EUROPEAN COLONIZATION

Portuguese
Arrival and Early Governance:

• Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese voyager, reached Calicut on May 17, 1498, marking the first European maritime contact
with India. Calicut was then ruled by King Zamorin.

• Francisco de Almeida became the first Portuguese Governor in India (1505–1509), establishing early colonial
dominance.

• Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509–1515) elevated Portuguese power by capturing Goa in 1510 from the Bijapur Sultanate
and abolishing Sati, a significant social reform.

• Expansion and Shift of Capital:

• Nino da Cunha (1529–1538) transferred the Portuguese capital from Cochin to Goa in 1530 and acquired Diu (1535)
and Daman (1559), strengthening their coastal presence.

Decline:

• The Portuguese lost Hugli in 1631 during Shah Jahan’s reign, signaling the decline of their influence in Bengal.
Agricultural Contributions:

• Introduced crops like potato, tobacco, pineapple, and maize, transforming Indian agriculture and cuisine.

Dutch
• Establishment:

• The Dutch East India Company was formed in 1602, aiming to dominate the spice trade.

• Their first factory was established at Masulipatnam in 1605, followed by factories at Pulicat (1610, their capital until
1689), Chinsura, Patna, Balasore, Nagapattinam, Cochin, Surat, Karikal, and Kasimbazar.

• In 1608, a factory was set up at Devanampattinam.

• Decline:

• The Dutch influence waned by the mid-18th century due to competition with the British and internal mismanagement.

English
• Formation and Early Trade:

• The English East India Company was established in 1599 and received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I in
1600 to trade in the East.
• The first factory in South India was set up at Masulipatnam in 1616, and in East India at Hariharpur, Balasore (Orissa)
in 1633.

• Expansion:

• In 1639, the Company leased Madras and built Fort St. George, which served as their headquarters on the Coromandel
Coast.

• Aurangzeb’s farman in 1667 allowed trade in Bengal, leading to a factory at Sutanuti (1690), which later became
Calcutta.

• In 1681, Fort St. David was constructed at Cuddalore.

• Significance:

• The English gradually outmaneuvered other European powers, laying the groundwork for British dominance in India.

Danes
• Establishment:

• The Danish East India Company was formed in 1616.

• Settlements were established at Serampur (Bengal) and Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu).

• Limited Impact:

• Danish presence remained minimal, focusing on trade rather than territorial control, and faded by the 19th century.

French
• Formation:

• The French East India Company was established in 1664 under Jean-Baptiste Colbert during the reign of Louis XIV.

• Early Factories:

• First factory set up at Surat (1668), followed by Masulipatnam (1669).

• Pondicherry, founded in 1673, became the French capital in India.

• Rivalry and Decline:

• The French competed with the British but were defeated in the Battle of Wandiwash (1760), limiting their influence to
Pondicherry and a few enclaves.

THE BRITISH CONQUEST OF BENGAL

• Mughal Autonomy:
• Murshid Quli Khan (1717–1727) made Bengal virtually independent from the Mughal Empire, establishing a strong
regional administration.

• His successors, Shuja-ud-Daulah (1727–1739) and Alivardi Khan (1740–1756), maintained this autonomy.

• Battle of Plassey (1757):

• Siraj-ud-Daulah, Alivardi Khan’s grandson, was defeated by Robert Clive in the Battle of Plassey (1757), a pivotal event
that laid the foundation of the British Empire in India.

• The Black Hole Tragedy (1756), though controversial, is associated with Siraj-ud-Daulah’s reign, alleging the
imprisonment of British prisoners in a confined space.

• Battle of Buxar (1764):

• Fought between the British (led by Major Hector Munro) and the triple alliance of Mir Qasim (Nawab of Bengal),
Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh), and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.

• The British victory established their dominance over Bengal and weakened the Mughal Emperor’s authority.

• Treaty of Allahabad (1765):

• Granted the Diwani (revenue collection rights) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the British East India Company.
• Introduced the Dual Government system, where the Company held real power, but the Nawab of Bengal retained
nominal administrative responsibility.

Robert Clive
• Role: Considered the true founder of British political dominion in India due to his strategic victories in Plassey and
Buxar.

• Legacy: His policies established the framework for British administrative and military control in India.

Note: Raja Sawai Jai Singh (1681–1743), the most prominent Rajput ruler of his time, built Jaipur and established
observatories in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura, and Varanasi. His astronomical tables, Zij Muhammadshahi, advanced
scientific observations in India.

GOVERNOR-GENERALS OF INDIA

Warren Hastings (1772–1785)

• Key Reforms:

• Ended the Dual Government of Bengal through the Regulating Act of 1773, centralizing British authority.
• Deprived Zamindars of judicial powers, establishing Civil and Criminal Courts for better governance.

• Wars:

• First Anglo-Maratha War (1776–1782) ended with the Treaty of Salbai (1782).

• Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780–1784) concluded with the Treaty of Mangalore (1784).

• Cultural Contributions:

• Founded the Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784) with William Jones, promoting oriental studies.

• Wrote the introduction to the first English translation of the Gita by Charles Wilkins.

• Note: Sir John MacPherson served as acting Governor-General (1785–1786).

Lord Cornwallis (1786–1793)

• Land Revenue Reform:

• Introduced the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (1793), declaring Zamindars as landowners who retained 1/11th of
revenue, while the British collected 10/11th. Zamindars could fix rents, impacting peasants variably.

• Judicial and Administrative Reforms:

• First to codify laws, separating revenue administration from justice.

• Police Reforms: Divided districts into 400 sq. miles, each under a police superintendent assisted by constables.

• Wars:

• Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–1792) ended with the Treaty of Srirangapatnam, weakening Tipu Sultan.

Sir John Shore (1793–1798)

• Focused on consolidating Cornwallis’s reforms with minimal new initiatives.

Lord Wellesley (1798–1805)

• Subsidiary Alliance:

• Introduced the Subsidiary Alliance system, ensuring British control over Indian states like Hyderabad, Mysore,
Tanjore, Awadh, and Maratha states (Peshwa, Bhonsle, Scindia, and Rajputs).

• Wars:

• Defeated Tipu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799), annexing parts of Mysore.

• Significance: Strengthened British paramountcy in India through strategic alliances and conquests.

Land Revenue Systems

• Permanent Settlement (1793):
• Implemented in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Banaras, and parts of Madras by Cornwallis.

• Zamindars became landowners, retaining 1/11th of revenue, with the British collecting a fixed 10/11th.

• Impact: Provided revenue stability for the British but often led to peasant exploitation due to arbitrary rent increases by
Zamindars.

