AS5210: AERODYNAMIC DESIGN

DESIGN OF RC AIRCRAFT
Submitted by,
GROUP - M4
1. Debolina Dasgupta (AE12M002)
2. Dharamendr Kumar Bhardwaj (AE12M004)
3. Jadhav Krishna Balu (AE12M005)
4. Jijo Unni K (AE12M007)
5. Jitendra Kumar (AE12M008)

Submitted to,
Dr Luoyi Tao, Dr. G. Rajesh
Department of Aerospace Engineering
In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements of
AS5210 Aerodynamic Design
Jan-May 2013
IIT Madras, Chennai
Contents
LIST OF FIGURES..................................................................................................ix
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS................................................................................................xii
CHAPTER 1: GOAL DETERMINATION AND MISSION SPECIFICATIONS...............1
1.1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................1
1.2 GOAL DETERMINATION.................................................................................................................1
1.3 MISSION PROFILE...........................................................................................................................2
1.4 PRELIMINARY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS......................................................................................3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE SURVEY AND FIRST WEIGHT ESTIMATE.....................4

2.1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................4
2.2 DATA COLLECTION.........................................................................................................................4
2.3 FIRST WEIGHT ESTIMATE...............................................................................................................6
2.4 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................................7

CHAPTER 3: SECOND WEIGHT ESTIMATE............................................................9

3.1 INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................................................9
3.2 AIRFOIL...........................................................................................................................................9
3.2.1 Airfoil Data Collection.............................................................................................................9
3.2.2 Airfoil Selection.....................................................................................................................10
3.2.3 Airfoil Operational Characteristics........................................................................................11
3.3 WING DESIGN..............................................................................................................................12
3.3.1 Aspect ratio...........................................................................................................................12
3.3.2 Wing area (S).........................................................................................................................14
3.3.3 Span Length (b).....................................................................................................................14
3.4 SECOND WEIGHT ESTIMATE........................................................................................................15
3.4.1 Payload Weight Calculation..................................................................................................15
3.4.2 Power plant Weight Calculation...........................................................................................16
3.4.3 Weight Calculation................................................................................................................21
3.5 CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................21

CHAPTER 4: WING LOADING AND THRUST-TO-WEIGHT RATIO.......................22

4.1 WING LOADING............................................................................................................................22
4.1.1 Wing Loading for Stall Conditions.........................................................................................22
4.1.2 Wing Loading for Landing.....................................................................................................23

i
 4.1.3 Wing loading for Cruise conditions.......................................................................................25
4.1.4 Wing Loading for Loiter........................................................................................................26
4.2 WING LOADING SELECTION.........................................................................................................26
4.3 THRUST-TO-WEIGHT RATIO CALCULATION.................................................................................27
4.3.1. Thrust-to-Weight ratio for Take-Off conditions..................................................................27
4.3.2. Thrust-to-Weight calculation for Climb...............................................................................29
4.3.3. Thrust-to-Weight calculation for Vmax...............................................................................30
4.3.4. Thrust-to-Weight calculation for turning............................................................................31
4.4 SUMMARY OF THRUST-TO-WEIGHT AND SELECTION.................................................................31
4.5 WING LOADING FOR SEGMENTS DEPENDENT ON (T/W)............................................................32
4.5.1. Wing Loading for Take-Off conditions.................................................................................32
4.5.2. Wing Loading calculation for Climb.....................................................................................33
4.5.3 Wing Loading for Vmax.........................................................................................................33
4.5.4 Wing Loading for turning......................................................................................................34
4.6 CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................34
4.7 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................34

CHAPTER 5: THIRD WEIGHT ESTIMATE AND INITIAL SIZING............................35

5.1 THIRD WEIGHT ESTIMATE............................................................................................................35
5.1.1 Material Selection.................................................................................................................35
5.1.2 Weight of the Wing...............................................................................................................36
5.1.3 Weight of the Fuselage.........................................................................................................41
5.1.4 Weight of Horizontal Tail......................................................................................................42
5.1.5 Weight of Vertical Tail..........................................................................................................42
5.1.6 Weight of the Skin................................................................................................................43
5.1.7 Third Weight Estimate..........................................................................................................44
5.2 INITIAL GEOMETRIC SIZING.........................................................................................................45
5.2.1 Fuselage Sizing......................................................................................................................45
5.2.2. Wing Sizing...........................................................................................................................45
5.2.3. Tail Sizing.............................................................................................................................45
5.3. SUMMARY OF MAJOR DIMENSIONS OF THE AIRCRAFT.............................................................48
5.4 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................48

CHAPTER 6: THREE VIEW AND CONFIGURATION LAYOUT...............................49

6.1 INITIAL SIZING SUMMARY...........................................................................................................49
6.2 THREE-VIEW DRAWING...............................................................................................................50

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 6.3 WETTED AREA ESTIMATION........................................................................................................52
6.4 INTERNAL VOLUME ESTIMATION................................................................................................53
6.5 CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................53
6.6 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................53

CHAPTER 7: PROPELLER SELECTION..................................................................54

7.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................54
7.2 PROPELLER SIZING.......................................................................................................................55
7.3 SUMMARY OF PROPELLER SPECIFICATIONS................................................................................57
7.4 PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIPS..................................................................................................57
7.4.1 Propeller parameter calculation at take-off conditions.......................................................59
7.4.2 Propeller parameter calculation for climb conditions..........................................................60
7.4.3 Propeller parameter calculation for cruise conditions.........................................................61
7.4.4 Propeller parameter calculation for turning conditions.......................................................62
7.4.5 Propeller parameter calculation for landing conditions.......................................................63
7.5 CONCLUSION................................................................................................................................64
7.6 REFERENCES.................................................................................................................................64

CHAPTER 8: IMPROVED DRAG POLAR AND POWER PLANT ESTIMATION.......65

8.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................65
8.2 LIFT...............................................................................................................................................65
8.2.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................65
8.2.2 Calculation of CLα................................................................................................................... 66
8.2.3 Calculation of CLmax................................................................................................................ 66
8.2.4 Calculation of αCLmax............................................................................................................... 69
8.3 PARASITE DRAG ESTIMATION......................................................................................................70
8.3.1 Flat-plate Skin Friction Coefficient........................................................................................70
8.3.2 Component Form Factor.......................................................................................................71
8.2.3 Component Interference Factor...........................................................................................71
8.3.4 Miscellaneous Drag...............................................................................................................71
8.3.5 Geometric Details.................................................................................................................71
8.3.6 Calculation and Summary Table of Parasite Drag................................................................72
8.4 OSWALD SPAN EFFICIENCY FACTOR AND K.................................................................................74
8.5 MODIFIED DRAG POLAR..............................................................................................................75
8.6 CHECKING FOR WING LOADING IN SEGMENTS INDEPENDENT OF T/W.....................................75
8.6.1 Wing Loading for Stall Conditions.........................................................................................76

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 8.6.2 Wing Loading for Landing.....................................................................................................76
8.6.3 Wing Loading for Cruise Conditions.....................................................................................76
8.6.4 Wing Loading for Loiter........................................................................................................77
8.7 WING LOADING SELECTION.........................................................................................................78
8.8 THRUST-TO-WEIGHT RATIO CALCULATION.................................................................................78
8.8.1. Thrust-to-Weight Ratio for Take-Off Conditions.................................................................78
8.8.2. Thrust-to-Weight calculation for Climb...............................................................................79
8.8.3. Thrust-to-Weight calculation for Vmax.................................................................................. 81
8.8.4. Thrust-to-Weight calculation for turning............................................................................81
8.9 SUMMARY OF THRUST-TO-WEIGHT AND SELECTION.................................................................82
8.10 WING LOADING FOR SEGMENTS DEPENDENT ON (T/W)..........................................................82
8.10.1. Wing Loading for Take-Off conditions...............................................................................82
8.10.2. Wing Loading calculation for Climb...................................................................................83
8.10.3 Wing Loading for Vmax.......................................................................................................... 83
8.10.4 Wing Loading for Turning...................................................................................................84
8.11 SUMMARY OF POWER REQUIREMENTS....................................................................................84
8.12 CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................................85
8.13 REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................85

CHAPTER 9: ESTIMATION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF AIRCRAFT....................86

9.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................86
9.2 CG OF DIFFERENT COMPONENTS................................................................................................86
9.2.1 Fuselage................................................................................................................................87
9.2.2 Wing......................................................................................................................................88
9.2.3 Horizontal Tail.......................................................................................................................89
9.2.4. Vertical Tail..........................................................................................................................91
9.2.5 Propeller...............................................................................................................................93
9.2.6. Motor...................................................................................................................................93
9.2.7. Battery..................................................................................................................................93
9.2.8 Payload..................................................................................................................................94
9.2.9 Summary of the CG location of different components........................................................94
9.3 CG LOCATION OF AIRCRAFT.........................................................................................................95
9.4 CALCULATION OF CG OF LANDING GEAR....................................................................................96
9.4.1 Landing Gear Arrangement..................................................................................................96
9.4.2 Landing Gear Weight............................................................................................................98

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 9.4.3 Landing Gear CG...................................................................................................................98
9.5 MODIFIED LOCATION OF CG........................................................................................................99
9.6 CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................................100
9.7 REFERENCES...............................................................................................................................100

CHAPTER 10: STABILITY AND TRIM ANALYSIS OF AIRCRAFT..........................101

10.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................101
10.1.1 Longitudinal Stability........................................................................................................101
10.1.2 Lateral Stability.................................................................................................................101
10.1.3 Directional Stability...........................................................................................................101
10.2 LOCATION OF CENTRE OF GRAVITY.........................................................................................102
10.3 NEUTRAL POINT.......................................................................................................................102
10.4 PARAMETERS OF WING...........................................................................................................103
10.4.1 X𝑎𝑐w...............................................................................................................................103
10.4.2 CLα...................................................................................................................................... 103
10.5 PARAMETERS OF FUSELAGE....................................................................................................103
10.5.1 Cmαfus.................................................................................................................................. 103
10.6 HORIZONTAL TAIL PITCHING MOMENT...................................................................................105
10.6.1 Dynamic Pressure Ratio ( ℎ)...........................................................................................105
10.6.2 Planform Area Ratio (𝑆ℎ𝑆w)..........................................................................................105
10.6.3 Lift-Curve Slope of Horizontal Tail (𝐶𝐿𝑎ℎ).....................................................................106
10.6.4 Tail Angle of Attack Derivative (6𝑎ℎ6𝑎).........................................................................106
10.6.5 Non-Dimensional Aerodynamic Center x-location (X𝑎𝑐ℎ).............................................107
10.6.6. Calculation of Cmh............................................................................................................. 107
10.7 EFFECT OF POWER PLANT ON PITCHING MOMENT................................................................107
10.8 LOCATION OF NEUTRAL POINT................................................................................................108
10.9 STATIC MARGIN.......................................................................................................................108
10.10 Recalculation at new CG location..........................................................................................109
10.10.1 (X𝑎𝑐w )New..................................................................................................................... 109
10.10.2 (Cmαfus)new.......................................................................................................................... 109
10.10.3 (6𝑎ℎ6𝑎 )new and (Cmh)new............................................................................................... 109
10.10.4 New location of neutral point........................................................................................110
10.11 MODIFIED VIEWS WITH NEW WING LOCATION....................................................................111
10.12 TRIM ANALYSIS......................................................................................................................112
10.13 CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................................116

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 10.14 REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................116

CHAPTER 11: PARASITE DRAG ESTIMATION...................................................117

11.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................117
11.2 FLAT PLATE SKIN FRICTION COEFFICIENT................................................................................117
11.3 COMPONENT FORM FACTOR..................................................................................................118
11.3.1 Fuselage............................................................................................................................118
11.3.2 Wing and tails...................................................................................................................118
11.4 COMPONENT INTERFERENCE FACTOR....................................................................................118
11.5 LANDING GEAR DRAG..............................................................................................................118
11.6 GEOMETRIC DETAILS OF DIFFERENT COMPONENTS...............................................................121
11.7 CALCULATION AND SUMMARY OF PARASITE DRAG CALCULATION.......................................122
11.8 CONCLUSION...........................................................................................................................124
11.9 REFERENCES.........................................................................................................................124

CHAPTER 12: FLIGHT PERFORMANCE AND V-n DIAGRAM.............................125

12.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................125
12.2 STALL CONDITIONS..................................................................................................................125
12.2.1. Stall Wing Loading...........................................................................................................125
12.3 CRUISE CONDITIONS................................................................................................................126
12.3.1 CD and CL............................................................................................................................ 126
12.3.2 V min drag.............................................................................................................................. 126
12.3.3 Vcruise and CL....................................................................................................................... 127
12.3.4 Cruise Wing Loading.........................................................................................................127
12.3.5 CD....................................................................................................................................... 127
12.3.6 Thrust for minimum drag.................................................................................................127
12.3.7 Power for minimum drag..................................................................................................127
12.3.8. Minimum power conditions............................................................................................128
12.3.9 Thrust for minimum power..............................................................................................128
12.3.7 Power for minimum power..............................................................................................128
12.4 CLIMB CONDITIONS.................................................................................................................128
12.4.1 CL and CD............................................................................................................................ 128
12.4.2 Vclimb................................................................................................................................... 129
12.4.3 Thrust for climb................................................................................................................129
12.4.4 Power for climb.................................................................................................................129
12.4.5 Climb gradient..................................................................................................................129

