145

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPEMENT OF TANTRA

INTRODUCTION

In India Tantra occupies a very important place

in the religious life. Its vast literatures deals mostly
with rituatistic details. 1% ia still regarded as top

secret to be expounded by the preceptor (Guru) to the

deciple who had been initiated properly. It is quite difficult
to penetrate deep into the matter and in making correct
assesment of ite value. The Tantras are atill little known

and their importance being scarcely aprreciated.

I. DEFINITIONS

The word Tantra has been used in different senses

in Sanskrit lexicons but usually it indicates sastra in

general. In popular senge it denotes a clasa of literature
dealing with mystical and magical worship of various dieties.
Ae a matter of fact, the tantras deal with the worship of
not only female dieties but with various male dieties as
well. -

Actually work known as Tantras belongs to various

sects, for example, the Saivas, the Saktas, the Vaisnavas,
the Ganapatyas, the Sauras eto. These literatures are
generally known among the followers of various seots as
agama as well. But the term Tantra is more oomonly used
and being the more popular one of the two.
 146

There are various derivative meanings of the word

Tantra. According to M.M. H.P.Sastri, "fhe word Tantra
means shortening abbreviation, that is, reducing into
something like algebric forms of mafitras or formulas that
would otherwise run to soores of syllables". According to
Prof. 5.N.Das Gupta, the word has been traced to the roots
‘tan’ ( to spread), ‘tattrh' or ‘tantri’ ( to explain) .”
Tan is the original form of Tantri and the meaning

‘explaining’ is got by narrowing the sense of spreading.

Thus the original connotation of the term used is any

scientific or systematic discussion on any partioular

subject.”
Isanasivagurudeva Misra has interpreted it in his
Isanasivagurudeva~paddbati as the sastra that expounds the
six catagories of Savism, for example, Pasu, paga, pati,
Sakti, vicara, Kriyacarya. He derives the word from the.
root tatri ‘to understana’.*

According to the manuscript Pingalamata dated

1174 A.D. found in Durbar Library of Nepal, Agama ie that
by which objects around are known and tantra is what spreada
and saves® The term agama is also explained as that class
of tantra which is addressed to Parvati by Siva whereas
Nigama refers to works spoken by Parvati to Siva. The words
are supposed to be formed by the initial lettera of agata,
gata and mata on the one hand and Nirgata, giriesa and Mata
on the other.’
 147
The enumeration of the topics of Agama, Tantra
and Yamala as found in some works gives us an imperfect
idea of the contents of Tantra literature, Thus according
to Varahi Tantra as quoted in Sabdakalpadruma under the
word Tantra, Agama deals with seven topics. For example,
cosmology, destruction, worship of God, Sadhana, Puras-
carana, the eix black rites and four-fold meditation

Yamala, it says, deals with cosmology, astronomy, division

of castes, yuga-dharma etc. MM H.P.Sastri derives the word
Yamala which means union and supposes that the Yamalas were
probably “designed to inoulate the worship of united
deities." Tantre is defined as what gives account, among
other things of pilgrimage, origin of Gods, royal duties
and mythological atories.?
It will be noticed that sbme. of the tonice mentioned

in the above list can in no way be said to be peculiar to

the Tantra literature, as they are found to be referred
to as the characteristic features of the Puranas as well.

According to Gampopa “The Tantras represent a

philosophy comprehensive enough to embrace the whole knowledge,
a system of nedfation which will produce the power of concen-
trating the mind upon anything whatsoever, and an art of
living which will enable one to utilize eaoh activity of
Body, speech and Mind, as an aid to the path of Liberation.” 1°
Nik Douglas says, "Lhe word ‘Tantra’ implies a
process of weaving and expansion. The inner and outer workds
 145 ©

of microcosm and macrocesm are like the two eides of

fabric. The fabric composed of all the elements and

energies of the universe may be consoiously ‘woven’ by

the practice of Tantra yoga. Tantra is continuity, yora
means union,

The joining in union of inner and outer, brought

about through Tantric practice, is the goal of all mystico-
magical syatems in the east and the west!"
Nik Douglas further said, the term Tantra implies
system. No form of magical practice ahould be termed
Tantric if it is not systematic.