• Ryotwari System:

• Introduced in Bombay, Madras, and Assam by Thomas Munro and Charles Reed.

• Direct settlement with ryots (cultivators), with revenue fixed for up to 30 years based on soil quality and crop type,
following Ricardo’s rent theory.

• Impact: Reduced intermediaries but burdened cultivators with high revenue demands.

• Mahalwari System:

• A modified Zamindari system in the Ganges Valley, NWFP, Central India, and Punjab.

• Revenue settled with villages or estates through landlords or village communities.

• Impact: Balanced individual and collective responsibility but faced implementation challenges.

George Barlow (1805–1807)

• Served as acting Governor-General, focusing on maintaining stability.

Lord Minto I (1807–1813)

• Key Event:

• Signed the Treaty of Amritsar (1809) with Maharaja Ranjit Singh, defining British-Sikh relations.

• Legislation:

• Charter Act of 1813 opened Indian trade (except tea and China trade) and allocated funds for education.

Lord Hastings (1813–1823)

• Wars:

• Anglo-Nepal War (1814–1816) ended with the Treaty of Sagauli (1816), ceding territories to the British.

• Significance: Expanded British territorial control in northern India.

Lord Amherst (1823–1828)

• Oversaw the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826), annexing parts of Assam and Burma.

Lord William Bentinck (1828–1835)

• Social Reforms:
• Prohibited Sati (1829), a landmark social reform.

• Eliminated thugs (1830), curbing organized crime.

• Educational Reforms:

• Made English the medium of higher education based on Macaulay’s recommendations.

• Legislation:

• Charter Act of 1833 designated him the first Governor-General of India, centralizing power.

Sir Charles Metcalfe (1835–1836)

• Press Freedom:

• Abolished restrictions on the vernacular press, earning the title “Liberator of the Press”.

Lord Auckland (1836–1842)

• Key Event:

• The First Afghan War (1839–1842) was a disaster, weakening British prestige.

Lord Ellenborough (1842–1844)

• Annexation:
• Annexed Sindh (1843), expanding British territory.

Lord Hardinge I (1844–1848)

• Wars:

• First Anglo-Sikh War (1845–1846) ended with the Treaty of Lahore, reducing Sikh power.

Lord Dalhousie (1848–1856)

• Modernization:

• Opened the first Indian railway (1853) from Bombay to Thane.

• Laid telegraph lines (1853) from Calcutta to Agra.

• Established the modern postal system, improving communication.

• Founded the Public Works Department, constructing bridges and the Grand Trunk Road.

• Developed ports at Karachi, Bombay, and Calcutta.

• Doctrine of Lapse:

• Annexed states like Satara (1848), Jaipur, Sambalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1854), and Nagpur (1854) if
rulers lacked natural heirs.
• Educational Reforms:

• Wood’s Dispatch (1854) outlined a comprehensive education system from primary to university levels.

• Supported Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s efforts, leading to the Widow Remarriage Act (1856).

• Other Contributions:

• Made Shimla the summer capital.

• Established an engineering college at Roorkee.

• Promoted science, forestry, commerce, and industry.

THE REVOLT OF 1857

Causes
• Political:

• Doctrine of Lapse displaced rulers like Nana Sahib, denied a pension as the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II.

• Annexation of princely states alienated local rulers.

• Economic:
• Heavy taxation, evictions, and discriminatory tariffs harmed peasants, artisans, and small Zamindars.

• Destruction of traditional handicrafts due to British industrial policies.

• Military:

• Indian soldiers faced low salaries, racial discrimination, and limited promotions (capped at Subedar).

• Denial of foreign service allowance (batta) in regions like Punjab and Sindh.

• Religious and Social:

• British reforms like widow remarriage, abolition of Sati, and Christian missionary activities were seen as threats to
traditional practices.

• The Enfield rifle cartridge, greased with animal fat, sparked outrage among Hindu and Muslim soldiers.

• National Character Debate:

• Historians debate whether the revolt was a war of independence. It is popularly viewed as such in India, but arguments
against include:

• Support from Indian soldiers (Madras Army, Bombay Army, Sikh regiments) in suppressing the revolt.

• Non-participation of many princes and maharajas.

Outbreak
• March 29, 1857: Mangal Pandey attacked a British officer at Barrackpore, Bengal (19th and 34th Native Infantry),
igniting the revolt.

• May 10, 1857: Sepoys at Meerut (3rd Native Cavalry) mutinied, marching to Delhi with the cry “March to Delhi”.

• Delhi: Rebels proclaimed Bahadur Shah II as the Emperor of India.

Key Leaders
• Bakht Khan: Led the capture of Delhi, from the Bareilly unit.

• Nana Sahib (Dhondhu Pant): Led from Kanpur, supported by Tantia Tope and Azimullah.

• Begum Hazrat Mahal: Declared her son Nawab of Awadh.

• Rani Lakshmibai: Led from Jhansi, defeated the Scindia of Gwalior with Tantia Tope but was killed by Sir Hugh Rose on
June 17, 1858. Tantia Tope was later executed.

• Kunwar Singh and Amar Singh: Led in Bihar.

• Maulavi Ahmadullah: Active in Awadh and Rohilkhand.

• Devi Singh: Led in Mathura.

• Kadam Singh: Led in Meerut.

Suppression
• The revolt was fully suppressed by the end of 1858, with British forces regaining control through superior military
resources.

Causes of Failure
• Support for British: Rulers like Scindia of Gwalior, Holkar of Indore, Nizam of Hyderabad, and others actively
supported the British.

• Inferior Military Equipment: Rebels lacked advanced weaponry compared to British forces.

• Lack of Unified Leadership: The revolt was fragmented, with no central command.

• Non-Support from Educated Indians: Modern, educated Indians did not back the revolt, viewing it as feudal.

Impact
• Feudal yet Nationalist: The revolt combined feudal grievances with early nationalist sentiments.

• Government of India Act, 1858: Transferred Indian administration from the East India Company to the British Crown,
marking a shift to direct colonial rule.
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL UPRISINGS

Brahmo Samaj
• Founded: By Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828 in Calcutta.

• Origins: Evolved from the Atmiya Sabha (1814).

• Contributions:

• Supported David Hare in founding Hindu College, Calcutta.

• Established Vedanta College, offering Indian and Western sciences.

• Key Leaders:

• Devendranath Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore) founded Tattvabodhini Sabha and led Adi Brahmo Samaj.

• Keshab Chandra Sen established Sangat Sabha, Prarthana Samaj, and Brahmo Samaj of India.

• Anand Mohan Bose founded Sadharana Brahmo Samaj.

• Impact: Promoted monotheism, social reform, and women’s education.