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 12.4.6 Climb Wing loading...........................................................................................................130
12.4.7. Rate of Climb...................................................................................................................130
12.5 TURN CONDITIONS..................................................................................................................130
12.5.1 Load factor (n)..................................................................................................................130
12.5.2 CL and CD............................................................................................................................ 130
12.5.3 Thrust for turn..................................................................................................................131
12.5.4 Power for turn..................................................................................................................131
12.5.5. Turning wing loading.......................................................................................................131
12.6 LANDING..................................................................................................................................131
12.6.1 Turn Radius (R)..................................................................................................................131
12.6.2. Approach Distance (Sa)....................................................................................................132
12.6.3 Flare Distance (Sf)..............................................................................................................132
12.6.4. Ground roll distance (Sg)..................................................................................................132
12.6.5. Landing Wing Loading......................................................................................................132
12.7. TAKE-OFF................................................................................................................................133
12.7.1 Static Thrust......................................................................................................................133
12.7.2. Turn radius (R).................................................................................................................133
12.7.3 Airborne distance (Sa).......................................................................................................133
12.7.4 Ground roll distance (Sg)...................................................................................................133
12.7.5 Take-off Wing Loading......................................................................................................133
12.7.6 VTO..................................................................................................................................... 134
12.7.7. Power for take-off............................................................................................................134
12.7.8 Maximum acceleration (a)................................................................................................134
12.8 LOITER......................................................................................................................................134
12.8.1 CL....................................................................................................................................... 134
12.8.2 Loiter wing loading...........................................................................................................135
12.9 SUMMARY AND SELECTION OF WING LOADING.....................................................................135
12.10 THRUST-TO-WEIGHT..............................................................................................................135
12.10.1 Cruise..............................................................................................................................136
12.10.2 Climb...............................................................................................................................136
12.10.3 Turn.................................................................................................................................136
12.10.4 Take-Off..........................................................................................................................137
12.10.5 Vmax.................................................................................................................................. 137
12.11. SUMMARY AND SELECTION OF THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO...............................................137

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 12.12. V-n DIAGRAM.......................................................................................................................138
12.12.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................138
12.12.2 Load Factor.....................................................................................................................139
12.12.3 V-n Diagram parameters calculation..............................................................................139
12.12.4 Limit load factor calculation...........................................................................................140
12.12.5 Stall condition.................................................................................................................140
12.12.6 Manoeuvring point A......................................................................................................141
12.12.7 Calculation of Velocity Vc................................................................................................ 141
12.12.8 Diving velocity VD............................................................................................................ 141
12.12.9 Velocity at negative limit load........................................................................................141
12.12.10 Equations for the curves...............................................................................................142
12.12.11 Conclusion....................................................................................................................143
12.13 REFERENCES...........................................................................................................................144

Chapter 13: FINAL CONFIGURATION...............................................................145

13.1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................145
13.2 WEIGHT AND GEOMETRY........................................................................................................145
13.3 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS..........................................................................................147
13.4 STABILITY PARAMTERS............................................................................................................148
13.5 FLIGHT ENVELOPE CHARACTERISTICS.....................................................................................148

viii
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Mission Profile.......................................................................................................................2

Figure 1.2 Sketch of the configuration....................................................................................................4
Figure 2.1. Structural or empty weight fraction plot...............................................................................5
Figure 2.2 Power plant fraction plot........................................................................................................6
Figure 2.3 Mission leg weight fractions...................................................................................................8
Figure 3.2: NACA 2310 Airfoil Geometric Profile...................................................................................10
Figure 3.3: Lift Curve For NACA 2310 In The Operating Envelope........................................................11
Figure 3.4: Drag Polar For NACA 2310 In The Operating Envelope.......................................................11
Figure 3.5: Aspect Ratio - Historical Data Plot.......................................................................................13
Figure 3.6: Wing Loading - Historical Data Plot.....................................................................................13
Figure 3.7 Tau Camera...........................................................................................................................15
Figure 3.8 CL v/s CD for different velocities............................................................................................18
Figure 3.9 Power v/s Velocity................................................................................................................18
Figure 3.8 Rimfire 0.32 brushless Outrunner motor.............................................................................19
Figure 3.9 Electrifly 4S 2200mAh LiPo...................................................................................................20
Figure 3.10 13 X 8 NEW APC Thin Electric Propeller.............................................................................20
Figure 3.11. Silver Series 45A Brushless ESC.........................................................................................20
Figure 4.1The Landing Path and Landing Distance[1]...........................................................................23
................................................................................................................
Figure 4.2 Take-off analysis [2] 27
Figure 6.1 Side View of the RC Model Airplane.....................................................................................51
Figure 6.2 Top View of the RC Model Airplane.....................................................................................51
Figure 6.3 Front View of the RC Model Airplane...................................................................................52
Figure 7.1 Cross-section of a propeller[1].............................................................................................54
Figure 7.2 Fixed- Pitch propeller[1].......................................................................................................54
Figure 7.3 Variable- Pitch propeller[1]..................................................................................................55
Figure 7.4 Constant- speed propeller[1]................................................................................................55
....................................................................
Figure 7.6. Variation of J with CT at different P/D ratios [5] 58
....................................................................
Figure 7.7. Variation of J with Cp at different P/D ratios [5] 58
Figure 8.1 Lift curve slope v/s Mach number........................................................................................65
.............................................................
Figure 8.2 Taper ratio correction for low aspect ratio wings [1] 67
........................................................................
Figure 8.3 Airfoil leading edge sharpness parameter [1] 67

ix
 ............................................................
Figure 8.4 Subsonic maximum lift of high aspect ratio wings [1] 68
.............
Figure 8.5 Mach number correction for subsonic maximum lift of high aspect ratio wings [1] 68
............
Figure 8.6 Angle of attack increment for subsonic maximum lift of high aspect ratio wings [1] 69
Figure 8.7 Parasite Drag vs. Mach number............................................................................................74
Figure 8.8 Modified drag polar..............................................................................................................75
Figure 9.1. Side view of the aircraft in cartesian coordinate system....................................................86
Figure 9.2. Top view of the aircraft in cartesian system.......................................................................87
Figure9.3. CG location of fuselage.........................................................................................................88
Figure9.4. CG location of wing...............................................................................................................88
..............................
Figure 9.5 Schematic of the important geometric points for tail CG calculation [2] 89
Figure 9.6. CG location of horizontal tail...............................................................................................91
Figure9.7. CG location of vertical tail.....................................................................................................92
Figure 9.8 Landing Gear Arrangement about Aircraft CG.....................................................................96
...............................................................................................
Figure 10.1. Position of ¼ root chord [1] 104
.......................................................................
Figure 11.1 CD values for Landing Gear (Fixed Type) [2] 119
.......................................................................
Figure 11.2 CD values for Landing Gear (Fixed Type) [2] 120
Figure 11.3 Parasite Drag vs. Mach number........................................................................................124
Figure 12.1 V-n diagram for a general aviation aircraft......................................................................139
Figure 12.2 V-n Diagram......................................................................................................................143

x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Design Specifications................................................................................................................2
Table 1.3 Preliminary design considerations...........................................................................................3
Table 2.1 Weight specification for RC airplanes......................................................................................5
Table 2.2. Result table of iterative process.............................................................................................7
Table 3.1 Airfoil Data...............................................................................................................................9
Table 3.2 Characteristics of NACA 2310................................................................................................10
Table 3.4 Wing Specifications................................................................................................................14
Table 3.5 Parameter values at different velocities................................................................................17
...................................................................................................
Table 4.1 Ground Rolling Resistance[1] 24
Table 4.2 Wing Loading at different flight conditions...........................................................................26
Table 4.3 Engine power at different flight conditions...........................................................................31
Table 4.4 Thrust-to-weight at different flight conditions......................................................................31
Table 5.1 Weight of each component...................................................................................................44
Table 6.1 Initial Sizing Summary............................................................................................................49
Table 6.2 Wing and Empennage Wetted Area Calculation...................................................................52
.......................................................
Table 7.1. Historical Data for propeller selection of RC aircrafts [3] 56
Table 7.2 Propeller Parameters.............................................................................................................64
Table 7.3 Propeller performance in each segment...............................................................................64
Table 8.1 RC Model Airplane (W0 = 1.98 kg) Component Geometric Data...........................................72
Table 8.2 Parasite Drag Calculation for design cruise speed of 20 m/s................................................73
Table 8.3 Parasite Drag Coefficients for RC Model Airplane Speed Range...........................................73
Table 8.4 Wing Loading at different flight conditions...........................................................................78
Table 8.5 Engine power at different flight conditions...........................................................................82
Table 9.1 CG location and weights of different components................................................................94
Table 11.1 RC Model Airplane (W0 = 1.98 kg) Component Geometric Data.......................................121
Table 11.2 Parasite Drag Calculation for maximum cruise speed of 20m/s.......................................122
Table 11.3 Parasite Drag Coefficients for RC Model Airplane Speed Range.......................................123
Table 12.1 Wing loading for different segments.................................................................................135
Table 12.2 Thrust-to-weight ratio of different segments....................................................................137
Table 12.3 Parameters required for V-n diagram...............................................................................140

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LIST OF SYMBOLS

AR Aspect Ratio

BP Balance Point

b Wing span

c Chord

𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 Maximum value of coefficient of lift for wing

𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 Maximum value of coefficient of lift for airfoil

CD Coefficient of drag for wing

𝐶𝐷 Zero Lift Drag Coefficient

0
CL Coefficient of lift for wing

Cp Coefficient of Power

Croot Root chord

CS Speed Power Coefficient

CT Coefficient of Thrust

Ctip Root chord

D Drag

e Ostwald’s Efficiency Factor

hf Flare Height

hob Obstacle Height

HP Engine Horsepower

J Advance Ratio

k Parasite Drag Coefficient

L Lift

L Propeller Blade Length

n Load Factor

N Increment time for free roll

xii
 N Speed in RPM

n Speed in RPS

P Engine Power

P Pitch

PTO Engine Power for Take-Off

𝑃𝑅⁄𝐶 Engine power for Maximum Rate of Climb

𝑃𝑉 𝑚𝑎𝑥 Engine power for Maximum

Velocity R Turn Radius

(𝑅⁄𝐶)𝑚𝑎𝑥 Maximum Rate of Climb

S Wing Area

Sa Approach Distance

Sf Flare Distance

Sg Ground Roll Distance

STO Take- Off Distance

SL Landing Distance

T Thrust
𝑇
( )
𝖶 𝑅 ⁄𝐶
Thrust-to-Weight ratio for maximum Rate of Climb

𝑇
(
𝑇)
Thrust-to-Weight ratio for Take-Off
𝖶 0

𝑇
( )
𝖶𝑉
Thrust-to-Weight ratio for maximum Velocity
𝑚𝑎𝑥

Vf Flare Velocity

VLO Velocity at lift off

Vloiter Loiter Velocity

Vmax Maximum Velocity

𝑉𝑅/𝐶
𝑚𝑎𝑥
Velocity at maximum Rate of Climb

VstallStall Velocity

W Weight

xiii
 𝖶
(
𝑆 ) Wing loading for Cruise conditions
𝑐𝑟𝑢i𝑠e

𝖶
(
𝑆 ) Wing loading for Landing
𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑i𝑛g

𝖶
(
𝑆 ) Wing loading for maximum Rate of Climb
𝑅 ⁄𝐶

𝖶
(
𝑆 ) Wing loading for stall conditions
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙

𝖶
(
𝑆 ) Wing loading for Take-Off
𝑇0

𝖶
(𝑆
) Wing loading for maximum Velocity
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥

S Wing Sweep

XCG Location of centre of gravity along X axis

YCG Location of centre of gravity along Y axis

ZCG Location of centre of gravity along Z axis

𝜆 Wing taper ratio

5𝑝𝑟o Propeller efficiency

𝑝

𝜌∞ Density of air

𝜃𝑎 Approach Angle

𝜃o𝑏 Obstacle Angle

𝜇𝑟 Coefficient of friction

α Angle of attack

𝜌∞ Density of air

Λ Sweep Angle

xiv
CHAPTER 1: GOAL DETERMINATION AND MISSION SPECIFICATIONS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Aircraft design is an iterative process. The design depends on many factors such as customer and
manufacturer demand, safety protocols, physical and economic constraints etc. It is a compromise
between many competing factors and constraints and accounts for existing designs and market
requirements to produce the best aircraft. The design starts out in three phases:

(a) Conceptual Design

This involves sketching up a variety of possible configurations that meet the required design
specifications. Fundamental aspects such as fuselage shape, wing configuration and location,
engine size/power plant size and type are all determined at this stage. Constraints to design
are all taken into account at this stage.

