Chapter 11- PROBLEM SOLVING, ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE,

AND CREATIVITY

– Problem solving = an effort to overcome obstacles obstructing the path to an

solution
→ How people solve problems depends partly on how they understand the
problem

The Problem-Solving Cycle

– initial state → obstacle → desired state
– The problem solving cycle includes:
a. Problem identification
b. Problem definition and representation
c. Strategy formulation:
→ analysis vs. synthesis
In general, analysis is defined as the procedure by which we break down an intellectual
or substantial whole into parts or components. Synthesis is defined as the opposite
procedure: to combine separate elements or components in order to form a coherent
whole.

→ divergent thinking (generate a diverse assortment of possible alternative

solutions ) vs.
convergent thinking (narrow down the multiple possibilities to converge on a single
answer)
d. Organization of information
e. Allocation of resources: experts and better students tend to devote
more mental resources to global planning
f. Monitoring
g. Evaluation
→ order may vary, steps may be repeated or skipped; Emotions can influence
how theproblem-solving cycle is implemented
 Types of Problems
h. Well-structured problems: have clear paths to solutions; well-defined problems
i. Ill-structured problem: lack clear paths to solutions; ill-defined problems

Well-Structured Problems
– Move problems: require a series of moves to reach the final goal state
– Three main errors when trying to solve well-structured problems:
a. Inadvertently moving backward
b. Making illegal moves
– Not realizing the nature of the next legal move
– Problem space = the universe of all possible actions that can be applied to
solving a problem, given any constraints that apply to the solution of the

problem
– Algorithms = sequences of operations in a problem space that may be repeated over
and over again that, in theory, guarantee the solution to a problem → continues until
it satisfies a condition determined by a program
– Humans use heuristics (informal, intuitive, speculative mental shortcuts) to solve
problemsdue to the limited capacity of working memory (e.g. availability heuristic,
anchoring and adjustment)

Isomorphic Problems
= Formal structure is the same, only the content differs
–
It is often difficult to observe the underlying structural isomorphism of problems and
to beable to apply problem-solving strategies from one problem to another

Problem Representation Does Matter!

– Initial state → various intermediate states → desired goal

– A major determinant of the relative ease of solving a problem is how the

problem isrepresented
– There might be a relationship between the working-memory capacity and the
ability tosolve analytic problems; no correlation with processing speed

Ill-Structured Problems and the Role of Insight

– ill-structured problems do not have well-defined problem spaces → problem
 solvers have difficulty constructing appropriate mental representations for
modelling ill-structured problems and their solutions
– Problem: constructing a plan for sequentially following a series of steps that come
closer totheir solution
– Domain knowledge and justification skills are important for solving problems of any kind
– Insight problems = problems you need to see in a novel way/ restructure the
representation to solve
→ Insight = a distinctive and sometimes seemingly sudden understanding of a
problem or strategy that aids in solving the problem; involves detecting and
combining relevant old and new information to gain a novel view of the problem
Early Gestalt Views
– Wertheimer: Productive thinking: involves insights that go beyond the bounds of
existing associations (e.g., solution to the 9 dot problem) vs Reproductive
thinking: based on existing associations involving what is already known

→ Insightful thinking is productive

The Neo-Gestalt View

– When given routine problems, problem solvers show great accuracy in their
ability to predict their success before any attempt to solve it, but when given
insight problem,problem solvers show poor ability to predict their own success
→ successful problem solvers often pessimistic about their ability,
unsuccessful ones often optimistic

Insights into Insight

– Insight can occur gradually (not necessarily aha)
– Sleep has shown to increase the likelihood that an insight will be produced
 Neuroscience and Insight
– Networks that are active during rest are also active during problem solving
– fMRI: Activity in the right anterior superior-temporal gyrus increases when
a person experiences an insight
– EEG: Burst of high-frequency activity is recorded during insight
– Before insight even become conscious, activity in the right hemisphere can be
observed;right hippocampus is critical on the formation of an insightful solution
– Neural correlates measured even before an individual sees a problem can predict if
insightwill occur → activity in frontal lobes → some people are more likely to use
insight than others; insight involves advanced planning that occurs before a
problem is even presented

Obstacles and Aids to Problem Solving

Mental Sets, Entrenchment, and Fixation

– Mental set = a frame of mind involving an existing model for representing a

problem, aproblem context or a procedure for problem solving that could hinder
you from reaching a solution (e.g. stereotypes)
– Entrenchment = a fixated mental set that works well in solving many problems
but that does not work in solving one particular problem
– Functional fixedness = the inability to realize that something known to have a
particularuse may also be used for performing other functions (prevents people
from solving new problems by using old tools in novel ways)
– Stereotypes = beliefs that members of a social group tend more or less
uniformly tohave particular types of characteristics; special form of mental
set

Negative and Positive Transfer

– Transfer = any carryover of knowledge or skills from one problem situation to another
a. Negative transfer: solving an earlier problem makes it harder to solve a later one
b. Positive transfer: the solution of an earlier problem makes it easier to solve
a newproblem

Transfer of Analogies
– analogical problem solving: thinking back to other problems → look for
similarities → if relationship is found → starting point to solve the new problem.
– When the domains or the contexts for two problems are similar, people are more
likely tosee and apply the analogy to solve the problem
– Analogies are often not found, unless they are explicitly sought
– surface- and deep structure of a problem may differ → possible to be led astray by
surfacesimilarities

Intentional Transfer: Searching for Analogies

– What matters in analogies is how closely their structural systems of relationship
match (notthe content)
– ability for spontaneous analogical transfer is acquired around the age of 5½ years

– Transparency: people see analogies where they do not exist because of similar content