What Tantricism tends to do is to take the whole

world of psychosomatic constitution of the praotioner as
the basis of realisation (Scyfort Ruegg). 12
II. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF TANTRA
The origins of Tantra are rather obscure. It is

difficult to ascertain exactly when the first Tantras were

put into a written form of the oral tradition. Though .

tantra elements may be traced as far back as the Vedio
period, the tantras cannot be said to have existed
as a
system at that time. It is not easy to determine exactly
the time when, the people among whom and the place where
the Tantras first originated.

TANTRICISM JN PRE~HISTORIC INDIA

Traces of some aspeots of Tantriciem are suspected:

 149

to be found in India as early as the pre-historic period.

Thus Bruce Foote is said to have met with objects supposed
by him to be Phalli among the Neolithic remains brought
to light by him in the Deccan.'3

According to Shama Sastri, the Tantra form of

worship may be traced back in India aa early as the first
millenium B.C. Thus, he seeks to show that the symbols
whioh admittedly old coins (supposed to be earlier than
even the 6th or 7th century B.C. bear and of whieh no
satisfactory explanation could be suggested by western
scholara are nothing but Tantric heiroglyphics. These he
Shows, are the origin of the Devanagari alphabets. He is
also of opinion that though some of the tantras are compa-
ratively modern then undoubtedly embody old tradition.>
The Tantric upanishads like Tripuropanisad, he says,
containing the description of Tantra hieroglyphics only
reproduce a tradition of bygeneage. 16
TANTRICISM IN THE VEDAS

Elements of the various Tantra rites are distinelly

tracable to the Vedie times, though there is a great

controversy among scholars of old as regards the question
whether Tantra had a vedio origin or not. It is not only
in the Atharvaveda - one of the latest of the vedic

samhitas that we meet these elements. They are to be fount

even in the earliest of the vedic works e.g. the Rigveda,

also as in other parts of the vedic literature, Tantricisn

 150

a6 a system may not have been developed at that time. But

many of the rites that went to constitute the system at
a later time are found scattered in different parts of
the Vedic literature in their crudest fom.

Of course many of the practices which were fully

developed in the Tantras and Yoga philosophy are absent in
the Vedic period,

The elaborate rules eoncerning the regulation of

breath and the high importance attached to it in yoga have
scarcely any trace in the Vedas. Nor is there any clear
reference in the Vedic literature to the various sitting
and ritualistic: postures mentioned in the Tantras. |?
In the opinion of the great scholar Bhaakaracharya,
the Tantras came as a sequel: to the upanisad section of
the Vedas as the Sauta Sutra and Dharma Samhitas were to
the first portion of the vedic literature.© the Tantric
Upanishada '9 (e.g. Kaula, Rudra eto.) are supposed to
maintain the direct connection of the Vedas with the Tantras.

According to the Kularnava Tantra (11110) even

Kaula rites, whieh have been the object of ecriticiem at the
hands of various echolars, anfeient or modern, are represented
as being the essence of the Vedas. In fact Kaulasastra has
been described as Vedatmaka (11:85) or Vedic in spirit Vedic
authorities are also cited (II 140-141) in justification of
Kaula rites. a
 151

Attempts have been made to trace tantrio mantras

consisting of seemingly ummeaning monosyllabio sounds to
the Vedas.-0

The practice of worshipping symbolical diagrams

(Yantras, Cakras) of the tantras has also been traced in
Vedas (e.g. Atthagaveda, Taittirtya Aranyaka)?! lakemi-
dhara in his commentary on verse 32 of the Saundarya-lahari
of Sankara has quoted extracts from the Taittiriya Brabmana
and Aranyaka and explained them as having reference to
Srividya.-*
Even if one feels disinclined to set much value

on the above views of the advocates of Tantricism as

being biassed it must be admitted that any dis-interested
soholar is sure to find at least some traces of tantriciem
in the Vedas. In fact the ground for the growth of
tantriciem
was almost ready at the time of Vedas.
fhe traces of the monosyllabic and seemingly
ummeaning mantraga on the importance of which Tantras lay.
Definite emphasis are met within the Vedic literature,

“the use of harsh words like ‘phat’, says Keith is

mentioned possibly as early as the Rigveda.*? The char
consists of words like 'kbat','Phat’,'kat' etc. Pmt is
also found mentioned in the Vajasaneyi Samhita.