(b) Preliminary Design

At this stage the design configuration arrived at in the conceptual design phase is then
tweaked and remodelled to fit into the design parameters. Major structural and control
analysis is also carried out in this phase. Aerodynamic flaws and structural instabilities if any
are corrected and the final design is drawn and finalised.

(c) Detail Design

This phase deals with the fabrication aspect of the aircraft. It determines the number, design
and location of ribs, spars, sections and other structural elements. All aerodynamic,
structural, propulsion, control and performance aspects have already been covered in the
preliminary design phase.

1.2 GOAL DETERMINATION

The goal is to design a flying model of a miniature aircraft mainly intended to undertake missions viz.
reconnaissance/ surveillance. The most common aircrafts i.e. the remote controlled aircraftshave
multiple applications such as in military, weather forecast, topological survey, reconnaissance etc.

1
The team’s primary plan is to design for surveillance in forest areas to track the wildlife movements
and to study their habitual patterns through the collected data. The surveillance aircraft can also be
used to capture poacher activities within the reserve area.

1.3 MISSION PROFILE

The required mission profile for the RC model airplane to be designed is given in Figure 1.1 below.

LOITER

CRUISE CRUISE

Endurance ~15 min flight time

DESCENT
CLIMB

Cruise Altitude 50m,

TAKE-OFF LANDING

Figure 1.1: Mission Profile

Table 1.1 below enlists the design specifications for the aircraft to be designed.

Table 1.1 Design Specifications

S. No PARAMETER DESIGN VALUE

1. Vstall 10 m/s

2. Vcruise 20 m/s

3. Vmax 25 m/s

4. Take off distance 50 m

5. Range / Endurance ~15 minutes of flight time

(includes takeoff, climb to cruise

altitude, descent and landing time)

6. Landing distance 50 m

2
The data mentioned in Table 1.1provide a basis for the design. However, these are the initial
specifications of the RC model airplane concept under consideration and may be altered based on
the constraints imposed during the course of preliminary and detail design stages.

1.4 PRELIMINARY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The preliminary design considerations arrived at, after literature survey, are enlisted in Table 1.3
below. These may be amended at a later stage after appropriate estimates and calculations.

Table 1.3 Preliminary design considerations

S.NO. PARAMETER PRELIMINARY ESTIMATE

1. Flying Weight ~1.0 - 2.0 kg

2. Aspect Ratio (AR) ~6-8

3. ARW/ARref ~4-5(1)

4. (L/D)max ~9.5-12.5(2)

5. Wing Type High wing or low wing (to be decided)

6. Power Plant Electrical power plant inclusive of

battery, motor, electronic speed
control (ESC) and propeller

7. Aerodynamic Control Ailerons, Elevators and Rudders

Surfaces

8. Thrust to Weight Ratio To be decided

9. Range ~15 minutes of flight time

3
 Propeller

Fuselage

Wing Planform – shape

to be decided

Vertical
Tail
Horizontal Tail

Figure 1.2 Sketch of the configuration

A conceptual configuration of the Radio-controlled Electrical powered model airplane has been
shown in the Figure 1.2.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE SURVEY AND FIRST WEIGHT ESTIMATE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Literature survey of the available RC aircrafts is crucial for assuming initial specifications for the
aircraft to be designed. These provide a basis for estimation of the weight of the aircraft as
presented in this chapter.

2.2 DATA COLLECTION

The Table 2.1 below shows a compilation of the weight data collected using internet search of
currently flying Radio Controlled (RC) electrically powered (EP) Model Airplanes.

4
 Table 2.1 Weight specification for RC airplanes

S.No. RC AIRPLANE Flying Wt, Structural Powerplant

W0 (kg) Wt, We (kg) Wt, Wpp (kg)

1. Revolution 3D trainer 0.430 0.282 0.148

2. Foamtana 0.450 0.280 0.170
3. Electrifly Yak 55M 1.700 1.187 0.513
4. Electrifly Extra 330SC 0.234 0.178 0.056
5. Hobbico Superstar EP 1.230 0.918 0.312
6. Extra330 L 0.620 0.427 0.193
7. Edge 540 1.650 1.157 0.493
8. Carbon Z Yak 54 1.730 1.139 0.591
9. Hawker Hurricane 25e 2.100 1.528 0.572
10. F3A/Gadfly 2.350 1.713 0.637
11. Nemesis Racer EP 2.100 1.390 0.710

Using Table 2.1, following two graphs, comparing the structural (also called empty weight) weight
fraction and the powerplant weight fraction to the flying weight or AUW (i.e. All up weight termed
as AUW, since for electric powered RC airplanes weight during the flight remains same), respectively
have been plotted.

Figure 2.1. Structural or empty weight fraction plot

5
 Figure 2.2 Power plant fraction plot

Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3 also show the least square fitted linear regression equations, which has
been used to do the preliminary weight estimate of the RC model airplane.

2.3 FIRST WEIGHT ESTIMATE

The weight of an RC EP model airplane can be estimated as,

W0  WP / L  WE  WPP

This can be rewritten as,

 WE   WPP 
W0  WP / L  W0    W0  
W W
 0  0 
which on simplification gives,

WP / L
W0 W  W 

1   E    PP 
 W0   W0  (2.1)

6
Following initial estimate has been used for the iterative process to arrive at the preliminary weight
estimate of RC EP model airplane;

From mission requirements; WP/L = 0.15 kg

Starting guess value of AUW weight; W0 = 1.1 kg

From Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3, the powerplant and structural weight fractions have been used for
the iterative estimation of AUW or flying weight.

The intermediate results of the iterative process is compiled and shown in Table 2.2. The process
was allowed to continue till an error of less than 0.5% had been achieved.

Table 2.2. Result table of iterative process

Initial Guess Fractional Weights Estimated Error

AUW

W0 WP/L We/W0 Wpp/W0 W0 %age

1.100 0.150 0.594 0.306 1.500 36.364

1.500 0.150 0.596 0.303 1.493 0.548

1.493 0.150 0.596 0.303 1.493 0.002

2.4 CONCLUSION

The first weight calculation estimates the flying weight of the aircraft to be 1.493 kg. However, this is
a very preliminary estimate. Assuming a safe margin the initial weight of the aircraft is taken as 1.5
kg. The aircraft will be battery operated; hence all the weight fractions will be equal to the first
weight estimate, WO. Thus, the final mission leg weight fractions are as follows:

7
 2, W2 3, W3

0, WO 1, W1 4, W4 5, W5

Figure 2.3 Mission leg weight fractions

8
CHAPTER 3: SECOND WEIGHT ESTIMATE

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The first weight estimate carried out in the previous chapter was completely based on historical
data. In this chapter requirement specific airfoil and wing is chosen. Based on those, the power plant
estimation is carried out.

3.2 AIRFOIL

A considerable amount of airfoil data has been accumulated from windtunnel tests and in-flight tests
over the years and the compilation is available in the airfoil catalogues. The selection of the airfoil
from such a catalogue depends upon the design specifications that are required to be met, such as
cruise and stall characteristics. A similar approach has been adopted to select an appropriate airfoil
for the RC model airplane.

3.2.1 Airfoil Data Collection

Following Table 3.1 shows a compilation of some of NACA 4-digit family of the airfoils considered for
this work, as the RC model airplane has to operate at very low speed in surveillance operation. This
set of airfoils has been selected based on the high stall angle, high maximum section lift coefficient,
availability of thickness for structure and ease of manufacturability. At this stage of design a more
rigorous approach of custom-designed airfoil based on computational analysis has been avoided.

Table 3.1 Airfoil Data

Zero lift Trailing Lower

Angle of edge angle Leading edge Flatness
Airfoil Cl,max αstall (L/D)max
Attack radius (%c)
(AoA) (degrees) (%c)

NACA 1408 -1.1 0.875 14 39.7 11 2.6 85.6%

NACA 1412 -1.11 1.417 15 54.2 16.5 3.5 64.9%

NACA 2310 -2.04 1.467 15 56.4 12.1 1.2 66.8%

NACA 2312 -2.05 1.377 15 56 14.5 1.7 48.2%

NACA 2414 -2.23 1.372 15 56.4 17.8 3 50.5%

9
3.2.2 Airfoil Selection

After thoroughly investigating the available airfoil dataset and based on the requirement of low stall
speed, high maximum section lift coefficient and maximum aerodynamic efficiency the NACA 2310
airfoil has been chosen for the airplane design.

Figure 3.1, shows the profile of the selected airfoil designated as NACA 2310.

Figure 3.2: NACA 2310 Airfoil Geometric Profile

The aerodynamic and geometric characteristics of NACA 2310 airfoil are as follows:

Table 3.2 Characteristics of NACA 2310

Geometric Characteristics Aerodynamic Characteristics

Camber 2% of chord Clmax 1.467

Chord Length 0.25 m αstall 15

Location of maximum camber 30% of chord from LE Stall Speed (m/s) 8.5

Maximum Thickness 10% of chord (L/D)max 56.4

Trailing edge angle 12.1°

Lower flatness 66.80%

Leading edge radius 1.20%

1
3.2.3 Airfoil Operational Characteristics

As per design specification of stall speed of 10 m/s and cruise speed of 20 m/s, the operating
Reynolds number envelope of airfoil has been estimated.

Density of air(ρ): 1.15 kg/m3

Viscosity of air: 1.983x10-5 N-sec/m2

Hence,

Reynolds number (stall) = 1.67x105

Reynolds number (cruise) = 3.33x105

For the Reynolds number of 1.67x105 and 3.33x105, the airfoil lift-curve and drag as estimated using
DESIGNFOIL Software are shown in Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4 respectively.

Figure 3.3: Lift Curve For NACA 2310 In The Operating Envelope

Figure 3.4: Drag Polar For NACA 2310 In The Operating Envelope

1
3.3 WING DESIGN

3.3.1 Aspect ratio

Table3.3 shows a compilation of the geometric data collected using internet search of currently
flying Radio Controlled (RC) electrically powered (EP) Model Airplanes.

Table 3.3: Geometric Specification Of RC Airplanes

Flying Length Span Wing Aspect Wing Loading

Wt (kg) (m) (m) Area (sq m) Ratio (kg/sq m)

W0 L b Sref AR W0/Sref

Revolution 3D trainer 0.430 0.965 0.864 0.245 3.04 1.754

Foamtana 0.450 0.978 0.991 0.254 3.86 1.770

Electrifly Yak 55M 1.700 1.194 1.283 0.328 5.02 5.187

Electrifly Extra 330SC 0.234 0.889 0.826 0.172 3.96 1.358

Hobbico Superstar EP 1.230 0.917 1.238 0.259 5.91 4.743

Extra330 L 0.620 0.889 0.925 0.170 5.03 3.647

Edge 540 25 45" RC EP 1.650 1.029 1.151 0.246 5.39 6.713

Carbon Z Yak 54 1.730 1.232 1.219 0.339 4.39 5.108

Hawker Hurricane 25e 2.100 1.067 1.359 0.310 5.96 6.781

Funster V2 2.350 1.346 1.842 0.546 6.21 4.306

Nemesis Racer EP 2.100 1.200 1.560 0.392 6.21 5.357

Using Table 3.3, the two comparison graphs of the aspect ratio of wing (AR) against the AUW and
the wing loading to the flying weight or AUW have been plotted in Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.6
respectively.

1
 Figure 3.5: Aspect Ratio - Historical Data Plot

Figure 3.6: Wing Loading - Historical Data Plot

1
Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.6 also show the least square fitted linear regression equations, using which
following preliminary wing specifications have been estimated for AUW of 1.5 kg for RC model
airplane.

Table 3.4 Wing Specifications

Wing Specification

Aspect Ratio 5.35

Airfoil Chord Length (m) 0.25

Wing type Rectangular high wing

All the RC Airplane considered in the historical dataset have high wing with rectangular planform.
This allows designers to have high ground clearance as the height of the RC model airplane is very
small and also gives more internal volume and stability to the airplane. Further, rectangular wings
are easy to manufacture and integrate with the airplane fuselage.

3.3.2 Wing area (S)

The design Vstall=10 m/S.

