LESSON 1 - BASIC ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS

AND EQUATIONS
1.0. Algebraic Operations
1.1. The Real Number line
The real number system can be visualized as a horizontal line that
extends from a special point called the Origin in both directions towards
infinity and this particular line is known as the real number line.

Each point in this line represents a unique real number and each real
number can be represented by a unique point on this line. For this reason we
say that there is a one-to-one correspondence between points on the line and
real numbers. Points to the right of the origin represent the positive numbers
and points to the left represent the negative numbers.

1.2. Integers
The real numbers given by the set……., -4,-3,-2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3…are
called integers or whole numbers. Out of this set, the entire whole numbers
greater than zero: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5... are known as Positive integers while the
all the opposites of these whole numbers: -1, -2, -3, -4, -5 … are known as
negative integers.
We do not consider zero to be a positive or negative number. Now, let us
study about basic operations related to integers such as adding integers,
subtracting integers etc.

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1.2.1. Adding Integers

When adding integers of the same sign, we add their absolute values,
and give the result the same sign.

Example 1:
2+5=7
Remember that if a sum consists of integers contained within brackets
(parentheses) then first of all, you must remove the brackets: multiply the
value inside the brackets by the value and the sign in front of the brackets.
(-7) + (-2) = -7 -2 = -9
(-80) + (-34) = -80 – 34 = - 114

When adding integers of the opposite signs, we take their absolute values,
subtract the smaller from the larger, and give the result the sign of the
integer with the larger absolute value.

Example 2:
8 + (-3) =?
The absolute values of 8 and -3 are 8 and 3. Subtracting the smaller from
the larger gives 8 - 3 = 5, and since the larger absolute value was 8, we give the
result the same sign as 8, so 8 + (-3) = 5.
Example 3:
8 + (-17) =?
The absolute values of 8 and -17 are 8 and 17. Subtracting the smaller
from the larger gives 17 - 8 = 9, and since the larger absolute value was 17, we
give the result the same sign as -17, so 8 + (-17) = -9.

1.2.2. Subtracting Integers

Subtracting an integer is the same as adding it’s opposite.

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Examples: 4
1). 7 - 4 = 7 + (-4) = 3 2). 12 - (-5) = 12 + 5= 17
3). -8 – ( +7) = -8-7 = -15 4). -22 - (-40) = -22 + 40 = 18
Note that the result of subtracting two integers could be positive or
negative.

1.2.3. Multiplying Integers

Examples: 5 Don’t forget me…
In the product below, both numbers are positive, so we (+)  (+) = (+)
(-)  (-) = (+)
just take their product.
(+)  (-) = (-)
4 × 3 = 12 (-)  (+) = (-)
In the product below, both numbers are negative, so we
take the product of their absolute values.
(-4) × (-5) = + 20
In the product below, one number is negative and the other positive, so
we take the product of their absolute values and give a negative sign.
(-7) × 6 = - 42
Example: 6
4 × (-2) × 3 × (-11) × (-5) =?

4  -2 -8 3 -24 -11 264  -5

= -8 = -24 = 264 = -1320

1.2.4. Dividing Integers

Examples: 7
In the division below, both numbers are positive, so we just divide as
usual.
4÷2 =2
(-24) ÷ (-3) =8
(-100) ÷ 25 = -4
98 ÷ (-7) = -14

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1.3.0. Rational numbers:
Real numbers which can be expressed as the ratio of two integers are
known as rational numbers.
For examples: 3/5, 7/2, 1/2, 5, 10
In this case remember that 5 is also a rational number because that can
be expressed as a ratio like 5/1. Therefore each integer is also a rational
number.

1.4.0. Irrational numbers

An Irrational Number is a number that can not be written as a simple
fraction - the decimal goes on forever without repeating. For example: √2
My calculator says the square root of 2 is .4142135623730950488016887242097,
but this is not the full story! It actually goes on and on, with no pattern to the
numbers. You cannot write down a simple fraction that equals the square root
of 2. So the square root of 2 is an irrational number. Further, there are many
irrational numbers such as , е (Euler's Number) etc.