Arya Samaj
• Founded: By Swami Dayanand Saraswati (Moolshankar) in 1875.

• Motto: “Go back to the Vedas” and “India for Indians”.

• Works:

• Published Satyarth Prakash, Veda Bhashya Bhumika, and Veda Bhashya.

• Established Gurukuls and DAV schools for education.

• Launched the Shuddhi movement to reconvert non-Hindus to Hinduism.

• Key Figures: Lala Hans Raj, Pandit Guru Dutt, Lala Lajpat Rai, Swami Shraddhanand.

• Impact: Revived Vedic traditions and fostered Hindu identity.

Ramakrishna Mission
• Founded: By Swami Vivekananda (Narendranath Dutta) in 1897, 11 years after Ramakrishna Paramhansa’s death.

• Key Events:

• Vivekananda attended the Parliament of Religions, Chicago (1893), gaining global recognition.

• Published Prabuddha Bharat (English) and Udbodhana (Bengali).

• Legacy:
• Promoted Vedanta and social service.

• Sister Nivedita (Margaret Noble) continued the mission’s work after Vivekananda’s death.

• Famous Quote: “All power is within you; you can do anything and everything.”

Young Bengal Movement

• Founded: By Henry Louis Vivian Derozio (1809–1831), a teacher at Hindu College, Calcutta.

• Activities:

• Edited Hesperus, Calcutta Literary Gazette, and was associated with India Gazette.

• Advocated rational thinking, women’s rights, and freedom of expression.

• Impact: Inspired radical intellectualism among Bengali youth.

Veda Samaj
• Founded: By Sridharalu Naidu in South India, known as the Brahmo Samaj of the South.

• Focus: Promoted monotheism and social reform in South India.

Dharma Sabha
• Founded: By Radhakant Deb in 1830.
• Objective: Opposed reforms like Sati abolition, defending orthodox Hindu practices, but supported Western education
for girls.

Drain of Wealth Theory

• Proponents: Dadabhai Naoroji (in Poverty and Un-British Rule in India) and R.C. Dutt (in Economic History of
India).

• Concept:

• Post-Battle of Plassey (1757), British officials and the Company drained wealth by extorting resources and exporting
Indian goods using Bengal’s revenue.

• Began significantly in 1765 with the Diwani of Bengal.

• Impact: Highlighted economic exploitation, fueling nationalist sentiments.

Lokahitawadi
• Founded: By Gopal Hari Deshmukh in 1848.

• Focus: Social reform through writings in Prabhakar newspaper, advocating rationalism and modernization.

Servants of India Society

• Founded: By Gopal Krishna Gokhale in 1915.

• Objective: Provided famine relief and improved conditions for tribal communities.

Seva Samiti
• Founded: By Hridayanath Kunzru in 1914 at Allahabad.

• Objective: Uplifted marginalized groups, reformed criminals, and provided social welfare.

Radhaswami Movement
• Founded: By Tulsi Ram (Shiv Dayal Saheb) in 1861 in Agra.

• Focus: Combined spiritual teachings from Hinduism and Sikhism.

Deva Samaj
• Founded: By Shiv Narain Agnihotri in 1887.

• Objective: Promoted ethical living and social reform.

Theosophical Society
• Founded: By Madam H.P. Blavatsky and Col. M.S. Olcott in the USA (1875), shifted to Adyar, Tamil Nadu (1882).
• Leadership: Annie Besant became president in 1907, founding Central Hindu College (1898), which became Banaras
Hindu University (1916).

• Objective: Drew inspiration from Indian philosophy, promoting spiritual and cultural revival.

Ahmedia Movement
• Founded: By Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in 1889.

• Focus: Islamic reform and revival, emphasizing peaceful propagation.

Deoband Movement
• Founded: By Rashid Ahmad Gangohi and Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi in 1866 at Deoband.

• Objective: Promoted classical Islamic studies and moral regeneration, opposing Western education.

Satya Shodhak Samaj

• Founded: By Jyotiba Phule in 1873.

• Objective: Fought Brahmin dominance, educated lower castes, and promoted their rights.

• Works: Authored Ghulamgiri and Sarvajanik Satyadharma Pustak, opened schools for untouchables, and established
orphanages for widows.
Justice Party Movement
• Founded: By Dr. T.M. Nair, Sir Pitti Theagaraja Chettiar, and the Raja of Panagal in 1916 as the South Indian Liberal
Federation (SILF).

• Objective: Opposed Brahmin dominance in government, education, and politics.

• Organ: Newspaper Justice voiced their demands.

Self-Respect Movement
• Founded: By E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar) in 1925 in Tamil Nadu.

• Objective: Challenged Brahmin superiority, organized non-Brahmin weddings and temple entry movements.

Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s Movement

• Objective: Uplifted untouchables by advocating for their educational, legal, and political rights.

• Organizations:

• Bahishkrit Hitkarini Sabha (1924), Bahishkrit Bharat (1927), Samaj Samata Sangha (1927), and Scheduled Caste
Federation (1942).

• Founded the Independent Labour Party.

• Impact: Instrumental in securing reserved seats through the Poona Pact (1932) and shaping India’s Constitution as
Chairman of the Drafting Committee.

TRIBAL AND PEASANT UPRISINGS (19TH–20TH CENTURY)

Tribal Uprisings
• Chaura Rising (1768–1832): In Manbhum and Barabhum, West Bengal.

• Bhil Revolt (1818–1848): In the Western Ghats.

• Ho Rising (1820–1832): In Singhbhum and Chhota Nagpur.

• Koli Risings (1824–1848): In Western Ghats, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.

• Khasi Risings (1829–1832): In Assam and Meghalaya.

• Singpo Revolt (1830–1839): In Assam.

• Kol Rising (1831–1832): Led by Buddho Bhagat in Chhota Nagpur.

• Khond Rising (1846–1914): Led by Chakrabisai in Khondmal, Orissa.

• Naikad Revolt (1858–1868): Led by Roop Singh and Joria Bhagat in Panchmahal, Gujarat.
• Kachnag Revolt (1882): Led by Sambhudaan in Cachar, Assam.

• Bhil Rising (1913): Led by Govind Guru in Banswara and Dungarpur, Rajasthan.

• Oraon Revolt (1914–1915): Led by Jatra Bhagat in Chhota Nagpur.

• Thadoe Kuki Rising (1917–1919): Led by Jadonang and Rani Gaidinliu in Manipur.

• Chenchu Revolt (1921–1922): Led by Hanumunthu in Nallamala, Andhra Pradesh.

• Santhal Revolt (1855–1857): Led by Sido and Kanhu in Rajmahal Hills.

• Munda Revolt (1899–1900): Led by Birsa Munda in South Ranchi.