We know that,

1
𝐿=W= 𝐶
2
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑆
𝜌∞𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 2

where S= Projected area of the wing

From Chapter 1, W = 1.5 kg = 14.715 N and from section 3.2.2 CLmax= 1.467

Thus,

𝑆= 2W = 2 x 14.715
𝜌
𝑉 1.15 x 102 x 1.467
2
𝐶
∞ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑆 = 0.174 𝑚2

3.3.3 Span Length (b)

We know,

𝐴𝑅 𝑏
2

= 𝑆
AR=5.35 and S=0.174 m2

Thus, b= 0.951 m

1
3.4 SECOND WEIGHT ESTIMATE

The weight of an RC EP model airplane during first estimate was estimated in Chapter 2 by,

W0  WP / L
W  W 
1   E    PP 
 W0   W0 

Now, as we have more insight into the geometric and aerodynamic details of airplane components,
we can revise the equation and arrive at a more accurate estimate using calculated payload and
powerplant weight instead of using the powerplant weight fraction from historical data.

Therefore, the revised equation becomes:

WP / L  WPP
W0  W  (3.1)
1 E
 W0 

3.4.1 Payload Weight Calculation

The payload for the aircraft is chosen as an infra-red camera to serve the purpose of forest area
surveillance. The camera best suited for the mission’s requirements is the Tau 320.

Figure 3.7 Tau Camera

The Tau is a long wavelength camera (8-14 microns) un-cooled micro-bolometer camera designed
for infrared imaging applications with minimum size, weight and power consumption.

1
Specifications:

(a) 320(H) x256 (V) un-cooled micro-bolometer sensor array, 25 X 25 micron pixels
(b) Spectral Band: 7.5-13.5 µm.
(c) NEdT Performance: <50mK at f/1.0
(d) Power Consumption: < 1.0 Watts
(e) Input voltage range: 4.0-6.0 VDC
(f) Time to image: ~2 seconds
(g) Operating Temperature Range: -40OC TO +80oC
(h) Weight of the body: 70 grams
(i) Weight of the lens: 30-45 grams

Thus, we can estimate the payload weight as:

WPL = WBODY + WLENS + WMOUNTINGS

= 70 + 45 + 35

WPL = 150 grams

3.4.2 Powerplant Weight Calculation

Density of air : 1.15 kg/m3

Viscosity of air : 1.983*10-5 N-sec/m2

Design cruise speed : 20 m/sec

For wing:

Aspect ratio : 5.35

Wing span : 0.951 m

Reynolds number : 3.33x105

From drag polar inFigure 3.4,

Zero lift drag coefficient, CDO =0.0107

Ostwald’s efficiency factor for rectangular wing, e = 0.85

1
Thus,

1
𝐾 = = 0.072
𝜋e𝐴
𝑅

Therefore, drag polar equation for the wing is

CD = CD0+ KC 2
L

CD = 0.0107 + 0.072 C 2
L

We know that,

1
𝐿 =W =
2
𝐶𝐿 𝑆
𝜌∞𝑉 2

2W
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑉2 𝑆
𝜌 ∞

For each value of velocity, CL can be calculated. Thereafter using drag polar, CD can be evaluated.

Now,
1
𝑇 =𝐷 = 𝜌∞𝑉 𝐶𝐷𝑆and
2
2
1
𝑃owe𝑟 𝑃 = 𝑇 𝑉 = 3
𝐶𝐷 𝑆
𝜌∞𝑉
2

Table 3.5 below tabulates the values of CL, CD and power for different velocities.

Table 3.5 Parameter values at different velocities

Velocity Power
S.No (m/s) CL CD (W)
1 10 1.467 0.1657 16.57
2 11 1.215 0.1171 15.59
3 12 1.021 0.0858 14.84
4 13 0.870 0.0652 14.34
5 14 0.750 0.0512 14.07
6 15 0.654 0.0415 14.00
7 16 0.575 0.0345 14.12
8 17 0.509 0.0293 14.43
9 18 0.454 0.0255 14.90
10 19 0.407 0.0227 15.54
11 20 0.368 0.0204 16.36
12 21 0.334 0.0187 17.33
13 22 0.304 0.0173 18.48
14 23 0.278 0.0163 19.80
15 24 0.255 0.0154 21.29
16 25 0.235 0.0147 22.96

1
Using Table 3.5 CL v/s CDand Power v/s Velocity can plotted:

0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
C

0.02
0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

CL

Figure 3.8 CL v/s CD for different velocities

25

20

15
Pow

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Velocity

Figure 3.9 Power v/s Velocity

The maximum velocity that we have chosen for our design is 25 m/s. The power requirement for this
velocity is 22.96 W.

1
Based on this power requirement of 22.96W, following powerplant components have been chosen.

(a) MOTOR – Rimfire 0.32 BL Outrunner

Figure 3.8 Rimfire 0.32 brushless Outrunner motor

Features

(a) High Efficiency

(b) High Power
(c) High Torque
(d) Light-weight
(e) includes propeller adapter and motor mounts

Specifications

(a) Weight: 0.198 kg

(b) Max Power: 850 W (maximum burst 1480 W)
(c) Max RPM: 20,000 RPM
(d) Diameter: 42 mm
(e) Length: 50mm
(f) Shaft Diameter: 5.0mm
(g) Voltage Range: 11.1 – 14.8 / 3-4S LiPo

1
(b) BATTERY – Electrifly 4S 2200mAh LiPo

Figure 3.9 Electrifly 4S 2200mAh LiPo

Specifications:

(a) 11.1-14.8V 2200 mAh Lithium-Polymer Battery

(b) Weight : 0.235 kg

(c) PROPELLER

Figure 3.10 13 X 8 NEW APC Thin Electric Propeller

Specifications:

(a) 13x8 (length-228.6 cm, pitch-152.4 mm)

(b) Weight : 0.03 kg

(d) ELECTRONIC SPEED CONTROLLER (ESC)

Figure 3.11. Silver Series 45A Brushless ESC

2
Specifications:

(a) 5V/2A BEC

(b) Weight: 0.05 kg

Thus, the total powerplant Weight (Wpp) is:

Wpp = Wmotor + Wbattery + Wprop = 0.198 + 0.235 + 0.03 + 0.05

Wpp= 0.513 kg.

3.4.3 Weight Calculation

Using the payload and powerplant weights estimated above and the empty weight fraction from
Chapter 2, following second estimate of the RC model airplane take-off gross weight has been
calculated:

WPL  WPP
W0 W 
1 E 
 W0 

Thus,

(0.15 +
W0 = 0.513)
(1 − 0.596)

W0 = 1.6411 kg

3.5 CONCLUSION

NACA 2310 airfoil has been chosen for the design of the RC model airplane.

The second weight estimation has been done by approximating the structural weight ratio of the
airplane based on the historical data and using estimated values of power plant and payload.

After the second weight estimate, WO=1.6411 kg. The change from the first estimate is 8.6%

2
CHAPTER 4: WING LOADING AND THRUST-TO-WEIGHT RATIO

4.1 WING LOADING

The thrust-to-weight ratio (T/W) and the wing loading (W/S) are the two most important parameters
affecting aircraft performance.

Wing loading is defined as the ratio of the loaded weight of the aircraft to the area of the wing. It is
a useful measure of the general manoeuvring performance of an aircraft. Larger wings (i.e. lower
wing loading) generate more lift as they move more air. Thus, a smaller wing loading is preferred. An
aircraft with smaller wing loading will be able to take-off and land at a lower speed (or be able to
take off with greater load). It will also be able to turn faster.

The major constraints on W/S will be due to Vstall and landing. Higher the speed of the aircraft more
is the lift generated per unit area of the wing. Thus, a smaller wing can carry the same weight in level
flight for a higher wing loading. Thus, the landing and take-off speeds will also be higher.
Manoeuvrability is also reduced in such a case.

4.1.1 Wing Loading for Stall Conditions

We can calculate the wing loading for stall conditions considering L=W. Thus, we get

W 1 2 1
W=𝐿= 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑆
2
𝜌∞𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 2
= 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 (4.1)
𝜌
𝑆∞𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙
2

For the NACA 2310 airfoil 𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.467

For finite wings with AR>5 we have[1]

𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.9𝐶𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥

Thus,

𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.3203

𝜌∞ = 1.15 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 , design 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 10 𝑚/𝑠

Thus,

W 1
( ) x 1.15 x x 1.3203
= 102
𝑆 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 2
W 2
( )
𝑆 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 75.92 𝑁/𝑚
W 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙
( )
𝑆
2
= 7.74 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2

2
4.1.2 Wing Loading for Landing

Figure 4.1The Landing Path and Landing Distance[1]

It is known that

𝑆𝐿 = 𝑆g + 𝑆𝑎 + 𝑆ƒ = 50𝑚

Assuming, flare velocity, 𝑉ƒ = 1.23𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙

[2]
and load factor n=1.2[2], we get

Turn radius, R as

𝑅= 𝑉ƒ2
(4.2
𝑔(𝑛 − )
1)

(1.23x10)2
𝑅 =
9.81x0.2

𝑅 = 77.1 𝑚

= 3o[2], flare height h is given as

𝜃𝑎
Assuming
f

ℎƒ = 𝑅(1 − 𝑐o𝑠𝜃𝑎) (4.3)

ℎƒ = 77.1(1 −

𝑐o𝑠3o) ℎƒ =

0.106 𝑚

Assuming hob= 1 m. The approach angle for this height considering the entire length of the runway is
1.15o. This is lower than the assumed approach angle and can be taken as a safe estimate for hob.

2
Approach distance Sa,

ℎo𝑏 −
𝑆𝑎 = ( ) (4.4)
ℎƒ
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑎

1 − 0.106
𝑆𝑎 = ( ) = 17.06 𝑚
𝑡𝑎𝑛30
Flare distance, Sf

𝑆ƒ = 𝑅𝑠i𝑛𝜃𝑎 (4.5)

𝑆ƒ = 77.1 x 𝑠i𝑛30 = 4.035 𝑚

Hence,

𝑆g = 𝑆𝐿 − 𝑆𝑎 − 𝑆ƒ (4.6)

Thus,

𝑆g = 50 − 17.06 − 4.035 = 28.905 𝑚

Assuming that the lift is small due to rather level orientation of the airplane relative to the ground,
no provision for thrust reversal and ignoring the drag compared to the friction force between the
tires and the ground[2] we get,

2 W 1 j2(W⁄𝑆
𝑆g = j𝑁√ ) (4.7)
+
𝜌∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑔𝜌∞𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥𝜇𝑟

Here, VTD=j Vstall and j=1.15[2]

N is the time increment for free roll immediately after touch down. Assuming N=3 s [2]

Table 4.1 Ground Rolling Resistance[1]

2
Even though our aircraft does not have brakes we choose 𝜇𝑟 = 0.4 as suggested in [2] to have a
safe estimate of wing loading.

Thus,
W
2 W 1 1.152 (S )
28.905 = 1.15x3√ +
1.15 S 1.3203 1.15 x 9.81 x 1.3203 x 0.4

W W
28.905 =
3.9596√ + 0.2219 ( )
� 𝑆
�

Solving the above quadratic equation and taking the lower root we get,
W
( ) = 30.95 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑆
𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑i𝑛g

W
2

( )
𝑆 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑i𝑛g = 3.155 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

4.1.3 Wing loading for Cruise conditions

For cruising conditions we know that L=W. For cruise conditions, it is required to maximise the range
and hence (L/D) for propeller aircraft, to calculate the wing loading.

Thus, for maximum range and hence maximum (L/D) we get,

𝐶𝐷 = 𝑘𝐶𝐿 (4.8)
2
0

𝐶𝐷 0
𝐶𝐿 = √ = √𝜋 x e x AR x 𝐶𝐷0
𝑘
From previous report we know that 𝐶𝐷0 = 0.0107, 𝑘 = 0.072

Thus,

𝐶𝐿 0.0107
=√ = 0.3855
0.072

Using this value we get,

W 1
= 2
𝐶𝐿 (4.9)
𝑆 2
𝜌∞𝑉𝑐𝑟𝑢i𝑠e

2
 W 1
= x 1.15 x 202 x 0.3855 = 88.67 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑆 2
W
( ) = 9.038 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2
𝑆
𝑐𝑟𝑢i𝑠e

4.1.4 Wing Loading for Loiter

For maximum endurance and hence loiter of a propeller aircraft is obtained when the power is
maximised. Maximum power condition is achieved when (C 3/2/C ) ratio is maximised.
L D

1
For this condition
(4.10)
𝐶𝐷 = 2
𝑘𝐶 3
0
𝐿

Thus,

3 x 0.0107
𝐶𝐿 = √ = 0.6677
0.072

Using this value we get,

W 1
= 2
𝐶𝐿 (4.11)
𝑆 2
𝜌∞𝑉𝑙oi𝑡e𝑟
W 1
= x 1.15 x 202 x 0.6677 = 153.57 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑆 2
W
( ) = 15.65 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2
𝑆
𝑙oi𝑡e𝑟

4.2 WING LOADING SELECTION

Table 4.2 Wing Loading at different flight conditions

S. No. Mission Segment Wing loading (kg/m2)

1. Stall 7.740
2. Landing 3.155
3. Cruise 9.038
4. Loiter 15.650

The least wing loading is chosen from the above values as the design wing loading. Thus,
W
( ) = 3.155 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2
𝑆

2
4.3 THRUST-TO-WEIGHT RATIO CALCULATION

The wing loading has been fixed after calculating it from the segments independent of the thrust to
weight ratio. This value of wing loading will now be used to calculate the thrust-to-weight ratio for
the segments where the thrust-to-weight ratio is involved.