1.5.0. Prime numbers

Positive integers are also called natural numbers and if a natural number
“r” excluding 1 is divisible by 1 and itself only, then “r” is a prime number. We
can list prime numbers as, 2,3,5,7,11,13,17…

1.6.0. Absolute values

Look at the number line:

The absolute value of x, denoted "| x |" (and which is read as "the
absolute value of x"), is regarded as the distance of x from zero. This is why
absolute value is never negative; absolute value only asks "how far?” not "in
which direction?". This means that | 3 | = 3, because 3 is three units to the
right of zero, and also | –3 | = 3, because –3 is three units to the left of zero.

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 The absolute-value notation is bars, not parentheses or brackets. It is
important to note that the absolute value bars DO NOT work in the same way as
do parentheses. Whereas – (–3) = +3, this is NOT how it works for absolute
value:
So, |5| =5
|100| = 100
|-35| = 35

Example: 8
1. Simplify: –| –3 |
Given –| –3 |, first handle the absolute value part, taking the positive and
converting the absolute value bars to parentheses:
–| –3 | = – (+3)
Now you can take the negative through the parentheses:
–| –3 | = – (3) = –3
2
2. Simplify, –| –2 |
2 2
–| –2 | = – (2) = – (4) = –4
2
3). Simplify: (–| –2 |) .
2 2 2
(–| –2 |) = (–(2)) = (–2) = 4

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1.7.0. Points to be remembered
The real numbers given by the set……., -4,-3,-2,-1, 0, 1, 2, 3…are called
integers or whole numbers
When adding integers of the same sign, we add their absolute values, and give
the result the same sign
When adding integers of the opposite signs, we take their absolute values,
subtract the smaller from the larger, and give the result the sign of the
integer with the larger absolute value.
Multiplying two positive integers or two negative integers will be resulted in a
positive integer as the answer.
If you divide a positive integer by another positive integer or negative integer
by another negative integer, the result will be positive integer.
If you multiply or divide two integers with different signs, the result will be a
negative integer.
Basic algebraic operations are:
|| absolute value (modulus) or (vertical bar)
+ Positive /plus /additions
- Negative / minus / subtractions,
× Multiplication
÷ Division
Xn Exponent X is multiplied by itself n times.

Stop your reading now and move on to the Self

Stop your reading now and move on to the Self

Assessment Exercise-2

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1.8.0 Exponents
1.8.1. What is an exponent?

In the table below, the number 2 is written as a factor (The factors of a

number are those numbers that divide exactly into the number.) repeatedly.
The product of factors is also displayed in this table.

Factors Product of Factors Description

2x2= 4 2 is a factor 2 times

2x2x2= 8 2 is a factor 3 times

2x2x2x2= 16 2 is a factor 4 times

2x2x2x2x2= 32 2 is a factor 5 times

2x2x2x2x2x2= 64 2 is a factor 6 times

2x2x2x2x2x2x2= 128 2 is a factor 7 times

2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2= 256 2 is a factor 8 times

Given n a positive integer, Xn signifies that X is multiplied by itself n

times. Here x is referred to as the base and n is termed an exponent.

By convention an exponent of 1 is not expressed: x1  x , 81  8 . By

definition, any nonzero number or variable raised to the zero power is equal
to 1.

x0  1 00 is undefined

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 Rule Example

Any number (except 0) raised to the

zero power is equal to 1. 1490 = 1

Any number raised to the first power is

always equal to itself. 81 = 8

If a number is raised to the second 32 is read as three

power, we say it is squared. squared

If a number is raised to the third power, 43 is read as four

we say it is cubed. cubed

1.8.2. Rules of Exponents

Assuming a and b are positive integers and x and y are real numbers
for which the following exist, the rules of exponents are outlined below.

