves in as shown in figure 10.13 (b). The
pressure in the channel decreases because the velocity of the air in the
channel increases.
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 Blowing over a paper

If a light paper is held in front of the mouth and air blown horizontally
over the paper, it will be observed that the paper gets lifted up.
Initially, part of the paper is suspended because its weight and the
atmospheric pressure acting on the two surfaces balance. When air is
blown over the paper, its velocity gets higher than at the initial state
when air is stationary. Increase in velocity causes a corresponding
decrease in the pressure acting underneath, therefore, becomes higher
and produces the force that lifts up the paper, see figure 10.13 (a).
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 Bernoulli’s effect on papers and pith balls

If two pieces of paper are placed close to each other and air
blown between them as sown in figure 10.14 (a), two papers
close in towards each other. The moving air between the papers
lowers the pressure acting on the outside surfaces causes the
papers to move closer to each other. The same effect is observed
when air is blown between two suspended pithballs, see figure 4.
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The spinning ball

Spinning ball
If the ball is now made to spin as it moves, it is observed to curve
out of its initial path. As the ball spins, it drags air along with it,
which opposes the relative motion on one side of the ball. This
causes a reduction in the relative speed and the dragged air is in
the direction of the relative motion, resulting in an increase in
speed and consequential decrease in pressure in accordance with
Bernoulli’s effect. The pressure difference on the two sided of the
ball produces a resultant force that causes the ball to curve out of
its initial path.
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 Bernoulli’s effect in lifting a ball using a funnel

Lifting a light ball using a Funnel

The streamlines as air is blown down the narrow section of the funnel
are very close to each other, signifying high velocity and therefore low
pressure, see figure 10.16. however, when the streamlines emerge into
the wider section, they spread, signifying reduced velocity and
therefore high pressure. The high pressure below the ball (atmospheric
pressure) lifts the ball up to the neck of the funnel.
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 Applications of Bernoulli’s effect
The Aerofoil
This is a structure constructed in such a way that the fluid flowing
above it moves with a higher speed than that flowing below, see figure
10.16.
𝑷𝟐

Aerofoil

𝑷𝟏

Aircraft wings and helicopter rotor blades are examples of aero foils. Because
the fluid flowing above the aero foil has to travel a longer distance than that
flowing below, it has to travel at a higher speed (low pressure) compared to
the low speed (high pressure) underneath. The pressure P1 is thus greater than
pressure P2 . The pressure difference (P1 − P2 ) gives rise to the lift of the aero
foil, called the dynamic lift. The force of the lift is given by F = (P1 − P2 )A,
where A is the area of the aero foil.
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The Bunsen burner
When gas is made to flow into the Bunsen burner from the gas cylinder,
its velocity is increased when it passes through the nozzle. This decreases
the pressure above the nozzle. Because of the atmospheric pressure
outside the barrel, air is then drawn in as shown in the diagram. The air
and gas then mix as they rise up and when ignited, a flame is produced.

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The spray gun
Figure 10.19 shows a hand spray gun. When the piston is moved forward, air
is made to flow through the barrel, some of it going down tube A and the
remainder blowing past the mouth of tube B, where it causes low pressure.
Because of increased pressure on the surface of the liquid and reduced
pressure at the mouth of B, the liquid is compelled to move up tube B and
blown to the nozzle by the air from the barrel. The velocity of the liquid is
increased as it passes through the nozzle because of the reduced cross-section
area. The liquid thus emerges as a fine spray.

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 Hazards of Bernoulli’s effect
Blowing off roof-tops
The air flowing over a roof-top has a high velocity compared to the
one flowing underneath, see figure 10.24. consequently, the
pressure acting on the roof from the underneath, P2 , will be higher
than that acting from above P1 . Hence the roof may be blown
𝑷𝟏

𝑷𝟐

Wall

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 Venturi Tube.
Velocity of the fluid at the narrow constriction is higher
than that at the wider sections. Thus, the higher the speed
of the fluid, the lower the pressure it exerts.

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Road accidents
A small car travelling at a very high speed is likely to be dragged into a
long truck travelling in the opposite direction, also at a high speed. This
is because the air in between them moves with a very high speed,
reducing the pressure between them. The atmospheric pressure acting
from the sides of the two vehicles will push them closer together,
increasing chances of an accident.

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1. What is meant by;
(i) Streamline flow
(ii) Turbulent flow
2. State Bernoulli’s principle.
3. State one assumption made in Bernoulli’s fluid flow.
4. Give three examples of Bernoulli’s effect in air.
5. State any three properties of an ideal fluid that obeys Bernoulli’s principle
6. State the equation of continuity. Define any symbols used.
7. In deriving the equation of continuity, what three assumptions are made?
8. State how the pressure in a moving fluid varies with speed of the fluid.
9. Explain one danger of Bernoulli’s effect
10. Explain why a fast moving car appear lighter
11. A horse rider bends forward when the horse is on speed. Explain.
12. Give two examples of devices in which Bernoulli’s effect is applied.
13. It is observed that a vehicle which has a door at the rear side gathers more
dust inside when moving at high speed on a dusty road with the door open
than the one which has an open door on the side. Explain this observation
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14. Two table Tennis balls are in the same level while suspended from threads
a short distance apart. A stream of air is blown between the balls in a
horizontal direction. Explain what happens to the balls
15. When spraying a field of water using a hose pipe, it is common to reduce
the pipes opening in order to spray water furthest. Other than pressure, what
other quality is varied in the process?
16. State how the pressure in a moving fluid varies with the speed of the fluid.
17. It is dangerous to stand close to a road when a fast moving lorry passes.
Comment on this statement.
18. The passengers in a bus would complain about smoke if the driver smokes
when in the driver’s seat and the bus is stationary but not when the bus is
moving. Explain.
19. Fig below shows streamline of a fluid flowing from left to right of the
object. Point Y, is on the lower side of the object. State with reason, the side of
the object on which the velocity of flow of the liquid is higher.

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20. Figure below is a manometer containing water. Air is blown across the
mouth of one tube and the levels of the water changes as shown. Explain why
the level of water in the left limp of manometer is higher.

21. A pupil blows a current of air over the surface of a sheet of paper held
close to its mouth. State and explain what happens to the paper.
22. Figure below shows a whistle. When air is blown the sound produced
varies. Explain this observation using Bernoullis Principle

23. A pipe of radius 3mm is connected to another pipe of radius 9mm. If

water flows in the wider pipe at a speed of 2ms-1, what is the speed in the
narrower pipe.
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24. A pump draws water from a tank and issues it from the end of a hosepipe
which is 2.5 vertically above the level from which the water is drawn. The cross
–sectional area of the hosepipe is1.0 x 10-3m2 and the water leaves the end of
the hosepipe at a speed of 5m/s. Calculate the power of the pump. (density of
water = 1000Kg)
25. A horse pipe of internal diameter 4cm is connected to a sprinkler with 25
holes each of diameter 0.004 cm, the water in the pipe flows at a speed of 5
cm/s. Determine the velocity with which the water leaves the sprinkler.
26. Water flows through a horizontal pipe of varying cross-section area as
shown in figure below.

The velocity of water in pipe A is 2m/s

(i) Determine the velocity of water in pipe B.
(ii) State two assumptions taken in Bernoulli’s fluid flow.
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