• Rampa Revolt (1879–1924): Led by Rajan Anatayya (1879) and Alluri Sitarama Raju (1922–1924) in Andhra
Pradesh.

• Ramosi Revolt (1822–1829): Led by Vasudeo Balwant Phadke, known as the “Robin Hood of Maharashtra”, in the
Western Ghats.

Peasant Uprisings
• Moplah Rebellion (1921):

• In Malabar, Kerala, due to oppression by Hindu Zamindars (Jenmis) and the British.
• Ramosi Movement (1879):

• Led by Vasudev Balwant Phadke in Maharashtra.

• Pabna Movement (1872–1876):

• In Pabna, East Bengal, against Zamindar oppression.

• Bijolia Movement (1905–1927):

• In Rajasthan, against high taxation and forced labor.

VICEROYS OF INDIA (1858–1947)

Lord Canning (1856–1862)

• Titles: Last Governor-General and first Viceroy.

• Key Events:

• Oversaw the Revolt of 1857.

• Established Universities of Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (1857).

• Passed the Indian Councils Act (1861), introducing limited legislative representation.
Lord Elgin I (1862–1863)
• Short tenure marked by administrative continuity.

Lord Lawrence (1864–1869)

• Achievements:

• Opened telegraphic communication with Europe.

• Established High Courts in Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras (1865).

• Created the Indian Forest Department.

Lord Mayo (1869–1872)

• Reforms:

• Initiated financial decentralization.

• Established Rajkot College (Kathiawar) and Mayo College (Ajmer) for Indian princes.

• Conducted the first Indian census (1872).

• Organized the Statistical Survey of India.

Lord Northbrook (1872–1876)

• Focused on fiscal and administrative stability.

Lord Lytton (1876–1880)

• Controversial Policies:

• Organized the Delhi Durbar (1877), proclaiming Queen Victoria as Kaiser-i-Hind.

• Passed the Arms Act (1878), restricting Indian access to firearms.

• Enacted the Vernacular Press Act (1878), curbing press freedom.

Lord Ripon (1880–1884)

• Liberal Reforms:

• Repealed the Vernacular Press Act (1882).

• Passed the Local Self-Government Act (1882).

• Introduced the Ilbert Bill (1883), allowing Indian magistrates to try Europeans, sparking controversy.

• Enacted the First Factory Act (1881), prohibiting child labor.

• Implemented Hunter Commission recommendations to improve education.

Lord Dufferin (1884–1888)

• Key Event: Formation of the Indian National Congress (1885).

Lord Lansdowne (1888–1894)

• Legislation:

• Passed the Second Factory Act (1891), regulating women’s and children’s working hours.

• Enacted the Indian Councils Act (1892), expanding legislative councils.

• Foreign Policy: Appointed the Durand Commission to define the India-Afghanistan border.

Lord Elgin II (1894–1899)

• Managed tribal uprisings on the northwest frontier.

Lord Curzon (1899–1905)

• Reforms:

• Passed the Indian Universities Act (1904), increasing official control over universities.

• Established the Archaeological Survey of India through the Ancient Monuments Protection Act (1904).

• Created the Department of Commerce and Industry.

• Extended railway networks significantly.

• Controversial Policy:

• Partition of Bengal (1905) into Bengal Proper and East Bengal & Assam, sparking widespread protests.

• Frontier Policy: Created the North-Western Frontier Province (NWFP) after tribal uprisings (1897–1898).

Lord Minto II (1905–1910)

• Reforms: Passed the Indian Councils Act (1909) or Morley-Minto Reforms, introducing separate electorates for
Muslims.

Lord Hardinge II (1910–1916)

• Key Events:

• Held the Delhi Durbar (1911) to celebrate King George V’s coronation.

• Cancelled the Partition of Bengal (1911) and shifted the capital to Delhi.

• Gandhi returned to India (1915) from South Africa.

• Annie Besant launched the Home Rule Movement.

Lord Chelmsford (1916–1921)

• Reforms and Events:
• Passed the Government of India Act (1919) or Montague-Chelmsford Reforms, introducing dyarchy in provinces.

• Enacted the Rowlatt Act (1919), leading to the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919).

• Appointed the Saddler Commission (1917) to review education.

• Appointed S.P. Sinha as the first Indian Governor of Bengal.

• Established a Women’s University in Poona (1916).

Lord Reading (1921–1926)

• Key Events:

• Repealed the Rowlatt Act and Press Act of 1910.

• Witnessed the Moplah Rebellion (1921) in Kerala.

• Saw the formation of the Swaraj Party (1923).

• Communist Party of India founded by M.N. Roy (1921).

• Kakori Train Robbery (1925) by revolutionaries.

Lord Irwin (1926–1931)

• Key Events:
• Simon Commission (1928) faced protests for lacking Indian representation.

• Dandi Salt March (1930) led by Gandhi.

• First Round Table Conference (1930) held in London.

• Signed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931), ending the Civil Disobedience Movement.

• Jatin Das died after a 64-day hunger strike (1929).

Lord Willingdon (1931–1936)

• Key Events:

• Second and Third Round Table Conferences (1931, 1932).

• Announced the Communal Award (1932), assigning seats to religious communities.

• Signed the Poona Pact (1932) with Ambedkar, increasing reserved seats for depressed classes.

• Passed the Government of India Act (1935), introducing provincial autonomy.

Lord Linlithgow (1936–1944)

• Key Events:

• Congress ministries (1937–1939) formed in 8 provinces, resigned over India’s involvement in World War II.
• Cripps Mission (1942) failed to secure Indian support for the war.

• Quit India Movement (1942) launched, with Gandhi’s “Do or Die” slogan.

Lord Wavell (1944–1947)

• Key Events:

• Convened the Shimla Conference (1945), which failed due to Muslim League objections.

• Announced the Cabinet Mission Plan (1946), proposing a federal union.

• Oversaw elections to the Constituent Assembly (1946), with an Interim Government under Nehru.

Lord Mountbatten (March–August 1947)

• Key Events:

• Proposed the June 3 Plan (1947), outlining India’s partition into India and Pakistan.

• Passed the Indian Independence Act (1947), granting independence on August 15, 1947.

• Served as the first Governor-General of free India, succeeded by C. Rajagopalachari.

IMPORTANT NATIONAL ACTIVITIES

Indigo Revolt (1859–1860)
• Cause: Forced indigo cultivation by European planters in Bengal.

• Leaders: Digambar Biswas and Vishnu Biswas in Govindpur, Nadia.

• Supporters: Harish Chandra Mukherjee (Hindu Patriot), Dinbandhu Mitra (Neel Darpan), and Michael
Madhusudan Datta (translated Neel Darpan).