The use of liquor for secrificial purposes in

vedic times was not unknown, Spiritous liquor was offered
‘dn Sautramani sacrifice to Indra,Aswin and: Sérasvati.?4
nea?
It was also used in Vajapaya sacrifice.”>
Various were the animals sacrificed in vedic
sacrifices, Man, horse, bull, ram and he-goat are mentioned
in this connection. Horses were killed in the Asvamedha.
It is curious that bulls that were held sacred in later
times were not exempted. And these are known to have been
Sacrificed in the Gomedha and Sulagava. And the meat was
taken at least in some cases at the end of the sacrifice.
Even provision was made for taking peaf.* 6 Humans are said
to have been killed alongwith other animals in the
Sarvamedha or All animals sacrifice. Self immolation was
practised in the Sarva-yajna.

Phalliem is supposed by some as to be o1d as the

Rigveda (vii.21,3,5) where the Asuras are referred to as
Sisnadevas or those that regard phallus as deities. But
the meaning of the term ie not free from doubt.2!
The beginning of the worship of female dieties -
the Sakti cult an important characteristic of the Tantra
fom of worship is alao traced to the Vedas.

Traces
of the Sat-karmas of the Tantras are also
distinctly met with in different parte of the Vedic
literature. Two hymna of the Rigveda (X,145,159) explicitly
refer to the practice of removing co-vives and thereby
attaining supreme away over the Mmaband. The Apastambha
Grhya Sutra (1X 5-6,9) in explaining the application of
these hymns hae made this quite clear, Another hymn (Rg.

X.162) ia nothing put @ curative spell intended to drive

 153

away disease. Hymns like (4) 191 and (vii) 50 are charms
which are intended to serve as antidotes against poison
and those like Vis 52 and VII : 104 are charma which aim
at putting away demons and have therefore rites of the
Tantras. Such practices were also know at the times of the
Vajasaneyi Samhita (VII:3), Katyayana Sraute Sutra (IX;
4,59) and Taittiriya Aranyaka(1¥:27).

The rites of the Atharvaveda more than those of any

Other veda have in many cases a close and striking aimilarity
to those
of the Tantras. The contents of the Atharvaveda
are primarily magic, charm and sacery, which also form not
an insignificant part of the hymns of the Atharvaveda
into fourteen classes in accordance with their subject natter, “©
as also the applications of them as noted in the Kausika
Sutra, reveal how a large portion of its contents has its

analogue in the Tantras. Thus the abhicara, Strikarma,

Samanasya, pauslka and other sercery rites which we get
references in the Atharvaveda are quite common in the Tantras.

The use of protective amulets also seem to have

been quite popular at the time of the Atharvaveda (AV,1i 11,

vili 5, x.6; Kausika Sutra 19,22-27; 42,22-43.1).
TANTRICISM IN BUDHIST LITERATURE

Various revolting and mystic practices that seem

to have been obeerved by different religious sects for .

spiritual uplift in and previous to the time of Buddha, are
referred in Buddhist cononical works in Pali. Sone of these
practices are apparently tantric in charaoter.
 154

The Buddhist canological texts in Pali in several

places refer to eystems of throught and rituals which
are apparently of the Tantra type.

The Majjhima Nikaya (culladhammasamadana sutta-

Vol.I,p.305) seta forth the views of a olage of sramanas

and Brahmanas according to whom no fault would attach to

acts of lust. It is degeribed how these people took

pleasure in the company of youthful female ascertics. Of

couree it is not clear from the text as to whether these

ascatics like the later day tantrica took part in sensual

enjoyment with a desire for religious merit. The Kathavatthu-?
however throws some wk weleome light on this point in that

it refera Maithuna (sensual enjoyment) as dhamma which

probably means religious act.

The use of skulls etc. by a class of people like

later day followers of tantriciem was known at this time
as ia testified to by a pasaage in eullavagea © which
refers to a Bhikkhu.

That cementeries were resorted to by some seekers

after religious merit is clear from the Majjhima Nikayas:

Buddha himeelg
in his early days is here stated to have
atayed in a cementry with charred bones as his péllow.”
Magical rites like the Sat-Karmas of the Tantras
are also known to have had some amount of popularity at
that time. We learn from the Tavijjia Sutta that there were
some Sramanas and Brahmanas who lived by teaching spells.
for preserving the body and for warding of wounds. We are
 155

further told that some Sramanas and Brahamanas lives by

teaching epelle to procure prosperity or to cause adver-
sity, to remove sterility, to produce dumbnesa, locked-
jow and deformity or deafness. °- Further still we are told
how some lived by teaching rituals for imparting virility
and rendering impoftent through medicines. >”
The Brahmajala Sutta refers to the practices of
drawing blood from one's knees aa a sacrifice to the Gods, 4
and of using charms to make people lucky or unlucky 2? It is
from the same Sutta that we learn that there were certain
Gods debauched by pleasure °© and that there were recluses
or Bhihmanas who thought that full enjoyment and possession
of the pleasures of sense lead to Nirvana. >!
TANTRICISM IN JAIN LITERATURE