4.3.1. Thrust-to-Weight ratio for Take-Off conditions

Figure 4.2 Take-off analysis [2]

We know that

𝑆𝑇0 = 𝑆𝐺 + 𝑆𝑎 = 50 𝑚

The turn radius, R is given

6.96(𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙
by

𝑅 = (4.12)
𝑙)
2

6.96 x
𝑅 = (10)2 = 70.95 𝑚
9.81

We assume hob= 1 m as chosen for landing. Thus,

ℎo𝑏
𝜃o𝑏 = 𝑐o𝑠−1 (1 − ) (4.13)
𝑅
𝜃o𝑏

2
 1
= 𝑐o𝑠−1 (1 −
70.95) = 9.63
o

2
From, the above two values we can calculate Sa

𝑆𝑎 = 𝑅𝑠i𝑛𝜃o𝑏 (4.14)

𝑆𝑎 = 70.95(1 − sin 9.63) = 11.87 𝑚

Thus,

𝑆𝐺 = 𝑆𝑇0 − 𝑆𝑎 = 50 − 11.87 = 38.13 𝑚

SG is estimated by the formula,

1.21 W/𝑆
(4.15)
𝑆𝐺 = (𝑇/
𝑔𝜌
𝐶∞ 𝐿 )
𝑚𝑎𝑥 W 0.7𝑉𝐿0

Using VLO=1.1 Vstall and V∞=0.7 VLO we get,

W
(𝑇/ ) = 1.21 /𝑆 (4.16)
W0.7𝑉𝐿0
𝑔𝜌∞𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑆𝐺
1.21 x 3.155 x 9.81
(𝑇/ ) =
W 0.7𝑉𝐿0 9.81 x 1.15 x 1.3203 x 38.13

(𝑇/ ) = 0.066
W0.7𝑉𝐿0

V∞=0.7 X 1.1 Vstall=0.7 X 1.1 X 10= 7.7 m/s and using ηprop=0.6 [3]

Engine shaft brake power,

(𝑇/W) x W x V∞ x 𝑔
𝑃=
0.7𝑉𝐿0 (4.17)
5𝑝𝑟o𝑝

Here W=1.6411 kg from the second weight estimate.

0.066 x 1.6411 x 7.7 x

𝑃= 9.81
0.6

Thus,

𝑃𝑇0 ≥ 13.64 W

3
4.3.2. Thrust-to-Weight calculation for Climb
We choose for the design of the aircraft, the climb rate as 2 m/s.

1
We get maximum rate of climb for maximum power. Thus,

𝐷0 = 𝑘𝐶𝐿2
𝐶 3
Thus,

3 x 0.0107
𝐶𝐿 = √ = 0.6677
0.072

Now,

𝑉𝑅/𝐶 =2√W 1 (4.18)

𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜌 ∞ 𝑆 𝐶𝐿

2 x 3.155 x 9.81
𝑉𝑅/𝐶 = √ = 8.98 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚𝑎𝑥 1.15 x 0.6677

For propeller driven airplane,

1

5 𝑃 2 𝑘 W 1.15
2

(𝑅⁄𝐶 ) = 𝑝𝑟o𝑝 − ( √ ) (4.19)

5
𝑚𝑎𝑥 W 𝜌∞ 3𝐶𝐷0 (𝐿⁄𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆

This on rearranging gives,

5𝑝𝑟o𝑝𝑃
= 1/

(𝑅⁄𝐶 ) 2 𝑘 W 2 1.155
+( √
)
W
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜌 3𝐶𝐷0 (𝐿⁄𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥
∞ 𝑆

(𝐿⁄𝐷)𝑚𝑎𝑥
It is known that for

𝐶𝐷 = 𝑘𝐶𝐿
2
0

Thus,

√
𝐶𝐷0
𝐿 𝐶𝐿 1
( ) = )
k
( 𝐷0
=

=
�

𝐷 𝐶
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷 𝑚𝑎
𝑥 𝐶
𝑘𝑥𝐷0 + √4𝐶𝐷0𝑘
k

3
Thus,
5𝑝𝑟o𝑝𝑃
= (𝑅⁄𝐶 ) 1.155
+ 𝑉𝑅/𝐶 (4.20)
W
𝑚𝑎𝑥 1
𝑚𝑎𝑥 √4𝐶𝐷0
k

We get,

𝑃𝑅/𝐶 ≥ 69.1 W
𝑇 5𝑝𝑟o𝑝𝑃
( ) =
W 𝑉𝑅/𝐶 W
𝑅/𝐶 𝑚𝑎𝑥

0.6 𝑥 69.1
𝑇
( ) =
W 𝑅/𝐶 8.98 𝑥 1.6411 𝑥 9.81

𝑇
( ) = 0.29
W 𝑅/𝐶

4.3.3. Thrust-to-Weight calculation for Vmax

For this case T=D. Thus we have,

𝑇 2𝑘 W
𝐶𝐷 0
2

1
+
= W⁄ 𝑆 𝜌 (4.21)
𝜌
W∞𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
2 𝑉 2
𝑆
∞ 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑇 1 2 x 0.072 x 3.155 x 9.81
= x 1.15 x 252 +
0.0107

W 2 3.155 x 1.15 x 252

9.81
𝑇
( ) = 0.13
W
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥

To calculate the power,

𝑇
( ) W𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃=
𝖶 𝑉
(4.22)
𝑚𝑎𝑥

5𝑝𝑟o
𝑝

0.13 x 1.6411 x 9.81

𝑃 = x 25
3
0.6

𝑃𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 87.2 W

3
4.3.4. Thrust-to-Weight calculation for turning

For turning from [2]:

𝑇 𝑛2 W
𝐶𝐷 0
2
1 +
W⁄ 𝑆 ( ) (4.23)
= 𝜌 𝜋𝐴 𝑆
1
𝜌
W∞𝑉𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑉
2
2
2 ∞ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛

Load factor, n is taken as 2

� 0.0107 4
2
( ) = 0.5 x 1.15 x
+ x 3.155 x 9.81
�
W x11.5 0.5 x 1.15 x𝜋x
3.155 x
𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 9.81 x11.52 5.35

𝑇
( ) = 0.126
W
𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛

Now,
𝑇
( ) W 𝑉𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
𝖶 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
𝑃= 5𝑝𝑟o𝑝

𝑃 = 38.86 W

4.4 SUMMARY OF THRUST-TO-WEIGHT AND SELECTION

Table 4.3 Engine power at different flight conditions

S.No. Mission Segment Power

1. Take-off 13.64 W
2. Climb 69.10 W
3. Vmax 87.20 W
4. Turning 38.86
For a propeller-driven airplane, power to weight ratio is more relevant than the thrust-to-weight
ratio [2]

The maximum power for which the aircraft has to be designed is 87.20 W which is during climb.

𝑃 = 87.20 W

Tabulating the values of (T/W) of other segments using this value of power

Table 4.4 Thrust-to-weight at different flight conditions

S.No. Mission Segment (T/W)

1. Take-off 0.422
2. Climb 0.362
3
 3. Vmax 0.130
4. Turning 0.283

3
The maximum (T/W) is chosen as the design parameter for the aircraft. Thus,
𝑇
( ) = 0.422
W

4.5WING LOADING FOR SEGMENTS DEPENDENT ON (T/W)

4.5.1. Wing Loading for Take-Off conditions

Using the formula for SG

1.21 W/
𝑆𝐺 =𝑔𝜌 𝐶 (𝑇/ 𝑆 )
∞ 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 W 0.7𝑉𝐿0

Thus,

𝑆𝐺𝑔𝜌∞ (𝑇/ )
𝐶𝐿
W W
( ) (4.24)
𝑚𝑎𝑥

= 1.21 0.7𝑉𝐿0
𝑆 𝑇0

We first have to convert the (T/W) for climb conditions to the (T/W) for take-off conditions. The
power remains constant.

𝑇
( ) 5𝑝𝑟o𝑝
=
W 𝑇0 𝑃
W𝑉
∞

𝑇
( ) 0.6 x 87.2
= = 0.422
W 𝑇0 1.6411 x 9.81 x
7.7

Now,

W 38.13 x 9.81 x 1.15 x 1.3203

( ) x 0.422 = 198.077 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑆 =
𝑇0 1.21
W
( ) = 20.19 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2
𝑆
𝑇0

W
( ) > 3.155
𝑆
𝑇0

3
4.5.2. Wing Loading calculation for Climb

It is known that

5𝑝𝑟o𝑝𝑃
= (𝑅⁄𝐶 ) 1/
2 𝑘 W 2 1.155
+( √
)
W
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜌 3𝐶𝐷0
1

∞ 𝑆 √4𝐶𝐷0
k

On re-arranging,

W 3𝐶𝐷 5 1 1
2
𝜌 𝑃
( ) =
∞ 0 𝑝𝑟o
− (𝑅⁄𝐶 ] (4.25)
√ [(
𝑝
)𝑚𝑎𝑥) √4𝐶 𝑘
𝑆 𝑅/𝐶 2 𝑘 W 1.155
𝐷0

W 3x 1 1
( ) 1.1 0.6 x
2

= 0.0107 − 2) ]
5 √ 87.2
[(
𝑆 𝑅/𝐶 0.07 1.6411 x √4 x 0.0107 x 0.072 1.155
2 9.81
2 2
W
( )
𝑆 𝑅/𝐶 = 145.89 𝑁/𝑚

W
( ) = 14.87 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2
𝑆
𝑅/𝐶

W
( )
𝑆 > 3.155
𝑅/𝐶

4.5.3 Wing Loading for Vmax

We first convert the (T/W) for climb conditions to the (T/W) for Vmax. The power remains constant.

𝑇 5𝑝𝑟o𝑝
( )
=
W 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃
W𝑉𝑚
𝑎𝑥

𝑇
( ) 0.6 x 87.2
= = 0.130
W 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 1.6411 x 9.81 x
25

Now, 𝑇

3
2
𝐶𝐷 0 2𝑘 W
+
= W⁄ 𝑆 𝜌 (4.26)
𝜌
W∞𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
2 𝑉 2
𝑆
∞ 𝑚𝑎𝑥

On re-arranging we get a quadratic in (W/S)

2𝑘 W 2 1
( ) 𝑇 W
𝑆 −( ) ( ) 𝜌∞𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥2𝐶𝐷
𝜌∞𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥2 W + 2 0
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑆

3
 W W
0.0002 ( ) − 0.130 ( ) + 3.845 = 0
2

𝑆 �
�

Taking the least (W/S)

W
( ) = 31.06 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑆
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
W
( )
𝑆 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 3.166 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

W
( ) > 3.155
𝑆 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥

4.5.4 Wing Loading for turning

For turning, (W/S) as in [2] is given by:

( ) √( )2 − 4𝑛2K𝐶
𝑇 + 𝑇

W
( )
𝖶 𝖶 𝐷𝑂
(4.27)
= − 2𝑛
𝑆 2

𝑞𝜋Æ
𝑅

For (T/W) calculation:

𝑇 5𝑝𝑟o𝑝𝑃
( )
=
W 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 W𝑉𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛

𝑇
( ) = 0.283
W 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛

Thus,
W
( ) = 3.592 > 3.155
𝑠

4.6 CONCLUSION

The wing loading for the aircraft is fixed at 3.155 kg/m2.

The maximum power for which the aircraft is to be designed for is 87.2 W.

4.7 REFERENCES

[1] RAYMER D., Aircraft Design-A Conceptual Approach 2nd ed., AIAA Education Series,AIAA, 1992

3
[2] ANDERSON J.D., Aircraft Performance and Design, WCB/McGraw Hill,1999

4
CHAPTER 5: THIRD WEIGHT ESTIMATE AND INITIAL SIZING

5.1 THIRD WEIGHT ESTIMATE

For the second weight estimate, the weight of power plant was fixed and the new weight of the
aircraft was estimated. For the third weight estimate, we estimate the weight of the various parts of
the aircraft and use this empty weight to find the total weight of the aircraft.

5.1.1 Material Selection

Generally balsa wood, foam or plastic are used to build RC aircrafts. The material we choose is balsa
wood.

Balsa wood is the softest commercial hardwood. Balsa wood's distinct properties are directly related
to a unique cell structure in the material. Because of the amount of empty space within the cells of
the tree, those cells are able to compress and stretch without binding or breaking. Despite the low
weight and soft texture of balsa, it is one of the strongest wood types to be found. The cell's holes
that are left by the drying process have a large surface that builds a sturdy support system for the
exterior of the wood [1].