Rule 1: x a ( x b )  x ab

Example: 1 x 2 x 3  x 2 3  x 5

[ x 2 ( x 3 )  ( x.x)( x.x.x)  x.x.x.x.x  x 5 ]

xa
Rule 2:  x a b
xb

Example: 2 x6  x 63  x 3
x3

 x6 x.x.x.x.x.x 
 3   x.x.x  x3 
 x x.x.x 
 b
Rule 3: ( x a )b  x a

Example: 3 ( x 4 )2  x 42  x8

[( x4 )2  ( x.x.x.x)( x.x.x.x)  x8 ]

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 a a a
Rule 4: ( xy)  x y
Example: 4 ( xy) 4  x 4 y 4

( xy )4  ( xy )( xy )( xy )( xy )  ( x.x.x.x)( y. y. y. y)  x4 y 4 ]

a
 x xa
Rule 5:    a
 y y
5
 x x5
Example: 5   
 y y5
5
 x ( x).( x).( x).( x).( x) x5
   
 y ( y ).( y ).( y ).( y ).( y ) y5

 x a
1
Rule 6: a
x

 x4  x4
1
Example: 6
x4
x3 x.x.x 1
4
 
x x.x.x.x x

Rule 7: x  x1 2

a x  x1 a
Rule 8:

Example: 7 3
x  x1 3

a
b x a  x a b   x b 
1
Rule 9:  
 
2 3
Example: 8 x  x3 2

43 2  (41 2 ) 3  ( 4 ) 3  (2) 3  8

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 x ( a b) 
1
Rule 10:
a
x b
23 1 1
Example: 9 x  
23 13 2
x (x )

 2 3 1 1 1
27    
 (271 3 ) 2 32 9 

1.8.9. Points to be remembered

If m and n are integers,
am = a × a × a × a… (m times)
am × an = a m+n
(a b) = a ×bm
m m

(a / b)m = a m /b m
m
1/a = a-m
(am /an ) = am-n
m n
(a / a ) =1 if m = n.
am / an = 1/ an - m
(am )n = a m × n

Stop your reading now and move on to the Self

Assessment Exercise-2

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1.10.0. Equations

1.10.1. What is an Equation?

A mathematical statement setting two algebraic expressions equal

to each other is called an equation. An equation is a mathematical
statement, in symbols, that two things are exactly the same (or
equivalent). Equations are written with an equal sign, as in;
2 + 3 = 5.
The equation above is an example of equality: a proposition which states
that two constants are equal. Equalities may be true or false.

Equations are often used to state the equality of two expressions

containing one or more variables. In the real number system we can say, for
example, that for any given value of x it is true that
X (x − 1) = x2 − x.

The equation above is an example of an identity, that is, an equation

that is true regardless of the values of any variables that appear in it. The
following equation is not an identity:
x2 − x = 0.

It is for an infinite number of values of x, and true for only two, x = 0

and x = 1. Therefore, if the equation is known to be true, it carries information
about the value of x. To solve an equation means to find its solutions.

Letters from the beginning of the alphabet like a, b, c... often denote
constants in the context of the discussion at hand, while letters from the end of
the alphabet, like x, y, z..., are usually reserved for the variables, a convention
initiated by Descartes.

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1.10.2. Properties of Equations
If an equation in algebra is known to be true, the following operations
may be used to produce another true equation:
1. Any quantity can be added to both sides.
2. Any quantity can be subtracted from both sides.
3. Any quantity can be multiplied to both sides.
4. Any nonzero quantity can divide both sides.
5. Generally, any function can be applied to both sides.

1.10.3. Linear and Quadratic equations

Linear and quadratic equations are useful in management as
mathematical models which describe any situation and subsequently
can be used for predicting outcomes and trends.

3.2.1. Linear equations

An equation in which all variables are raised to the first power is known
as a linear equation. A linear equation can be solved by moving the unknown
variable to the left-hand of the equal sign and all the other terms to the right-
hand side.
It is instructive to see the anatomy of a simple linear equation.