In the Jain canocial works in Prant too we meet

with traces of Tranticiem. In the Stha slanga Sutra (IV24)

Mahavira refers tothe Saya-Vadins who are sunposed to
have been sensulists.~ The Uttaradhyayana;Sutrm has
reference to curative spells. >? The Sutra Kra tanga, (II .2)
mentions men who practice incantations (atharwani) and
conjuring to make one happy or miserable. “°
TANTRICISM IN DHARMASASTRA, PURANAS ETC.

Detractore of Tantra rites are found inclined to

read denunciation of Tantricism in early Dharmasutras and
Samhitas like those of Apastambha, Manu, Yajnavalkaya etc.
 156

(see introductory portions of Apararka'’s commentryq

on
yajanavalkya) commentators interpret partioular Sutms
of the Brahma Sutra (11.2,34) as having reference to
Tantriciem e.g. Saivaiem, Pancaratraiem, ete. The efficacy
of Mantra and drugs for the attainement of perfeotion
has been mentioned by Patanjali in his yogasutra(iv. 1).
Many a Purana work of which the dates have not
been definitely ascertained refer to the Tantras generally
or to particular tantra rites. Puranas like Devi, Kalika

and Linga Purana explicitly deal like Devi, Kalika and

Linga explicity deal with Tantra worship. In the Padma

Purana (svarga khanda chapter xxvii) and Kalika purana

(ohapt. I iv) are found elaborate descriptions of Sat
Cakras of the tantras. Kurma and some other Puranas,
however are found to decry the Tantras. There are passages
in the Mahabharata, some interpolated, referring to
phallic worship of Siva ae well as to number of other
Tantric deities. The use of wine and meat in the worship
of the never-goddess Ganga is mentioned in Ramayana
(Ayodhya Kanda L II.89).
III. HOW AND WHERE THR TANTRAS ORIGINATED

Widely conflicting are the views with regard to

the place of origin of the Tantra form of worship whence
it spread over all parts of India. In the midst of this
confusion we can clearly notice two main groups one
suggesting an extra- Indian and the other Indégenous
 157

origin.

Several theories. have been propunded regarding

the extra-Indian origin of the tantras almost all of
which are found to poimt to the North or North-east of
India as the probable region from which tantriciam
travelled into India. A few passages of the Tantras
themselves seem to support the theory of an extra Indian
Origin. Some of them point to the trans-Himalayan region
whence spread the form of worship laid down in the tantras.
The cult of Tara appeares from Sadhanamala +o have deen
taken from the country of Bhota or Tibet.4' a story of
Vasis tha’s going to Buddha in Bratmanio tantra work,
e.g, Rudrayamala or Brabmayamala as quoted in the Tara-
tantra (Appendix to verendra Research Society edition,
1913). The Devibhagavata
(VII, 38,13) categorically refers
to Cina as the place of origin of the tantric goddess
Nilasarasvati. ‘2 Kalitantra(XII. 7-10) algo seems to
indicate that Vamacara and Kulacara have been imported
from Cina or Mhacina, 43 A cina sect of fantra worshippers
is mentioned in the Sakti-Sarigama Tantra (5.92-93). A
verse quoted from the Svatantra-Tantra again states
that the lake of colana to the West most of Meru was the
place from which originated the Goddess Tara.44 |
One of the most important of the tantric dieties
vig. Siva is supposed to have been a trans -Hima layan Goa. 45
He has a good many Himalayan characteristics. He is
 158

pictured as living in Kailasa attended by the Himalayan

ganas, yaksas, gandharvas ete. He marries the daughter
of the Himalayas and carries the Ganges on his head.
The coins of the Kusane, a trans-Himalayan people bear
the dmiages of Siva and Nadi, The various foreign
people who came to India from almost the same region
©.g., the Hunds, the Sakas and the Pallavas were all
worshippers of Siva. Mihir-Kulas coin bear the bull and
trident. The Pallavas have the Naga ensign and bull
Standard. The Linga at Gudimallan, a very ancient one
(cirea 200 B.C.), has the figure of Siva with Mongolean
features curved on it. The image has plaited hair,and
no holy threaa. 46
fhe cult of Kubjika seems to have travelled to

India from outside, for the deity is found in the

kuba jikamata is to be entreated to go to Bharatvarsa

for getting established there.