• Outcome: The Indigo Commission (1860) addressed some abuses, reducing forced cultivation.

Indian National Congress (INC)

• Founded: By A.O. Hume in 1885 in Bombay, with W.C. Banerjee as the first president (72 delegates).

• Early Phase (1885–1905): Moderate approach, trusting British justice.

• Extremist Phase: Leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai (Lal-Bal-Pal), and Aurobindo
Ghosh pushed for stronger resistance post-1905.

Partition of Bengal (1905)

• By: Lord Curzon, effective October 16, 1905, splitting Bengal into Bengal Proper and East Bengal & Assam.

• Response:
• Rabindranath Tagore composed Amar Sonar Bangla, later Bangladesh’s national anthem.

• Raksha Bandhan observed on October 16, 1905, as a symbol of unity.

• Newspapers like Sanjeevani, Bengali, Amrit Bazar Patrika, Yugantar, New India, and Bande Mataram fueled the
movement.

Swadeshi Movement (1905)

• Origin: Anti-partition movement in Bengal, advocating Swadeshi (indigenous goods) and Boycott of British products.

• Leaders: Lal-Bal-Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh.

• INC Support: Adopted at the Banaras Session (1905) under G.K. Gokhale.

Muslim League (1906)

• Founded: By Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah, and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk in Dhaka.

• Objective: Supported partition, opposed Swadeshi, and demanded separate electorates for Muslims.

Swaraj (1906)
• Adopted: By INC at the Calcutta Session (1906) under Dadabhai Naoroji, aiming for self-government.

Surat Session of INC (1907)

• Split: Between Extremists (Lal-Bal-Pal) and Moderates (G.K. Gokhale) over the presidency of Ras Bihari Ghosh.

Indian Councils Act (Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909)

• Introduced separate electorates for Muslims, formalizing communal representation.

Ghadar Party (1913)

• Founded: By Lala Hardayal, Taraknath Das, and Sohan Singh Bhakna in San Francisco.

• Objective: Inspired by the 1857 revolt, published the Ghadar newspaper to incite revolution.

Komagata Maru Incident (1914)

• Sikh and Muslim immigrants on the Komagata Maru ship were denied entry to Vancouver, Canada, highlighting colonial
discrimination.

Home Rule Movement (1916)

• Founders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Poona) and Annie Besant (Adyar).

• Objective: Demanded self-government within the British Empire.

• Tilak’s Slogan: “Swaraj is my birthright, and I will have it.”

• Organs: The Mahratta, Kesari, New India, Commonwealth, and Young India.
Lucknow Pact (1916)
• Agreement: Between INC and Muslim League, accepting separate electorates and demanding dominion status.

August Declaration (1917)

• Announced gradual transfer of power to Indians, leading to the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (1919).

Rowlatt Act (March 18, 1919)

• Allowed arrests without trial, sparking nationwide protests led by Gandhi, laying the foundation for the Non-Cooperation
Movement.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)

• Event: General Dyer fired on a peaceful gathering in Amritsar, killing hundreds.

• Response:

• Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood.

• Sir Shankaran Nair resigned from the Viceroy’s Executive Council.

• The Hunter Commission investigated the incident.

Khilafat Movement (1920)

• Cause: Muslim discontent over the British treatment of Turkey post-World War I.

• Leaders: Mohammad Ali, Shaukat Ali, Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Hasrat Mohani.

• Outcome: Launched a non-cooperation movement on August 31, 1920, in alliance with the INC.

Non-Cooperation Movement (1920)

• Leader: Gandhi, marking the first mass-based political movement.

• Actions: C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru gave up legal practice; Subhash Chandra Bose resigned from civil services.

• Prince of Wales Visit (1921): Greeted with boycotts and protests.

Chauri Chaura Incident (1922)

• Event: A mob in Chauri Chaura, Gorakhpur, burned a police station, killing 22 policemen on February 5, 1922.

• Outcome: Gandhi withdrew the Civil Disobedience Movement, planned after the Allahabad Session (1921).

Swaraj Party (1923)

• Founders: Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, and N.C. Kelkar (Pro-changers).

• Objective: Entered legislative councils to expose British policies, opposing No-changers like Rajendra Prasad.

Simon Commission (1927)

• Purpose: Reviewed political reforms, led by John Simon.

• Response: Boycotted for lacking Indian representation; Lala Lajpat Rai died from injuries in a lathi-charge.

Revolutionary Activities
• 1897: Chapekar Brothers killed Mr. Rand in Poona (Alipur Case).

• 1907: Madam Bhikaiji Cama unfurled India’s flag at the Stuttgart Congress.

• 1908: Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki targeted Judge Kingsford; Khudiram was hanged.

• 1909: M.L. Dhingra assassinated Col. William Curzon Wyllie in London.

• 1912: Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal bombed Lord Hardinge (Delhi Conspiracy Case).

• 1925: Kakori Train Robbery by Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla, Roshan Lal, and Rajendra Lahiri.

• 1928: Bhagat Singh killed Saunders in Lahore, avenging Lala Lajpat Rai’s death.

• 1929: Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt bombed the Central Assembly; Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev were
hanged (Lahore Conspiracy Case, 1931).

• 1929: Jatin Das died after a 63-day hunger strike in Lahore jail.

• 1929–1933: Meerut Conspiracy Case prosecuted 31 communists.

• 1930: Surya Sen led the Chittagong Armoury Raid through the Indian Republic Army.

Nehru Report (1928)

• Chairman: Motilal Nehru.

• Objective: Drafted a constitution proposing dominion status, central and provincial powers, and fundamental rights.

Revolutionary Organizations
• Outside India:

• India House (1905, London): Shyamji Krishna Verma.

• Abhinav Bharat (1906, London): V.D. Savarkar.

• Indian Independence League (1907, USA): Tarak Nath Das.

• Ghadar Party (1913, San Francisco): Lala Hardayal, Tarak Nath Das, Sohan Singh Bhakna.

• Indian Independence League (1914, Berlin): Lala Hardayal, Birendra Nath.

• Indian National Army (1942, Tokyo): Ras Behari Bose.

• In India:

• Mitra Mela (1899, Poona): Savarkar Brothers.

• Anushilan Samiti I (1902, Midnapur): Gyanendranath Bose.

• Anushilan Samiti II (1907, Dhaka): Birendra Kumar Ghosh, Bhupendra Dutt.

• Bharat Mata Society (1907, Punjab): Ajit Singh, Amba Prasad.

• Hindustan Republican Association (1924, Kanpur): Jogesh Chandra Chatterji, Sachindranath Sanyal.