Y = ax + b

This equation has one variable, x, which can take any value, and two
constants, a and b which are fixed values in this model. The value Y is the
answer.

Example: 1
Consider the following linear model that describes the time necessary to
load a van with parcels for distribution.
Time to load the van = (a x number of parcels) + b

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 where a represents the time per parcel and b is a constant value
representing the time for ancillary parts of the job, for example, cleaning out
the van each time to make it ready for the next load. Suppose that "a" is 0.3
minutes and "b" is 3.4 minutes; then,
Time to load the van = (0.3 x number of parcels) + 3.4

Assume that we have 12 parcels to deliver. Inserting this figure in our

model, it should take: (0.3 x 12) + 3.4 or 7.0 minutes to load the van. The time
increases in straight proportion to the number of parcels loaded. In other words
a graph of this model would produce a straight line starting at 3.4 minutes and
rising as the number of parcels increases.

This type of model has many uses in addition to work measurement,

where there is only one variable to consider.

1.10.4. How to solve linear equations?

Example: 2
The linear equation given below is solved in three easy steps.
x x
 3  1
4 5

Move all terms with the unknown variable x to the left, (here) by
subtracting x 5 from both sides of the equation.

x x
3 1
4 5

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Move any term without the unknown variable to the right, (here)
by adding 3 to both sides of the equation.

x x
 1 3  4
4 5

Simplify both sides of the equation until the unknown variable is

by itself and the solution is on the right, here by multiplying both
sides of the equation by 20 and subtracting.

 x x
20      4  20
4 5
5x  4 x  80
x  80

1.10.5. Polynomials
Given an expression such as 5x3 , x is called a variable because it can
assume any number of different values and 5 is referred to as the coefficient of
x. Expressions consisting simply of a real number or of a coefficient times one
or more variables raised to the power of a positive integer are called
monomials. Monomials (A monomial is a constant, a variable, or the product of
a constant and one or more variables) can be added or subtracted to form
polynomials (A polynomial is the sum of one or more monomials.). Each of
the monomials comprising a polynomial is called term. Terms that have the
same variables and exponents are called like terms.

By now, you should be familiar with variables and exponents and you
4
may have dealt with expressions like 3x or 6x. Polynomials are sums of these
expressions. Each piece of the polynomial, each part that is being added, is
called a "term". Polynomial terms have variables with whole-number exponents;

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there are no square roots of exponents, no fractional powers, and no variables
in the denominator. Here are some examples:

NOT a polynomial This has a negative

–2
6x term exponent.

NOT a polynomial This has the variable in

2
1/x term the denominator.

NOT a polynomial This has the variable

sqrt(x) term inside a radical.

2
4x a polynomial term

Here is a typical polynomial:

Terms

4x2 + 3x - 7
Leading term Constant Term

Notice the exponents on the terms. The first term has exponent 2; the
second term has an understood exponent 1; and the last term doesn't have any
variable at all. Polynomials are usually written this way, with the terms written
in "decreasing" order; that is, with the highest exponent first, the next highest
next, and so forth, until you get down to the plain old number.

Any term that doesn't have a variable in it is called a "constant" term

because, no matter what value you may put in for the variable x, that constant

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term will never change. In the picture above, no matter what x might be, 7 will
always be just 7.

The first term in the polynomial, when it is written in decreasing order,

is also the term with the biggest exponent, and is called the "leading term".

The exponent on a term tells you the "degree" of the term. For instance,
the leading term in the above polynomial is a "second-degree term". The second
term is a "first degree" term. The degree of the leading term tells you the
degree of the whole polynomial; the polynomial above is a "second-degree
polynomial".

Like terms in polynomials can be added or subtracted by

adding their coefficients. Unlike terms cannot be so added or
subtracted.

Rules for adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing polynomials are

explained in given examples.

Example: 3
1)
a) 4 x5  9 x5  13x5
b) 12 xy  3xy  9 xy
c) (24 x  17 y)  (6 x  5z)  30 x  17 y  5z

Like and unlike terms can be multiplied or divided by

multiplying or dividing both the coefficients and the variables.