Table 5.1 Balsa wood Properties Guide [2]

4
5.1.2 Weight of the Wing

Wings are the most vulnerable parts of an aircraft which contribute a large amount of lift
(approximately 2 times the weight of aircraft). Hence a large amount of bending moment acts on
aircraft wings. The bending moment produces direct stresses which are resisted by the spars of
wing. The necessary buckling strength is provided by the ribs. For surveillance RC aircraft the design
mission consists of taking off the land, climbing, cruising, turning (accelerated) and landing
segments. Out of these the most severe condition on structural loading (i.e. maximum load factor) is
accelerated turning, where the wing carries the maximum load among all flight conditions.

From Chapter 4, the wing loading is calculated as 3.155 kg/m 2 and aspect ratio is fixed at 5.35 for
aircraft gross take-off weight of 1.6411 kg. Therefore, the wing span (b) and chord length (c) has
been re-estimated as,

W0
𝑆= 𝖶0 = 0.52 𝑚2
( )
𝑆

𝑏 = √(𝑆 × 𝐴𝑅) = 1.67 𝑚

�
�
𝑐 = = 0.31 𝑚
�
�

5.1.2.1 Weight of the Spars

The span of the wing is estimated as 1670 mm. Therefore,

Wing semi-span =b/2 = 835 mm
Assuming the sustained turn flight at constant altitude as the critical loading condition, the load
factor (n) is 2. Therefore, by force balance in vertical direction,
L = 2 W0
W0= 1.6411 kg = 16.099 N
Lift generated by one wing = L/2 =W02

Figure 5.1 Load Distribution with respect to Planform Shape

4
Based on Schrenk’s approximation [6] (as shown in Figure5.1), that the load distribution (lift in case of
wing) on an untwisted rectangular wing is approximately rectangular. As the wing planform shape
decided to be used for the design work is rectangular, therefore the lift load can be assumed to be
uniformly distributed across the wing sections. This gives,

Intensity of distributed load w = W02/l = 16.099/0.835 = 19.28 N/m.

Maximum bending moment M = w*l*(l/2) = 19.28 x 0.835 x (0.835/2)

Therefore, M = 6.72 Nm

Semi-span
b

DISTRIBUTED WING LOAD (w) = 19.28 N/m

Figure 5.2 Distributed load over the cantilevered rectangular wing

For pure bending, the flexure formula is given by

𝑀
𝜎= 𝑦
𝐼
Where,
M = Bending Moment acting over the beam
I = Area Moment of Inertia of the cross-section
σ = Bending Stress
y = Perpendicular distance from the neutral axis

We know that, the maximum compressive strength of balsa wood 𝜎max = 12 MPa.

4
As per available literature, there are following types of loading conditions that affect the service and
safety conditions for any structure:

(a) The maximum load at which the structure perform the service throughout its life-cycle
without any permanent deformation, called as the Limit Load.
(b) The ultimate or design load at which material fails. The design load should be more than the
limit load by a factor of safety.

The safety factor is usually specified as 1.5, for general purpose aviation aircrafts [6].

For our surveillance RC model aircraft,

Normal factor of safety FOSnormal = 1.5

Fatigue factor of safety FOSfatigue = 2.0

Using the above two factors of safety allowable stress has been estimated as,
𝜎𝑀𝑎𝑥
𝜎 =
(𝐹𝑂𝑆𝑛o𝑟 × 𝐹𝑂𝑆ƒ𝑎𝑡ig𝑢e)
𝑎𝑙𝑙ow𝑎𝑏𝑙e

𝑚𝑎𝑙

12
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙ow𝑎𝑏𝑙e = ( = 4 𝑀𝑃𝑎
1.5 × 2.0)

Front Spar
The front spar is generally located at the quarter chord point of the wing. It takes up about 60% of
the total bending moment of the wing.

Therefore,

Bending moment taken by the front spar = 0.6 M = 0.6 x 6.72 = 4.03 Nm

The thickness of the airfoil (NACA 2310) at quarter chord point is equal to maximum thickness of the
airfoil i.e.

Thickness of aerofoil at quarter chord point = 0.10c = 0.10 x 310 = 31 mm

As the front spar is going to be fixed at this location, the height of the spar is assumed to be 20 mm
as some thickness of the airfoil will be used for integration of the spar to the airfoil.

Therefore,

Height of the spar, d= 20 mm.

Perpendicular distance from neutral axis, y = d/2 = 10 mm

Therefore, from equation,

𝑀 × 4030 × 10
𝑦 = = 10075 𝑚𝑚4
𝐼 = 4
𝜎

4
We have considered the shape of the spar as rectangular, therefore moment of inertia has been
calculated as

I = bd3 /12.

Where,

b = width of the spar

d = height of the spar

Hence,

b = 12*I/d3 = 12*10075/203 = 15.11 mm  16 mm

Volume of spar = cross-sectional area of spar x wing semi-span

= 16 x 20 x 835

= 267200 mm3.

Density of balsa wood = 150 kg / m3

Therefore, weight of spar = density of balsa wood x volume of spar

= 150 x 10-9 x 267200 = 0.0401 kg.

= 40.1 g

Number of front spars = 2 i.e. one per wing

Therefore, total weight of front spars = 2 x 40.1 = 80.2 g

Rear Spar
The rear spar is located approximately at 75% chord of the wing and takes 40% of the total bending
moment.

Bending moment shared by the rear spar = 0.4 M = 0.4 x 6.72 = 2.69 Nm

The thickness of the airfoil (NACA 2310) at 75% chord = 0.052c

= 0.052*310 = 16.12 mm

As the rear spar is going to be fixed at this location the height of the spar is assumed to be 10 mm as
rest of the thickness of the airfoil will be used for spar and airfoil integration. Therefore,

Height of the spar, d= 10 mm.

Perpendicular distance from neutral axis, y = 10/2 = 5 mm

4
Therefore,

𝑀 × 2690 × 5
𝑦 = = 3362.5 𝑚𝑚4
𝐼 = 4
𝜎

Hence, b = 12*I/d3= 12*3362.5/103 = 40.35 mm ≈ 41

mm Volume of spar = cross-sectional area of spar x wing semi-

span

= 41 x 10 x 835

= 342350 mm3.

Therefore, weight of spars= density of balsa wood x volume of spar

= 150 x 10-9 x 342350 = 0.0514 kg.

= 51.4 g

Number of rear spars = 2 i.e. one per wing

Therefore, total weight of the rear spars = 2 x 51.4 = 102.8 g

Total weight of the spars = weight of the front spars + weight of the rear spars

= 80.2 + 102.8 = 183 g

5.1.2.2 Weight of the Ribs

Number of ribs to be used = 20, from historical data of RC model aircrafts [3]

Surface length = 2.05 c

=2.05 x 310 = 635.5 mm

Assuming thickness =10 mm

Weight of each rib = density x surface-length x cross-sectional area

= 150 x 10-9 x 635.5 x 10 x 10

= 0.009533 kg = 9.53 g

Total weight of the ribs = 20 x 9.53 = 190.6 g

Total weight of the wing = 183.0 + 190.6 = 373.6 g

4
5.1.3 Weight of the Fuselage

Based on the historic data collected in Chapter 1 (presented here for convenience) we plot fuselage
length v/s total weight. From this plot we can get the fuselage length for our aircraft.

Table 5.1 Historic data for fuselage length and total weight of the aircraft

S.No Name of the aircraft Fuselage length Total weight (kg)

(m)
1. Revolution 3D trainer 0.965 0.430
2. Foamtana 0.978 0.450
3. Electrifly Yak 55M 1.194 1.700
4. Electrifly Extra 330SC 0.889 0.234
5. Hobbico Superstar EP 0.917 1.230
6. Extra330 L 0.889 0.620
7. Edge 540 25 45" RC EP 1.029 1.650
8. Carbon Z Yak 54 1.232 1.730
9. Hawker Hurricane 25e 1.067 2.100
10. Funster V2 1.346 2.350
11. Nemesis Racer EP 1.200 2.100

From the above data we get the plot:

1.600
1.400
1.200
1.000
0.800
Fuselage Length

y = 0.167x + 0.841

0.600
0.400
0.200
0.000
0.000

0.500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500

Weight WO (kg)

Figure 5.3 Plot of fuselage length v/s weight

4
For a WO=1.6411 kg, fuselage length (l) = 1.117 m

Design cross-section of fuselage is taken as 8 cm X 8 cm and a thickness of 8 mm (based on the

payload)

Cross-sectional area of the fuselage = 802-642

=2304 mm2

Volume of the fuselage= length x cross-sectional area

= 2304 x 1117 = 2573568 mm3

Weight of the fuselage = density of balsa wood x volume

= 150 x 2573568 x 10-9

= 0.386 kg = 386.04 g

5.1.4 Weight of Horizontal Tail

Design thickness for the horizontal tail is taken as 5mm.

Surface area of the horizontal stabilizer= 25 % of the wing planform area [3]

= 0.25 x chord length x wing span

= 0.25 x 0.31 x 1.67

= 0.129 m2

Volume of each stabilizer = surface area x thickness

= 0.129 x 0.005 = 6.47 x 10-4 m3

Weight of each stabiliser= density of balsa wood x volume

= 150 x 6.47 x 10-4 = 0.0971 kg = 97.1 g

Total weight of the horizontal stabilizers = 2 x 97.1 = 194.2 g

5.1.5 Weight of Vertical Tail

Design thickness for the vertical tail is taken as 5mm.

Surface area of the vertical stabilizer= 35 % of the wing planform area [3]

= 0.35 x chord length x wing span

= 0.35 x 0.31 x 1.67

= 0.1812 m2

4
Volume of stabilizer = surface area x thickness

= 0.1812 x 0.005 = 9.06 x 10-4 m3

Weight of stabiliser = density of balsa wood x volume

= 150 x 9.06 x 10-4 = 0.1359 kg = 135.9 g

5.1.6 Weight of the Skin

Design skin thickness is taken as 1 mm. The material of skin is assumed as foam.

5.1.6.1 Skin Weight for Wing

The surface length of ribs= 635.5 mm =0.6355 m

Volume of the skin= surface length x span x thickness

= 0.6355 x 1.67 x 0.001

= 0.00106 m3

Weight of the skin = density of the foam x volume of the skin

= 41 x 0.00106 = 0.04351 kg = 43.51 g

5.1.6.2 Skin Weight for Fuselage

Surface area of fuselage = (4 x cross-section length) x Fuselage length

= 4 x 0.08 x 1.117= 0.357 m2

Volume of the skin= surface area of fuselage x thickness of skin

= 0.357x 0.001

= 0.000357 m3

Mass of the skin = density of the foam x volume of the skin

= 41 x 0.000357 = 0.014655 kg = 14.655 g

5.1.6.3 Skin Weight for Horizontal Tail

Surface area of each horizontal tail= 0.129 m2

Volume of the skin= surface area of horizontal tail x thickness of skin

= 0.129 x 0.001 = 0.000129 m3

4
Mass of the skin = density of the foam x volume of the skin

= 41 x 0.000129 = 0.005289 kg = 5.289 g

Total skin weight for horizontal tail = 2 x 5.289= 10.578 g

5.1.6.4 Skin Weight for Vertical Tail

Surface area of vertical tail= 0.1812 m2

Volume of the skin= surface area of vertical tail x thickness of skin

= 0.1812 x 0.001

= 0.0001812 m3

Mass of the skin = density of the foam x volume of the skin

= 41 x 0.0001812 = 0.007429 kg = 7.429 g

Total weight of skin = skin weight of (wing + fuselage + horizontal tail + vertical tail)

= 43.51 + 14.655 + 10.578 + 7.429

= 76.172 g

5.1.7 Third Weight Estimate

Table 5.2 Weight of each component

S.No Component Weight (g)

1. Wing 373.6
2. Fuselage 386.04
3. Horizontal Tail 194.2
4. Vertical Tail 135.9
5. Skin Weight 76.172
6. Servo 30
[4]

7. Casing 40
[4]

8. Receiver 9
[5]

9. Tri-cycle Landing gear 50

10. Other (bolts etc.) 20

Total structural weight (We) = 1314.9g

WPL= 150 g

5
WPP = 513 g (from report 3)

WO=We + WPL + WPP

= 1314.9+ 150 + 513= 1977.912 g

= 1.98 kg

% Change from second estimate = 17.12%

5.2 INITIAL GEOMETRIC SIZING

Geometric sizing of the aircraft encompasses the sizing of the fuselage, wing and the tails. We use
the third weight estimate to calculate the size of the components.

5.2.1 Fuselage Sizing

From the historic data collected we can plot fuselage length and weight of the aircraft. From this plot
we can find the fuselage length for our aircraft.