• Naujavan Sabha (1926, Lahore): Bhagat Singh.

• Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (1928, Delhi): Chandrashekhar Azad.

Lahore Session (1929)

• President: Jawaharlal Nehru.

• Resolution: Declared Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence) as the INC’s goal.

• Actions: Unfurled the tricolor flag on December 31, 1929, and fixed January 26, 1930, as the first Independence Day.

Dandi March (1930)

• Event: Gandhi and 78 followers marched from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (March 12–April 6, 1930), breaking the
salt law.

• Impact: Launched the Civil Disobedience Movement.

• Regional Leaders:

• C. Rajagopalachari in Tamil Nadu.

• K. Kelappan in Malabar.

• Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan organized Khudai Khidmatgars (Red Shirts) in NWFP.

First Round Table Conference (1930)

• Held: November 12, 1930, in London.

• Participants: Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, Liberals; boycotted by INC.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931)

• Terms: INC halted the Civil Disobedience Movement; the government released political prisoners and allowed coastal salt
production.

• Karachi Session (1931): Endorsed the pact and passed resolutions on Fundamental Rights and National Economic
Program.

Second Round Table Conference (1931)

• Gandhi’s Demands: Immediate responsible government with control over defense, foreign affairs, and finance.
• Outcome: MacDonald announced the Communal Award and created NWFP and Sindh as Muslim-majority provinces.

Communal Award (August 16, 1932)

• By: Ramsay MacDonald, assigning seats to religious communities, reinforcing divide-and-rule.

Poona Pact (September 25, 1932)

• Agreement: Between Gandhi and Ambedkar, replacing separate electorates for depressed classes with increased
reserved seats in joint electorates.

• Gandhi’s Actions: Launched the All-India Anti-Untouchability League (1932) and Harijan weekly (1933); began
Individual Civil Disobedience (1933).

Third Round Table Conference (1932)

• Outcome: Ineffective due to the absence of major leaders; led to the Government of India Act (1935).

Government of India Act (1935)

• Provisions:

• Established an All-India Federation (British provinces and princely states).

• Introduced dyarchy at the center and provincial autonomy.

• Created a bicameral Federal Legislature and a Federal Court (1937).

• Established the Reserve Bank of India.

• Congress Reaction: Rejected the Act, demanding a Constituent Assembly based on adult franchise.

Second World War and National Movement

• British Declaration: Lord Linlithgow declared India at war without consultation, prompting Congress resignations.

• Muslim League: Celebrated Deliverance Day (December 22, 1939).

Demand for Pakistan

• Origins:

• Iqbal (1930) proposed a Muslim state in NWFP, Baluchistan, Sindh, and Kashmir.

• Chaudhary Rehmat Ali (1933) coined Pakistan.

• Muslim League’s Lahore Session (1940) adopted the Two-Nation Theory under Jinnah.

• Karachi Session (1943): Adopted “Divide and Quit”.

August Offer (August 8, 1940)

• Proposals: Dominion status, a post-war constitution-making body, and expanded Executive Council.
• Response: Rejected by INC; accepted by Muslim League.

Cripps Mission (1942)

• Led by: Sir Stafford Cripps.

• Proposals: Post-war dominion status and a constitution-making body.

• Outcome: Rejected by Gandhi as a “post-dated cheque on a crashing bank”.

Quit India Movement (1942)

• Launched: August 8, 1942, in Bombay with Gandhi’s “Do or Die” slogan.

• Underground Activities: J.P. Narayan, R.M. Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali formed networks; Usha Mehta ran Congress Radio.

• Parallel Governments: Established in Ballia (Chittu Pande), Satara, Talcher, and parts of UP and Bihar.

Naval Mutiny (1945)

• Event: Revolt on HMS Talwar (February 18, 1945) in Bombay due to racial discrimination and poor conditions, sparked
by B.C. Dutta’s arrest.

• Spread: To HMS Hindustan in Karachi and other locations; mutineers hoisted the tricolor and shouted “Jai Hind”.

Rajagopalachari Formula (1945)

• Proposal: Plebiscite in Muslim-majority Northwest and East.

• Response: Rejected by Jinnah, who demanded only Muslims vote.

Indian National Army (INA)

• Origins: Conceived by Rasbehari Bose in Japan (1915), with Mohan Singh in Malaya.

• Leadership: Subhash Chandra Bose took charge in Singapore (1943), forming the Provisional Government of Free
India.

• Slogan: “Dilli Chalo”; coined “Jai Hind”.

• Trials: P.K. Sehgal, Shah Nawaz, Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon tried at Red Fort (1945).

• Impact: INA Day (November 12, 1945) boosted nationalist fervor.

Wavell Plan (1945)

• Proposal: Reconstituted Viceroy’s Executive Council with Indian members (except Governor-General and Commander-
in-Chief).

• Outcome: Rejected by Jinnah at the Shimla Conference.

Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

• Members: Lord Pethick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, A.V. Alexander.

• Proposals: Federal union, provincial autonomy, no separate Pakistan.

• Response: Accepted by INC and Muslim League.

Interim Government (1946)

• Formed: September 2, 1946, under Jawaharlal Nehru as Vice-President.

Jinnah’s Direct Action Resolution (1946)

• Date: August 16, 1946, condemning British and Congress policies.

• Outcome: Led to communal violence; Pakistan Day celebrated on March 27, 1947.

Constituent Assembly (1946)

• First Meeting: December 9, 1946, with Dr. Rajendra Prasad as president.

Mountbatten Plan (June 3, 1947)

• Provisions:

• Partitioned India into India and Pakistan.

• Referendum in NWFP and Sylhet (Assam).

• Separate constituent assemblies for both nations.

• Princely states could join either nation or remain independent.

• Outcome: Indian Independence Act (1947) passed, granting independence on August 15, 1947.

Partition and Independence

• Commissions: Led by Sir Cyril Radcliffe to demarcate boundaries.

• Integration: Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel ensured most princely states (except Kashmir, Hyderabad, Junagarh) signed
the Instrument of Accession by August 15, 1947.

• Colonial Enclaves: Goa (Portuguese) and Pondicherry (French) remained outside Indian control.

CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Regulating Act (1773)

• Provisions:

• Subjected the East India Company to British government supervision.

• Ended Dual Government in Bengal.

• Appointed the Governor of Bengal as Governor-General of British India.

• Established the Supreme Court in Calcutta.

Pitt’s India Act (1784)

• Created a Board of Control (six members, including two cabinet ministers) to oversee Company affairs.

Charter Act (1793)

• Extended the Company’s trade monopoly for 20 years.

• Charged Board of Control expenses to Indian revenue.

• Mandated translation of laws into Indian languages.