2)
a). (5x)(13 y 2 )  65xy 2

b). (7 x3 y5 )(4 x 2 y 4 )  28x5 y9

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 15 x 4 y 3 z 6
3) 2 2 3
 5 x 2 yz 3
3x y z

1.10.6. Quadratic equations

In contrast to the above, a situation with one variable might not be
linear in its behaviour in which case a quadratic equation model may describe it
more accurately. This takes the general form:

Y = ax2 + bx + c

Where a, b and c are constants .This model can be used to represent

certain situations that are not linear. As x increases, the result, Y, increases
more rapidly than it would with direct proportion, illustrated previously.
Also, the variable x can be solved when ( a  0 ), by factoring or using the
quadratic formula:

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a

Factoring is the easiest way to solve quadratic equation, provided the

factors are easily recognized.

Example: 4
x2  13x  30  0
By, factoring, we have ( x  3)( x  10)
For ( x  3)( x  10) to equal 0, x  3 or x  10 must equal to 0 and solving for x
we have x3 0 x  10  0
x  3 x  10

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 Example: 5
The quadratic formula is used below to solve the quadratic equation.

5x2  55x  140  0

Substituting; a  5 , b  55, c  140 in the given equation,

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a

 (55)  (55) 2  4(5)(140)

x
2(5)

55  3025  2800 55  225 55  15

x  
10 10 10

Adding +15 and then -15 to find each of the two solutions, we get
55  15 55  15
x 7 x 4
10 10

1.11.0. Points to be remembered

A simple linear equations carries the anatomy of Y=ax + b
In case of solving a simple linear equation, unknown variable has to isolate in one of
the sides of the equation while other values move to the other side of the equation.
Then simplify the equation until you reach out the solution for the unknown variable
Like terms in polynomials can be added or subtracted by adding their coefficients.
Unlike terms cannot be so added or subtracted. Further, like and unlike terms can be
multiplied or divided by multiplying or dividing both the coefficients and variables.
A typical quadratic equation accounts for an anatomy of
Y= ax2+ bx + c
In finding a solution for a quadratic equation, following formula can be used.

 b  b 2  4ac
x
2a

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Stop your reading now and move on to the Self
Assessment Exercise-3

1.12.0. Inequalities
1.12.1. What is Inequality?

An inequality is a statement that one number is greater than or lesser

than another number. For example we know that 5 is greater than 3. This can
be expressed by using the symbol >. Then it would be 5>3. The same can be
expressed as 3<5.
Sense of an inequality:
a<b means “a is less than b”
a>b means “a is greater than b”
a  b means “ a is less than or equal to b”
a  b means “ a is greater than or equal to b”

1.12.2. Basic Properties of Inequalities

Rule I: Adding or subtracting a number from both sides of an

inequality gives

For any real numbers a, b and c,

If a<b, then a+c < b+c and a-c < b-c

If a>b then a+c > b+c and a-c > b-c

more generally a+x < b+x

generalized case: if a>b>c , then a  k > b  k > c  k

Rule II: Multiplying or dividing both sides of an inequality by

positive number

If c>0 and a<b, then ac<bc and [a/c]<[b/c].

Remark:
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If c<0 and a=b , then ac=bc
Rule III: Squaring
If a and b are positive and a<b, then a n  b n and n
a nb

if a>0 and b>0 (or if a<0 and b<0) and a<b , then
1 1

a b
Similar statements hold for the opposite sense, a>b.

Note: Solution is a set of values of x. It will itself usually be in

the form of an inequality.