From Figure 5.4, for WO=1.980 kg, we get

Fuselage length, l= 1.174 m

5.2.2. Wing Sizing

Actual wing size = Gross take-off weight / Wing loading at take-off

From Report 4, wing loading (W/S) = 3.155 kg/m2

From third weight estimate, WO=1.98 kg

Thus, area of the wing (Sw) = 1.98/3.155 = 0.6276 m2

Since, aspect ratio has been fixed at 5.35; span of the wing has been estimated to be 1832.4 mm.

5.2.3. Tail Sizing

The primary purpose of the tail is to counter the moments produced by the wing. Thus, the tail size
is related to the wing size. The force due to tail lift is proportional to the tail area. Thus, the tail
effectiveness is proportional to the tail area times the tail moment. This product has the units of
volume, which leads to the tail volume coefficient method for initial estimation of tail size.

5
 Figure 5.4 Initial tail sizing [6]

5.2.3.1 Vertical Tail Sizing

For a vertical tail, the wing yawning moments which must be countered are most directly related to
the wing span bW. This leads to the vertical tail volume coefficient defined as:

𝐿𝑉𝑇𝑆𝑉𝑇
𝑐𝑉𝑇 =
𝑏𝖶𝑆𝖶

The moment arm (LVT) is approximated as 60% of the fuselage length for front propeller aircraft [6].

Thus,

LVT = 0.6 x 1.174 = 0.7044 m

Table 5.3 Tail Volume Coefficient [6]

From the table above, we pick a value of 0.04 for CVT in absence of any reliable estimate for RC
model airplanes.

5
Thus, we get

𝑐𝑉𝑇𝑏𝖶𝑆𝖶
𝑆𝑉𝑇 = 𝐿𝑉𝑇

𝑆𝑉𝑇 0.04 × 1.67 × 0.6276

0.7044
2
= = 0.0595 𝑚
Assuming an aspect ratio for the vertical tail wing to be equal to 1.4 [6]

𝐴𝑅

= 𝑏2⁄𝑆𝑉𝑇 1.4

= 𝑏2⁄0.0595

𝑏 = 288 𝑚𝑚

Now,

𝑆𝑉𝑇 = 𝑏 × 𝑐

Chord c = 207 mm

Let taper ratio for the vertical tail wing =0.4 [6]

𝑆𝑉𝑇 = 0.5 × 𝑏 × (𝐶𝑟

+ 𝐶𝑡) 2𝑐 = 1.4𝐶𝑟

Cr=295 mm

Ct=118 mm

5.2.3.1 Horizontal Tail Sizing

mean wing chord (𝐶̅ ̅ ̅). This leads to the horizontal tail volume coefficient defined as:
For a horizontal tail, the pitching moments which must be countered are most directly related to the

𝐿𝐻𝑇𝑆𝐻𝑇
�

𝑐𝐻𝑇 = ̅ ̅ ̅
𝐶𝖶 𝑆 𝖶

The moment arm (LHT) is approximated as 60% of the fuselage length for front propeller aircraft [6].

Thus,

LHT= 0.6 x 1.174 = 0.7044 m

From Table 5.3, cHT = 0.5 for homebuilt airplane has been selected, in absence of any reliable
estimate for RC model airplanes.

Thus, =

𝑆𝐻𝑇
5
 𝑐𝐻𝑇 ̅𝐶̅𝖶̅ 𝑆𝖶
𝐿
𝐻𝑇

5
 𝑆𝐻𝑇
0.5 𝑥 0.31 𝑥 0.6276
0.7044
2
= = 0.138 𝑚
Location of the main wing from the nose tip = 20 % of fuselage length [6]

= 0.2 x 1.174 = 0.235 m = 235 mm

Chord of horizontal tail = 65 % of main wing chord [6]

= 0.65 x 310 = 201.5 mm

Span of the horizontal tail = SHT/CHT

= 0.138/ 0.2015 = 0.685 m

Location of tail horizontal tail from main wing nose = 62% of fuselage length [6]

= 0.62 x 1174 = 728 mm

5.3. SUMMARY OF MAJOR DIMENSIONS OF THE AIRCRAFT

Following table presents a summary of major dimensions of the RC model aircraft, estimated during
initial sizing studies.

Table 5.4 Major dimensions of the aircraft

S.No. Component Dimensions

1. Fuselage Length 1174 mm

2. Aspect Ratio 5.35

3. Wing Area 0.6276 m2

4. Horizontal Tail Span 685 mm

5. Horizontal Tail chord 201.5 mm

6. Horizontal Tail Area 0.138 m2

7. Vertical Tail Tip chord 118 mm

8. Vertical Tail Root Chord 288 mm

9. Vertical Tail Height 295 mm

10. Vertical Tail Area 0.0595 m2

11. Distance of main wing from 235 mm

nose tip

5.4 REFERENCES

5
 [1] http://www.ehow.co.uk/list_6164413_properties-balsa-wood.html
[2] http://www.auszac.com/Balsa%20wood%20Properties%20Guide.pdf
[3] http://www.indoorflyingmodel.com/DesignParameters.html
[4] http://www.futaba-rc.com/servos/analog.html
[5] http://www.hobbylobby.com/spektrum_sr300_3_ch._dsm_sport_surface_receiver_81204_
prd1.htm
[6] D.RAYMER, Aircraft Design- A Conceptual Approach 2nd ed, AIAA Education Series, AIAA,
1992.

CHAPTER 6: THREE VIEW AND CONFIGURATION LAYOUT

6.1 INITIAL SIZING SUMMARY

The initial sizing work was presented in the previous chapter and a summary of the sizing result has
been reproduced in Table 6.1below:

Table 6.1 Initial Sizing Summary

Sl. No. Component Dimensions Remarks / Justification / Reference

1 Fuselage Length 1174 mm Historical Data [1]

2 Fuselage Max Cross-section 80mm x 80mm To accommodate motor size of

40mm dia, battery dimension of
50mm x 25 mm, wiring and
overheads.

3 Aspect Ratio 5.2 Historical Data [1]

4 Wing Area 0.6276 m2 Reference [1]

5 Wing Span 1832.4 mm

6 Wing Chord 342.5 mm

7 Horizontal Tail Span 685 mm

8 Horizontal Tail chord 201.5 mm

9 Horizontal Tail Area 0.138 m2

10 Vertical Tail Tip chord 118 mm

11 Vertical Tail Root Chord 288 mm

12 Vertical Tail Height 295 mm

5
 13 Vertical Tail Area 0.0595 m2

14 Distance of main wing from nose tip 235 mm

6.2 THREE-VIEW DRAWING

Based on initial sizing exercise, following three-view sketches of RC model Airplane geometry have
been generated. Major dimensions have been shown in the figure. Some of the parameters which
were required to make a complete airplane drawing but were not finalized yet, have been estimated
from historical data or by considerations of better clearance, smooth curvature etc.

These parameters are:

- Fairing between nose-attachment for propeller (circular) and the fuselage forebody (square)
to have smooth aerodynamic flow and proper integration of propeller and airframe.

- Aftbody of fuselage has been tapered to facilitate better landing conditions by way of
increasing tail-scrape angle.

- The ground clearance is chosen after a survey of the available landing gears for RC planes
such that the propeller blades will not touch the ground.

200 mm

5
 Figure 6.1 Side View of the RC Model Airplane

Figure 6.2 Top View of the RC Model Airplane

5
 Figure 6.3 Front View of the RC Model Airplane

All the required dimensions for the aircraft have been shown in Figures 6.2 and 6.3

6.3 WETTED AREA ESTIMATION

For wing and empennage surfaces, the wetted area is related to the plan-form area. It is a fraction
more than twice the planform area; since the arc length over the upper and lower surfaces is longer
than the chord length.
Using relations from [1] for wing and empennage wetted area calculation,
For t/c < 0.05;
Swet = 2.003 Sexp (6.3.1)
For t/c > 0.05;
Swet = [1.977 + 0.52 (t/c)] Sexp (6.3.2)
From Report 5,
For wing, t/c = 0.1
For Horizontal tail, t/c = 0.1
For Vertical Tail, t/c = 0.1

Table 6.2 Wing and Empennage Wetted Area Calculation

Component Span Root Chord Tip Chord Sexp t/c Swet

ratio
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm2) (mm2)

Wing 1832.4 342.5 343 627600 0.1 1273400

Horizontal Tail 685 201.5 201.5 138027 0.1 280057

Vertical Tail 295 288 118 59885 0.1 121507

5
Similarly, using relation from [1] for fuselage wetted area calculation,
Wetted area of fuselage;
(Swet)fuselage = 3.4 [Atop + Aside] / 2 (6.3.3)
where,
Atop = Top views projected areas of fuselage
Aside = Side views projected areas of fuselage

From Figure 6.1,

Atop = [1174  80]
mm2 Atop = 93920 mm2
And similarly,
Aside = [(1174)*80] mm2
Aside = 93920 mm2

Using in (6.3),
Wetted area of fuselage;
(Swet)fuselage = 3.4[93920 + 93920 ]/2 mm2
2
(Swet)fuselage = 319328 mm

Therefore, the RC Model Airplane total wetted area:

Total Swet = (Swet)fuselage + (Swet)wing + (Swet)HTail + (Swet)VTail
Or, Total Swet = 1994292 mm2
6.4 INTERNAL VOLUME ESTIMATION

Using relation from [2] for fuselage volume calculation, internal volume of fuselage;
Vfuselage = 3.4[Atop Aside]/4L (6.4.1)
Vfuselage =
3.4[9392093920]/(41174) Vfuselage
= 6386560 mm3

As wing and empennage are not used for fuel storage, volume estimation is not required for the
purpose of fuel volume availability. Here, fuselage volume estimation has been done to ensure that
enough volume is available for payload, wiring and other systems.

6.5 CONCLUSION

Based on initial sizing of the aircraft, three-view drawing of the airplane has been generated and
using the geometry data total wetted area of 1771305 mm 2 and total fuselage internal volume of
6386560 mm3 has been estimated.

This data will be used for further work on estimation of drag coefficients.

6.6 REFERENCES

[1] D. P. RAYMER, Aircraft Design- A Conceptual Approach 2nd ed, AIAA Education Series, AIAA, 1992.

5
CHAPTER 7: PROPELLER SELECTION
7.1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 7.1 Cross-section of a propeller[1]

The primary purpose of the propeller is to convert the power from the battery and motor power
plant to axial thrust through torque transfer to the propeller. Propellers may be classified as to
whether the blade pitch is fixed or not. The demands on the propeller differ according to
circumstances. For example, in take-offs and climbs more power is needed, and this can best be
provided by low pitch. For speed at cruising altitude, high pitch will do the best job. Propellers are
primarily classified as:

(a) Fixed Pitch Propeller:

The propeller is made in one piece. Only one pitch setting is possible and is usually two
blades propeller and is often made of wood or metal.

Figure 7.2 Fixed- Pitch propeller[1]

(b) Variable Pitch Propeller:

There are two types of variable-pitch propellers adjustable and controllable. The adjustable
propeller's pitch can be changed only by a mechanic to serve a particular purpose-speed or
power. The variable pitch propeller permits pilots to change pitch to more ideally fit their
requirements at the moment. In different aircraft, this is done by electrical or hydraulic
means.

5
 Figure 7.3 Variable- Pitch propeller[1]

(c) Constant Speed Propeller:

In modern aircraft, the pitch change is done automatically, and the propellers are referred to
as constant-speed propellers. As power requirements vary, the pitch automatically changes,
keeping the engine and the propeller operating at a constant rpm. If the rpm rate increases,
as in a dive, a governor on the hydraulic system changes the blade pitch to a higher angle.
This acts as a brake on the crankshaft. If the rpm rate decreases, as in a climb, the blade pitch
is lowered and the crankshaft rpm can increase. The constant-speed propeller thus ensures
that the pitch is always set at the most efficient angle so that the engine can run at a desired
constant rpm regardless of altitude or forward speed.

Figure 7.4 Constant- speed propeller[1]

Two-bladed propellers are commonly used because they are relatively efficient and easy and cheap
to produce. Adding more blades decreases the overall efficiency of the prop because each blade has
to cut through more turbulent air from the preceding blade - in fact a single bladed propeller is the
most efficient but these are rarely seen in our hobby although they have been experimented with.

7.2 PROPELLER SIZING

For actual detail of propeller design, the diameter of propeller and blade shape should be known.
Generally, larger the diameter of propeller blade are more efficient in terms of higher thrust. Length
of blade is limited by tip speed. The propeller diameter is the function of horsepower as given below:

For two blades: D=22(𝐻𝑃1/4)[2] (7.1)

where, HP =Engine horsepower

5
From Chapter 4, the power required by our aircraft is 87.2W,

Thus, D= 22(87.2/746)1/4 inches

D=12.864 inches  12 inches or D= 30.48 cm

Now propeller blade length (L) = D/2 cm

L= 30.48/2 cm

Thus, length of blade L=15.24 cm

Propellers are measured by the diameter and pitch. The pitch is the theoretical distance travelled, by
the prop, in one revolution. The higher the pitch the higher the air speed and vice-versa. The engine,
however, must have enough power to turn the prop faster.