Charter Act (1813)

• Ended the Company’s trade monopoly (except tea and China trade).

• Allocated Rs. 1 lakh annually for Indian education.

Charter Act (1833)

• Ended the Company’s tea and China trade monopoly.

• Allowed European immigration and land ownership in India.

• Made the Governor-General of Bengal the Governor-General of India (William Bentinck, first holder).

• Added a Law Member (Macaulay) to the Executive Council.

• Established a Law Commission for codifying laws.

• Opened Company services to all, regardless of religion or race.

Charter Act (1853)

• Separated legislative and executive functions.

• Introduced open competition for Civil Services (excluding Indians).

Government of India Act (1858)

• Transferred governance to the British Crown.

• Replaced the Executive Council with the Central Legislative Council, including non-official Indian members.

• Allowed Viceroy’s ordinances in emergencies.

Indian Councils Act (1909) (Morley-Minto Reforms)

• Introduced elections to the Central Legislative Council, maintaining an official majority.

• Formalized communal representation through separate electorates.

Government of India Act (1919) (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms)
• Introduced dyarchy in provinces, dividing subjects into Transferred (managed by Indians) and Reserved (British
control).

• Created a bicameral Central Legislature.

• Increased Indian representation in the Governor-General’s Executive Council (3 out of 8 members).

Government of India Act (1935)

• Proposed an All-India Federation.

• Introduced dyarchy at the center and provincial autonomy.

• Established a bicameral Federal Legislature and Federal Court.

• Created Reserve Bank of India and new provinces (Orissa, Sind).

• Separated Burma and Aden from India.

BRITISH EDUCATIONAL POLICY AND MODERN EDUCATION

First Phase (1758–1812)

• Sanskrit College, Varanasi (1792): Founded by Jonathan Duncan for Hindu law and philosophy.

Second Phase (1813–1853)

• Charter Act (1813): Allocated Rs. 1 lakh for Indian education, promoting modern sciences.

• Downward Filtration Theory: Education aimed at upper classes to trickle down to masses.

Third Phase (1854–1900)

• Wood’s Dispatch (1854):

• Known as the Magna Carta of English Education in India.

• Established a structured education system from primary to university levels.

• Hunter Commission (1882): Recommended local bodies manage primary education.

• Universities: Calcutta, Bombay, Madras (1857).

Fourth Phase (1901–1920)

• Indian Universities Act (1904): Under Lord Curzon, increased government control over universities.

• Education Department (1910): Centralized educational administration.

• Saddler Commission (1917): Reviewed Calcutta University’s functioning.

Fifth Phase (1921–1947)
• Inter-University Board (1924): Coordinated university activities.

• Hartog Committee (1929): Emphasized consolidation of primary education.

• Wardha Scheme (1937): Proposed by Zakir Hussain Committee, advocating basic education per Gandhi’s vision.

• Sargeant Plan (1944):

• Recommended universal compulsory education (ages 6–11).

• Proposed two types of high schools: Academic and Technical/Vocational.

VENUE, YEAR, AND PRESIDENTS OF INC

Year Venue President

1885, 1892 Bombay W.C. Banerjee

1886 Calcutta Dadabhai Naoroji

1887 Madras Badruddin Tyabji

 (first Muslim
President)

1888 Allahabad George Yule (first

English
President)

1905 Banaras G.K. Gokhale

1907, 1908 Surat, Madras Rasbehari Bose

1909 Lahore M.M. Malviya

1916 Lucknow A.C. Majumdar

(Congress
reunion)

1917 Calcutta Annie Besant

(first woman
President)
1924 Belgaum M.K. Gandhi

1925 Kanpur Sarojini Naidu

(first Indian
woman
President)

1929 Lahore J.L. Nehru

(Poorna
Swaraj
resolution)

1931 Karachi Vallabhbhai Patel

1937 Faizpur J.L. Nehru (first

village
session)

1938 Haripura S.C. Bose

(National
 Planning
Committee)

1939 Tripuri S.C. Bose

(resigned;
Rajendra
Prasad
appointed)

1946 Meerut J.B. Kripalani

1948 Jaipur Pattabhi

Sitaramayya

NEWSPAPERS AND JOURNALS

Name Founder/Editor

Bengal Gazette (1780, J.K. Hikki

India’s first newspaper)
Rast Goftar Dadabhai Naoroji

New India (Weekly) Bipin Chandra Pal

Som Prakash Ishwar Chandra

Vidyasagar

Bombay Chronicle Firoze Shah Mehta

Hindustan M.M. Malviya

Mooknayak B.R. Ambedkar

Independent Motilal Nehru

Essays in Indian Economics M.G. Ranade

Indian Mirror Devendranath Tagore

PRE-CONGRESS NATIONALIST ORGANIZATIONS

Organization Year/Place Founders

Landholders’ 1838/Calcutta Dwarkanath

 Society Tagore
(Zamindary
Association)

British India 1839/London William Adams

Society

British India 1851/Calcutta Devendranath

Association Tagore,
Radhakant
Deb

Madras Native 1852/Madras -

Association

East India 1866/London Dadabhai Naoroji

Association
Indian National 1867/London Mary Carpenter
Association

Indian Society 1872/London Anand Mohan

Bose

India League 1875/Calcutta Sisir Kumar

Ghosh

Indian Association 1876/Calcutta Anand Mohan

Bose,
Surendranath
Banerjee

National 1883/Calcutta -
Conference

Madras Mahajan 1884/Madras M.

Sabha Viraghavacha
rya, G.
 Subramaniya
Aiyar, P.
Anand Charlu

Indian National 1884 A.O. Hume

Union

POST-CONGRESS NATIONALIST ORGANIZATIONS

Organization Year Founders

Federation of 1927 G.D. Birla,

Indian Thakurdas
Chambers of
Commerce
and Industry
(FICCI)

Rashtriya 1925 K.B. Hedgewar

Swayamsevak
 Sangh (RSS)

All India 1932 M.K. Gandhi

Untouchability
League

Hindu Mahasabha 1917 M.M. Malviya

(revived)

LABOR AND TRADE UNION ORGANIZATIONS

Organization Year Founders

All India Trade 1920 N.M. Joshi, Roy

Union Chaudhary
Congress
(AITUC)

Indian National 1944 V.B. Patel

Trade Union
 Congress
(INTUC)

LEFTIST ORGANIZATIONS

Organization Year/Place Founders

Communist Party 1920/Tashkent M.N. Roy

of India

Labour Kisan 1923/Madras Singaravelu

Party

Congress Socialist 1934 Narendra Dev,

Party J.P. Narayan,
Minoo Masani

Forward Block 1939 S.C. Bose

Bolshevik Party of 1939 N.D. Mazumdar

India
Independence - B.R. Ambedkar
Labour Party

IMPORTANT NATIONAL LEADERS

M.K. Gandhi (1869–1948)

• Titles: Father of the Nation.