1.12.3. Solving Linear Inequalities

Procedure for solving Inequalities
1. Change the given inequality to an equivalent inequality for which the
right side is zero.
2. Find the critical values
3. Choose arbitrary values between and beyond the critical values (test
values)
4. Use the test values to determine the sign of the left side
Example: 1 X+1 < 2
X < 2-1
X <1
Therefore X+1< 2 is satisfied when x< 1

Example: 2 Solve the inequality 2x-4<5x+6

2x-4 < 5x+6
2x-4+4 < 5x+6+4 Rule 1 (By adding +4 for both sides)

2x < 5x+10
2x-5x < 5x+10-5x Rule 1(By subtracting -5x from both sides)

-3x < 10
x > -10/3 Rule 3

(Notice that the direction changes when change sign)

We conclude that the given inequality is satisfied whenever x >-10/3

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1.12.4. Inequalities that contain polynomials of higher
degree Critical values
Critical values of a function: The critical values of a function, y=f(x) are
the values of x for which y = f(x) is either zero or undefined.

Example: 3 X2<4-3X
f (X) = X2+3X-4<0
To find critical values, set left side equal to zero.
X2+3X-4=0
(X-1)(X+4)=0
X -1 = 0 or X+4 = 0
X = 1 or X = -4

X = 1, -4 are the critical values

Solution of the inequality, f(x) <0, is given by –4<X<1

1.12.5. Absolute Inequalities

General rules of Absolute inequalities

1. If |f(x)| < k, then –k < f(x) < k.

2. If |f(x)| > k, then f(x) <- k or f(x) > k.

Example: 4 |Z|<1 then –1<Z<1

|Z|>1 then Z<-1 or Z>1

Consider the inequality |x|<1

Any number between 0 and 1 would satisfy this relation, but choose x=-1/2,
then
|x|=|-1/2|=1/2 which also satisfies the inequality.

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 Inequality is satisfied for –1<x<1

a.) | 2x + 3 | < 6
–6 < 2x + 3 < 6 [this is the pattern for "less than"]
–6 – 3 < 2x + 3 – 3 < 6 – 3
–9 < 2x < 3
–9
/2 < x < 3/2

Then the solution to | 2x + 3 | < 6 is the interval –9/2 < x < 3/2.

b.) | 2x – 3 | > 5
2x – 3 < –5 or 2x – 3 > 5 [this is the pattern for "greater than"]
2x < –2 or 2x > 8
x < –1 or x > 4

The solution to | 2x – 3 | > 5 consists of the two intervals x < –1 and x > 4.

1.12.6. Graphing Linear Inequalities

When graphing inequalities, we have to use a Cartesian plane.

Example: 5 x3

Graph the equation x = 3

Then identify the area lesser
than 3
In order to identify the
satisfactory area, you need
to substitute any two
coordinates to the left of and
the right of the line and
check which coordinate will
satisfy the inequality. The
area where the coordinate that satisfies the inequality lies becomes the
satisfactory area. In this case, the coloured area is the set of points which
satisfies the inequality of x  3.

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Note: the line should be in dash form if the inequality carries the sign >or<.
If the sign is ≤ or≥, the line will be a firm one.

Example: 6 4x+2y>5

Graph the equation 4x+2y=5

Find intercepts
If x=0, then y=5/2
If y=0, then x=5/4
Intercepts are {5/4, 0} and {0,
5/2}
The coordinates of every point on
the line satisfy the equation 4x+2y=5.
All other points where inequality holds satisfy the inequality. E.g. X=1
and y=1, then 4x+2y=6>5; thus the coordinates of (1, 1) satisfy the
inequality.
If x=1 and y=0, then 4x+2y=4<5, the inequality will not be satisfied

Example: 7
-X + Y < 4; x<2 and Y>-3.
Find the solution that will satisfy
these inequalities.
In this case you need to draw all three
lines at the same plain and identify the
common region. So, the coloured area
is the solution set.

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 1.13.0. Points to be remembered

The set of points which satisfies the given inequality is the graph of that
particular inequality
In order to graph an inequality, a Cartesian plain is used
When an inequality is portrayed by a graph, a firm line is used for the situations
where the sign comes as ≤ or ≥ while a dash line is used for the situations where
the particular sign comes as < or > .

Stop your reading now and move on to the Self

Assessment Exercise-4

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