MM H.P.Shastri is of the openion that the Tantra-
form of worship was introduced into India by the priests
of Turkesthan, the local aboriginal religion of which
place was ousted by the progress of Islam. ‘7?
Dr. D.B.Spooner traces the origin of Sakti

worship to qPersian source. But R.C.Chanda in his Indo-

Aryan Races(p.158& ff) has sought to refute the theory

of spooner.
 159:

According to some, the tantra-form of worship

was derived from Shamanien with which the doctrines of
youa with its repulsive developments have a close
similarity.‘
A Bengal origin of the tantras is supposed by
many scholars. "The original home of the Mantras”, says
Prof. Winternitz, *9"seems to have been in Bengal whence
they spread throughout Agsam and Nepal, and even beyond
India to Tibet and China throught the agence of Buddhimm.
The description of some of the sounds of the
sanskrit alphabat again, given in the varada-tantra
(chapt. X) as quoted in the Pranatosini points to Bengal
as its probable place of origin. Thus we read that the
sound
‘h which precedes ay’ has the sound of Yh and the
one preceeding a‘v’ has the sound ‘bh. Again‘y’ beginning
words has the sound of ‘I’. The same thing occurs in words
like keyura. In other cases it is pronounced as a
gutteral.It will be seen that these descriptions refer
to the prounciation of Bengal and in some cases (e.g.,
‘n' ae ‘bh) to that of Bastern Bengal.
According to a verse quoted by Jayaratha (12th
century) in his commentary on the Tantraloka of
Abhinavagupta, the Kaula tantras are said to have issued
from Kamrupa or Assam?” The colophon of the Mahakaula-
jnanavinernaya refers to candradvipa of Eastern Bengal
from which place it issued.
 160

According to the accounts found in some Puranas,

Linga or Phallic worship was first established in Daru-
vana or Davadaruvana about the present location of which
there is some amount of confusion. The Kurmapurana (Pt.
Il. ch.37) is giving on account of the origin of the
Lings places it (V.99) on the peak of the Himalayas. The
Ramayana (Kiskindhya Kanda 43.13) also seems to point to
that region Siva Furana(1.56) places close to western
Ocean. And it has been identified with Aundh in the

Nizam'’s territory.?! We are also told that it was in

camatkarapura identified with Baranagara in the district
of Gujrat that Linga worship was first established.
It is searsely possible in the present state
of our knowledge to come to a definite conelusion on this

knotty problem of Tantric origin. But whatever be the

origin and Tantra system of worship has been occupying a

position of supreme importance in the religious life of
Hindus all over India for at least the last four or five

hundred years. The religion of the Hindus has been for

a long period of time a composite thing. It is partly
Vedic, partly Puranic and partly Tantric. We have here
a superstructure of Purana-Tantra lore on a Vedio

substratum with establishments from different sources,

taking different forms in different parts of the country.

The Tantras especially exercise a great influence on the
religion as practised by the Vast majority of the Indian
people; yet they are much maligned and largely misunder-
stood.
 161

H.P.Sastri,notices of Sanskrit Manuscripts,

I, Preface, P.xxiv.
2.
Philosophical Eassays, p. 151 rf,
3. Chintaharan Chakravarty, Tantras- Studies on
their Religion and literature, p.2
Yeadar gy serdsrary
COQITae Gq wate NTE)
agterait te arcrrera it
(Trivandrum Sanskrit Series Ed. Part III,p.28).
5e H.?P.Sastri, Nep.Il,p.69.
6.

gcarpt vei '

age ated Pree arafaveed taggur: 1
amid Proag-at na PaPoaraa 1
AeA arytaeu weRTETARy eA
Tale raPwuragre nag Pafemyat
FA aTyY@aeg weATT HAG ea ut

8. H.P.Sastri, Nep. Il, p. xxii.

9.
It cannot be definitely stated if Puranakhyana,
one of the topics of Tantra, refers to Puranas
or to old stories only.
10. This quotation of Gampopa is in the front page of
the book Tantra-yoga by Nik Douglas(1972).
11. Nik Douglas(1970) Tantra~yoga, p.1&3.
12. Quoted in Tantra-yoga by NiK.Douglas,1970,p.11.
 162