• Early Life: Born in Porbandar (1869), married Kasturba (1883).

• South Africa (1893–1915):

• Founded the Natal Indian Congress and Indian Opinion newspaper.

• Established Phoenix Farm near Durban.

• India:

• Returned in 1915, founded Sabarmati Ashram (1916).

• Led Champaran Satyagraha (1917) against the Tinkathia system.

• Conducted Ahmedabad Mill Strike (1918), using hunger strike as a weapon.

• Led Kheda Satyagraha (1918) for revenue remission.

Dadabhai Naoroji (1825–1917)
• Contributions:

• Demanded Swaraj at the Calcutta Session (1906).

• Authored Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1901), highlighting the Drain of Wealth.

• Titles: Indian Gladstone, Grand Old Man of India.

• Legacy: First Indian elected to the House of Commons (Liberal Party).

Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866–1915)

• Role: Gandhi’s political guru.

• Contributions:

• President of INC at Banaras Session (1905).

• Founded the Servants of India Society (1905).

Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920)

• Contributions:

• Founded The Mahratta (English) and Kesari (Marathi) newspapers.

• Led the Extremist faction, causing the Surat Split (1907).

• Launched the Home Rule League (1916).

• Authored The Arctic Home of Vedas and Gita Rahasya.

• Title: Father of Indian Unrest (by Valentine Chirol).

B.R. Ambedkar (1891–1956)

• Contributions:

• Participated in all Round Table Conferences.

• Signed the Poona Pact (1932).

• Founded Independent Labour Party, Scheduled Caste Federation, and People’s Education Society.

• Chaired the Drafting Committee of the Indian Constitution.

• Served as Law Minister (1947–1951).

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1888–1958)

• Contributions:

• Joined INC during the Swadeshi Movement.

• Published Al-Hilal and Al-Balagh.

• President of Khilafat Committee (1920) and INC (1923, 1940).

• Led the Shimla Conference (1945) delegation.

• First Education Minister of independent India.

• Legacy: Authored India Wins Freedom.

Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (1890–1988)

• Titles: Frontier Gandhi, Badshah Khan.

• Contributions:

• Founded Khudai Khidmatgars (Red Shirts).

• Published Pakhtoon newspaper.

• Opposed partition; awarded Bharat Ratna (1987).

Subhash Chandra Bose (1897–1945)

• Titles: Netaji.

• Contributions:
• Resigned from ICS (1920) for the Non-Cooperation Movement.

• Founded the Independence for India League with Nehru.

• President of INC at Haripura (1938) and Tripuri (1939).

• Founded the Forward Block (1939).

• Led the INA in Singapore, giving “Dilli Chalo” and “Jai Hind” slogans.

• Authored The Indian Struggle.

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964)

• Titles: Architect of Modern India, first Prime Minister.

• Contributions:

• Passed Poorna Swaraj resolution at Lahore Session (1929).

• Advocated Panchsheel and non-alignment.

• Authored The Discovery of India, Glimpses of World History, and A Bunch of Old Letters.

IMPORTANT DATES IN INDIAN HISTORY (AD)

Year Event

1191 First Battle of Tarain:

Prithviraj Chauhan
defeated Mohd. Ghori.

1192 Second Battle of Tarain:

Mohd. Ghori defeated
Prithviraj Chauhan.

1526 First Battle of Panipat:

Babar defeated
Ibrahim Lodhi,
founding the Mughal
dynasty.

1556 Second Battle of Panipat:

Akbar defeated Hemu.

1565 Battle of Talikota:

 Vijayanagar Empire
defeated.

1576 Battle of Haldighati: Akbar

defeated Maharana
Pratap.

1600 English East India

Company established.

1757 Battle of Plassey: English

defeated Siraj-ud-
Daulah.

1760 Battle of Wandiwash: End

of French power in
India.

1761 Third Battle of Panipat:

Ahmed Shah Abdali
 defeated Marathas.

POST-INDEPENDENCE

Year Event

1951 First Five-Year Plan

implemented.

1952 First General Elections

held.

1954 Panchsheel Agreement

with China.

1956 Life Insurance

nationalized; State
Reorganization Act
enforced.

1969 Nationalization of 14
 banks.

1972 Shimla Agreement

signed.

1973 Manekshaw named

India’s first Field
Marshal.

1974 Pokhran Nuclear Test

(May 18).

1975 Aryabhatta satellite

launched; National
Emergency declared.

1980 First indigenous satellite

launch (July 18).

1981 APPLE satellite launched;

 Khalistan activists
hijacked Indian
Airlines flight.

1983 Gandhi film won 8 Oscars.

1984 Rakesh Sharma became

India’s first spaceman;
Bachendri Pal scaled
Everest; Operation
Blue Star; Indira
Gandhi assassinated;
Bhopal Gas Tragedy.

1988 IRS-1A satellite launched.

1998 Five nuclear tests

conducted at Pokhran.

1999 INSAT-2E telecom satellite

 launched.

2000 Dhanush missile test-

fired.

2001 Lakshya aircraft

inducted; Indo-Pak
Agra Summit.

2008 Kosovo independence;

World’s longest sea
bridge opened in
China; Cape Verde
joined WTO.

IMPORTANT BATTLES IN INDIAN HISTORY (AD)

Year Event

712 Mohd.-bin-Qasim invaded

 Sindh.

1191 First Battle of Tarain:

Prithviraj Chauhan
defeated Mohd. Ghori.

1526 First Battle of Panipat:

Babar defeated
Ibrahim Lodhi.

1539 Battle of Chausa: Sher

Shah Suri defeated
Humayun.

1556 Second Battle of Panipat:

Akbar defeated Hemu.

1615 Rana Amar Singh

submitted to Mughals.
1665 Treaty of Purandar:
Shivaji ceded forts to
Mughals.

1760 Battle of Wandiwash:

British defeated
French.

1761 Third Battle of Panipat:

Ahmed Shah Abdali
defeated Marathas.

1764 Battle of Buxar: British

defeated Mughal
alliance.

IMPORTANT WARS OF THE 20TH CENTURY

• Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905): Rivalry over Manchuria and Korea.

• First World War (1914–1918): Began with Austria-Serbia conflict; ended with the Treaty of Versailles (1919).
• Sino-Japanese Wars (1931–1933): Japanese expansion in China.

• Second World War (1939–1945): Axis powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) vs. Allies, reshaping global politics.