Incubation
Incubation = putting the problem aside for a while without consciously thinking about it
→minimizes negative transfer
– during incubation time, subconscious processing may occur
– Incubation depends on the time available, the cognitive demand of other tasks one
is occupied with and the kind of task (better for divergent-thinking tasks, worse for
linguistictasks)

Embodied Cognition and Problem Solving

– Embodied cognition = the theory that the mind influences the body
and the body influences the mind
– experiment: physical movement had an impact on their problem solving; when we
physically enact metaphors that are related to problem, the ability to solve the
problems is enhanced

Neuroscience and Planning during Problem Solving

– Planning saves time and improves performance
– Frontal lobes and prefrontal cortex are essential for planning for complex problem-
solving tasks → greater bilateral prefrontal activation when giving an incorrect
answer, because participant has to keep working on the problem

Expertise: Knowledge and Problem Solving

Expertise = superior skills or achievement reflecting a well-developed and well-
organized knowledge base
Organization of Knowledge
– Learners perform better when they are presented new material in a coherent way
– Experts perform better when they are presented with material in a low coherent
way →need to focus more
Elaboration of Knowledge
– Biggest difference between experts and novices are the kinds of schemas they
use forsolving problems within their own domain of expertise
a. Experts: Large, highly interconnected units of knowledge; Organization according to
underlying structural similarities among knowledge units
b. Novices: Relatively small and disconnected
units ofknowledge; Organization according to
superficial similarities
– Difference between experts and novices in how they classify problems,
describe the essential nature of problems, and how they determine and
describe solutions
– The ability to apply a visual representation to a variety of problems allow greater
flexibility and an increased likelihood that a solution will be found (e.g. in
mathematics)

Reflections on Problem Solving

– Communicating problem-solving strategies (verbal protocols, writing
descriptions ofstrategy) can lead to an increased problem-solving ability
– Experts spend more time determining how to represent a problem than
novices, butspend less time implementing the strategy for solution
– Experts work forward from the given information to find the unknown information;
they implement the correct sequence of steps, based on the strategies they have
retrieved fromthe schemas in their long-term memory; they have better declarative
and procedural knowledge
– Novices spend little time trying to represent the problem; they work backward
from theunknown information to the given information; they use means-ends
analysis

Automatic Expert Processes

– Experts use schematization and automatization:
a. Schematization = developing rich, highly organized schemas
b. Automatization = consolidating sequencing steps into unified routines that
require little or no conscious control
→ frees working-memory capacity, enables to monitor progress and accuracy
→ Automaticity may also hinder problem solving, when problem is structurally different
Artificial Intelligence and Expertise (Turing Test, just read)

Long-Term Working Memory and Expertise

– experts develop a long-term working memory in their area of expertise → allows
to holdlarge amounts of information when performing tasks
– Long-term working memory retains memories in a stable form (unlike short-term
workingmemory) but can be accessed only with adequate retrieval cue
– neuroimaging: two-stage framework for how expertise is acquired:
 I. Novices gain more experience → start chunking information in their working
memory → decrease in activation in working memory (prefrontal–parietal
activation)
II. Even more experience → chunks start stabilizing in long-term memory →
long-term memory (temporal) areas in addition to working memory when a
task is performed

Innate Talent and Acquired Skill

– Two approaches
a. “practice makes perfect”: deliberate and focused practice which emphasizes
acquisitionand application of skills leads to expertise
b. focus on “talent” (e.g. intelligence, personality traits, passion), while practice is
still important → Genetic heritage seems to make some difference in the acquisition
of at leastsome kinds of expertise
– Experts in some domains perform at superior level by virtue of prediction skills (e.g.
music or sport)
– Experts tend to use a more systematic approach to difficult problems within their
domain

Creativity
= the process of producing something that is both original and worthwhile
What Are the Characteristics of Creative People?
– Creativity is sometimes measured through divergent production = the
generation of a diverse assortment of appropriate responses
– Others focus on creativity as a cognitive process
 → focus on problem solving and insight
→ what distinguishes creative individuals from less remarkable people is their
expertise and commitment
– Personality: flexible beliefs and broadly accepting attitudes toward anything
different fromthemselves, open to new experiences, self-confident, self-accepting,
impulsive, ambitious, driven, dominant, hostile, less conventional
– Intrinsic motivation (enjoyment or personal desire to solve a problem) is
superior to extrinsic motivation (fame, fortune) for creative tasks
– creativity may occur as an outcome of a process of blind variation and selective
retention: generation of an idea → no real sense of whether the idea will be
successful (selected for)
→ production of large quantity of ideas → Some of these ideas will be selectively
retained
– Gardner: Creative individuals
→ Tend to have moderately supportive, often strict and relatively chilly early family
lives,but highly supportive mentors
→ Show early interest in their chosen field and in exploring uncharted territory
→ Only after gaining mastery do they have their initial revolutionary breakthrough
→ Generally, dedicate all their energies to their work
→ Sometimes abandon, neglect, or exploit close relationships during adulthood
→ most make a second breakthrough that less revolutionary
– The investment theory of creativity: Multiple individual and environmental factor
must converge for creativity to occur → Creative individuals take buy-low, sell-high
approaches to ideas - see hidden potential in unrecognized or undervalued ideas

Neuroscience Creativity
– Prefrontal regions are especially active during the creative process, regardless of
whetherthe creative thought is effortful or spontaneous
– Brodmann’s area 39: involved in verbal working memory, task switching, and
imagination
– Selective thinning of cortical areas in left frontal lobe, lingual, cuneus, angular,
inferiorparietal, fusiform gyri correlate with intelligence and creativity
– Relative thickness of the right posterior cingulate gyrus and right angular gyrus
related to higher creativity