Table 7.1. Historical Data for propeller selection of RC aircrafts [3]

Propeller type Brand Description Prop size (DP) Blade length (in
cm)

Gemfan Normal glass filled 10”4.5” 12.7

Gemfan Normal Carbon Filled 11”4.7” 13.97

Gemfan Normal Carbon Filled 12”4.5” 15.24

Slowflyer
APC Slowflyer Prop 11”3.8” 13.97

APC Slowflyer Prop 12”3.8” 15.24

APC Slowflyer Prop 12”6” 15.24

AeroNaut Prop and spinner 4.9”x4.3” 6.22

ParkZone propeller 9.5”7.5” 12.06

APC Electric prop 11”8.5” 13.97

APC Electric prop 11”11” 13.97

Higher power APC Electric prop 12”10” 15.24

Flyer APC Electric prop 13”10” 16.51

AeroNaut Carbon fiber prop 10.5”7” 13.33

AXI Wood prop 30”20” 38.1

5
The higher pitch prop (e.g. 10x8) takes only one and a half turns to cover the same distance that the
lower pitch prop (e.g. 10x4) takes 3 turns to. Thus, with both engines and props spinning at identical
RPM, the higher pitch prop will travel further in the same amount of time - hence a faster flying
plane.

Thus we can see that selecting a different propeller pitch size would significantly change the
airplane's performance, with speed being the primary factor.

Hence from the above table we select a Propeller 12”6” APC Slowflyer prop

7.3 SUMMARY OF PROPELLER SPECIFICATIONS

1. Propeller diameter (D) =12 inches = 0.3048 m

2. Propeller length (L) = 15.24 cm

3. Propeller pitch (P) = 6 inches

4. Pitch to diameter ratio (P/D) = 0.5

Figure 7.5 Special thin, light, and wide blade (126 APC Slowflyer prop)[3]

7.4 PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIPS

The performance estimation of the propeller is done in terms of non-dimensional quantities, Power
Coefficient CP, Thrust Coefficient CT, Efficiency η and Speed Power Coefficient CS. These are
calculated once the Advance Ratio J is known. These relations are given in.

The maximum speed of selected low flyer APC 12”X6” propeller

5
 N = (65000/D) [4]

= (65000/12) = 5417 RPM

Therefore,
N = 5417/60 = 91 RPS

The standard variation of propeller parameters is given below in Figures 7.6 and 7.7

Figure 7.6. Variation of J with CT at different P/D ratios [5]

Figure 7.7. Variation of J with Cp at different P/D ratios [5]

5
7.4.1 Propeller parameter calculation at take-off conditions

At take-off speed, VTO = 11 m/s[6]

1. Advance ratio (J)[2]

J = V/nD
= 11/ (91 x 0.3048)
= 0.3965

2. Coefficient of thrust (CT)

From Figure 7.6 for J= 0.3965 and P/D = 0.5

CT = 0.06

3. Coefficient of power (Cp)

From Figure 7.7 for J= 0.3965 and P/D = 0.5

Cp = 0.032

4. Thrust (T)

T = CT ×ρ × n2 × D4
= 0.06 x 1.15 x 912 x 0.30484
= 4.9316 N

5. Propeller power (P)

P = Cp x ρ x n3 x D5
= 0.032 x 1.15 x 913 x 0.30485
= 72.95 W

6. Efficiency (ηp)

ηp = Jx CT/Cp
= 0.3965 x 0.06/0.032
= 0.7434 =74.34%

7. Speed power coefficient (Cs)

0.2
Cs = J / Cp
= 0.3965/ 0.0320.2
= 0.7892

5
7.4.2 Propeller parameter calculation for climb conditions

For maximum rate of climb condition, Vclimb, max = 8.98 m/s(from chapter 4)

1. Advance Ratio (J)

J = V/nD
= 8.98/ (91 x 0.3048)
= 0.3237

2. Coefficient of thrust (CT)

From Figure 7.6, for J= 0.3237 and P/D = 0.5,

CT = 0.07

3. Coefficient of power (Cp)

From Figure 7.7, for J= 0.3237 and P/D = 0.5,

Cp = 0.032

4. Thrust (T)

T = CT × n2 × D4
= 0.07 x 1.15 x 912 x 0.30484
= 5.7535N

5. Propeller power (P)

P = Cp xρ xn3 x D5
= 0.032 x 1.15 x 913 x 0.30485
= 72.9536 W

6. Efficiency (ηp)
ηp = J x CT/Cp
= 0.3237 x 0.07/0.032
= 0.708 = 70.8%

7. Speed power coefficient (Cs)

0.2
Cs = J / Cp
= 0.3237/0.0320.2
= 0.644

6
7.4.3 Propeller parameter calculation for cruise conditions

Cruise Condition Vcruise= 20m/s[6]

1. Advance Ratio (J)

J = 20/ (91 x 0.3048);

= 0.721

2. Coefficient of thrust (CT)

From Figure 7.6, for J=0.721 and P/D=0.5

CT = 0.02

3. Coefficient of power (Cp)

From Figure 7.7, for J=0.721 and P/D=.5

Cp=0 .018

4. Thrust (T)

T = CT × n2 × D4
= 0.02x 1.15x 912 x 0.30484
= 1.64N

5. Propeller power (P)

P = Cp×ρ × n3 × D5
= 0 .018 x 1.15 x 913x 0.30485
= 41.036 W

6. Efficiency (ηp)

ηp = JxCT/Cp
= 0.721x0.02/0.018
= 80%

7. Speed power coefficient (Cs)

0.2
Cs = J/Cp
= 0.721/0 .0180.2
= 1.61

6
7.4.4 Propeller parameter calculation for turning conditions

Turning Condition: V t = 11.5m/s[6]

1. Advance Ratio (J)

J = 11.5/ (91 x 0.3048)

= 0.4146

2. Coefficient of thrust (CT)

From Figure 7.6, for J=0.4146 and P/D=0.5,

CT = 0.059

3. Coefficient of power (Cp)

From Figure 7.7, for J=0.4146 and P/D=0.5,

Cp= 0.032

4. Thrust (T)

T = CT×ρ × n2 × D4
= 0.059 x 1.15x 912 x 0.30484
= 4.849 N

5. Propeller power (P)

P = Cp×ρ × n3 × D5
= 0.032x 1.15 x 913x 0.30485
= 72.95 W

6. Efficiency (ηp)

ηp = JxCT/Cp
= 0.4146 x0.059 /0.032
ηp= 76.44%

7. Speed power coefficient (Cs)

Cs = J/C 0.2
p
= 0.4146/0.0320.2
= 0.8252

6
7.4.5 Propeller parameter calculation for landing conditions

Landing Condition, Vlanding= 12.3 m/s (from chapter 4)

1. Advance Ratio (J)

J = 12.3/ (91 x 0.3048);

= 0.4434

2. Coefficient of thrust(CT)

From Figure 7.6, for J=0.4434 and P/D=0.5,

` CT = 0.05

3. Coefficient of power (Cp)

From Figure 7.7, for J=0.4434 and P/D=0.5

Cp = 0.03

4. Thrust (T)
T = CT×ρ × n2 × D4
= 0.05 x 1.15x 912 x 0.30484
= 4.10 N

5. Propeller power (P)

P = Cp×ρ × n3 × D5
= 0.03 x 1.15 x 913x 0.30485
= 68.39 W

6. Efficiency (ηp)

ηp = J x CT/CP
= 0.4434x0.05/0.03
ηp = 73.9%

7. Speed power coefficient (Cs)

`
0.2
Cs = J/Cp
= 0.4434/0.030.2
= 0.894

6
 7.5 CONCLUSION

1. Propeller chosen is APC slow flyer 12’’ X 6 ‘’.

Table 7.2 Propeller Parameters

S.No. Parameter Value

1. Diameter of Propeller disc 12 in/ 0.3048 m

2. Length of the blades 15.24 cm

3. Pitch of the propeller 6 in

4. Pitch/ Diameter ratio 0.5

2. Summary of propeller performance in each segment

Table 7.3 Propeller performance in each segment

S.No. Segment J CT CP T(in N) P( W) ηP CS

1. Take-off 03965 0.06 0.032 4.9316 72.95 74.34 0.7892

2. Climb 0.3237 0.07 0.032 5.7535 72.9536 70.8 0.644

3. Cruise 0.721 0.02 0.018 1.64 41.036 80 1.61

4. Turning 0.4146 0.059 0.032 4.849 72.95 76.44 0.8252

5. Landing 0.4434 0.05 0.03 4.10 68.39 73.9 0.894

7.6 REFERENCES

[1] http://www.pilotfriend.com/training/flight_training/fxd_wing/props.htm
[2] RAYMER D., Aircraft Design-A Conceptual Approach 2nd ed., AIAA Education Series,AIAA
Publications, 1992
[3] http://www.hobby-lobby.com/propellers_357_ctg.htm
[4] http://www.eflightwiki.com/eflightwiki/index.php?title=Slow_flyer
[5] GARNER W.B., Model Airplane Propellers, March 2009

6
CHAPTER 8: IMPROVED DRAG POLAR AND POWER PLANT
ESTIMATION

8.1 INTRODUCTION

The drag polar calculated in Report 3 was based on historical data and airfoil data. From the
subsequent reports, exact data such as reference area and volume of the various components of the
aircraft, thrust to weight ratio, wing loading, and third weight estimate were calculated. Based on
these calculations (new data), we can now recalculate a more accurate drag polar for the aircraft
and check whether the earlier calculated wing loading and thrust to weight ratio suffice for the
aircraft.

8.2 LIFT

This section of the report presents the methods and calculations to estimate lift-curve slope and max
lift along with angle of attack for max lift, for RC model airplane.

8.2.1 Introduction

The uncambered wing has no lift at zero angle of attack. Maximum lift is obtained at the stall angle
of attack, beyond which the lift rapidly decreases. When a wing is stalled, most of the flow over the
top has separated. The slope of the lift curve is essentially linear except near the stall angle, allowing
the lift coefficient below stall to be calculated simply as the lift curve slope times the angle of attack.
At the stall, the lift curve becomes non-linear. The effect of Mach number on the lift- curve slope is
shown in Figure 8.1. The maximum Mach number for maximum velocity of the aircraft is 0.083.

Figure 8.1 Lift curve slope v/s Mach number

6
8.2.2 Calculation of CLα
When the air flows over the wing, there are pockets of air where the local Mach number may be
greater than 0.071. This value will be much less than 1.0. Thus, it can be safely assumed that the
Mach number always remains subsonic. The subsonic lift curve slope empirical formula is as given in
[1] as:

𝑆e𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑠e𝑑
𝐶 = 2𝜋Æ ( ) (𝐹)(8.2.1)
𝐿𝛼 t𝑎𝑛2Λma 𝑆ref
√ 2𝛽2
𝐴 xt
2+ 4+ 2 )
(1+
𝑦 𝛽2

Here𝛽2 = 1 − 𝑀2,5 =
2
𝐶𝑙𝛼 max
Λ
is the sweep of the wing at the chord location where the
, 𝑡
2𝜋/𝛽
airfoil is thickest. 5 can be approximated as about 0.95 for all Mach Numbers [1]. 𝑆e𝑥𝑝o𝑠e𝑑 is the
exposed wing planform area, i.e. the wing reference area less the part of the wing covered by the
fuselage. F is the fuselage lift factor that accounts for the fact that the fuselage diameter d creates
some lift due to the spill-over of the lift from the wing. F as given in [1] is:

𝐹 = 1.07(1 + 𝑑⁄𝑏)2(8.2.2)

For the estimation of the value of𝐶𝐿𝛼, the following values are taken for our aircraft:

2. Flight Mach number=0.083. Thus, 𝛽2= 0.993

1. A= 5.35

3. 5=0.95 [1]
4. Λmax𝑡 = 0
5. 𝑆e𝑥𝑝o𝑠e𝑑= 600900 mm2
6. 𝑆𝑟eƒ= 627600 mm2
7. 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛, 𝑏=1832 mm
8. 𝐹𝑢𝑠e𝑙𝑎𝑔e 𝑑i𝑎, 𝑑=100
mm 9. 𝐹= 1.19

Using the above values the value of 𝐶𝐿𝛼 is calculated as:

2𝜋 x 5.35 600900
𝐶𝐿𝛼 = ( )(1.19)
627600
2 + √4 +
5.35 x0.993
2 2
0.952

= 4.824

8.2.3 Calculation of CLmax

The maximum lift coefficient of the wing is used to determine the wing area. This has a great
influence upon the cruise drag. This in turn affects the aircraft take-off weight to perform the design
mission.