13. Foote, Collection of Indian Pre-historie and

Proto-historic Antiqueities, Madras,1906, p.20,
61,139; K.R.Subramaniam, origin of saiviem and
ite history in the Tamil Land, Madras, 1929,
p.23; see also P.T.Srinivasa Dyengar, Stone Age
in India (Madras University).
14. Journal of Asiotic Society of Bengal, Vol.iv,p.628.
15. Indian Antiquary, Bombay, 1906,p. 277 ff.
16. Indian Antiquary, Bombay, 1906, p. 274-276.
17. Keith, Op.cit, p.401.
18. Setubandha, Anandarram Sanskrit Series, Poona,p.5.
19. For these see the minor Jpanishads, published by
the Adyar Library, Madras.
20. Commentary of Natanandanatha on the Kamakalavitasa,
p. 13 of Anthur Avalon's edition.
21. R. Shamasastri, Indian Antiquary, Bombay, 1906,
pe 262-267.
22. Govt. Oriental Library Series Edition, Mysore,
p»100-109.

23. Keith, op.cit, p.356.

24. Satapatha Brahmana, V.4-5 19 ff.
25. Tbid,
V. 1.2, 10-19.
26. Asvatayana G rhe Sutra, IV. 8.34.
27. Muir, Sanskrit texts, Vol.IV, p.345 f.
28. Atharvaveda, Grundriss Series, p. 57 ff.
 163

29.
Kathavatthu,
xxvv, 1-2 Ekadhippayana Metimno
Dhammo Sevitabho Arhantanam Vannena Amamsea
Methunam Dhammam Patisevanti. I am indebted for

these references to Barua's paper on Maskari

Gosala‘s Early Life ( Caleutta Review, June 1927,
p. 362-63).

V,10,2,Sacred Books of the East Vol.XX, p.89. For

this an aleo for some other references from

Buddhist literature. I am indebtnesa to Dr.Benoytosh

Bhattacharya who has incidently dealZt with the
history of Tantricism among Buddhists in his
introduction to Sadhana-mala(Vol.II) and in his
paper “A Peep into Vajrayana” (Annals of the
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute-vol.x).
31. Majjhima, 1.79. lord Chalmers, Further Diagnosis
of the Buddha, Vol.I,p.35.
32. Buddhist Suttas, Translated by Rhys Davids, Sacred
Books of the East, xi, p.196,199.
33. Ibid, p.199-200.

34. Brabmajala Sutta,21,Rhye Davide, Dialogues of ‘the-

Buddha, .p.17.
356 Ibid, p. 23.
36. Ibid, p.32.
37. Ibid, p.50.

Barua, A History of Pre-Buddhistic Indian| Philosophy, f

38.

Pe 196-197, 337.

394 Sacred Books of the East, XLV,p.103,0

40.
Jainasutras, Sacred Books of the Kast, XLV, p. 366.
 165,

41. wucraret aarenrgdraragaitegsar eta i

Hirananda Sastri, The origin and cult of Tara,
p.14-16.

42. car ateteacar: cart dy Pageg 1

43. Herrman identifies(Mala) Cina with Arabec felix.
Fredrich Weller rejects this identification on
the authority of a Mongolian text and proposes to

identify Cina with China (Asia Major, vol. IV,

p. 446 ff.). Adlso see Suriti Kumar Chatterjee-

J. of Asiatic Society, 1959, I, p. 104-113.

44. Ach. GAraga g whaarrea? eat HeTZ |

wa ad eae aTeT Aal FTHT EGET il

45. K.R.Subramanian, Origin and History of Saiva Cult

in the Tamil Land, p.25-27.

46. &. Gopinath Rao, Elements of Hindu lconography,

Vol. I, pt. II,Introduction, p.6. .
47. | Sangiya Sahitya Patrika, Vol. XXXVI,p.15.
48. L.D.Bernett,Antiques of India, p.17.
49. lilatory of Indian Literature (English Translation,
Calcutta. Mniversity,Vol. 1,p.592).
50. Acer Aearg grat abt cara wa: fy
eqaarareg Taga ATATTeAA aTTAA I
STH LRTTTD Fwwedr HETAT i
(Kashmir Series Edition,p.24).

51, Archeological Survey List, Nizam's territory,XXX1,21,79..

52. N.Dey,Dictionary of Ancient Indian Geography. i