CHAPTER 2 Linear Time-Invariant Systems

Responses of a Continuous-Time LTI System and Convolution

2.1. Verify Eqs. (2.7) and (2.8); that is,

(a) x(t) ∗ h(t) = h(t) ∗ x(t)

(b) {x(t) ∗ h1 (t)} ∗ h2 (t) = x(t) ∗ {h1 (t) ∗ h2 (t)}
2.2. Show that

(a) x(t) ∗ δ(t) = x(t)

(b) x(t) ∗ δ(t − t0 ) = x(t − t0 )
Rt
(c) x(t) ∗ u(t) = −∞ x(τ )dτ
R t−t
(d) x(t) ∗ u(t − t0 ) = −∞0 x(τ )dτ
2.3. Let y(t) = x(t) ∗ h(t). Then show that

x(t − t1 ) ∗ h(t − t2 ) = y(t − t1 − t2 )

2.4. The input x(t) and the impulse response h(t) of a continuous-time LTI system are given by

x(t) = u(t) and h(t) = e−αt u(t), α > 0

(a) Compute the output y(t) by Eq. (2.6).

(b) Compute the output y(t) by Eq. (2.10).
 2.5. Compute the output y(t) for a continuous-time LTI system whose impulse response h(t) and the
input x(t) are given by

h(t) = eαt u(t) and x(t) = e−αt u(−t), α > 0

2.6. Evaluate y(t) = x(t) ∗ h(t), where x(t) and h(t) are shown in Fig. 2-6,

(a) by an analytical technique, and (b) by a graphical method.

 2.7. Let h(t) be the triangular pulse shown in Fig. 2-10(a) and let x(t) be the unit impulse train
[Fig. 2-10(b)] expressed as
P∞
x(t) = δT (t) = n=−∞ δ(t − nT )

Determine and sketch y(t) = h(t) ∗ x(t) for the following values of T: (a) T = 3, (b) T = 2, (c) T =
1.5.
 2.8. If x1 (t) and x2 (t) are both periodic signals with a common period T0 , the convolution of x1 (t)
and x2 (t) does not converge. In this case, we define the periodic convolution of x1 (t) and x2 (t) as
R T0
f (t) = x1 (t) ⊗ x2 (t) = 0
x1 (τ )x2 (t − τ )dτ

(a) Show that f (t) is periodic with period T0 .

R a+T
(b) Show that for any a, f (t) = a 0 x1 (τ )x2 (t − τ )dτ
(c) Compute and sketch the periodic convolution of the square-wave signal x(t) shown in Fig. 2-12
with itself.
 Properties of Continuous-Time LTI Systems

2.9. The signals in Figs. 2-14(a) and (b) are the input x(t) and the output y(t), respectively, of a
certain continuous-time LTI system. Sketch the output to the following inputs: (a) x(t − 2); (b) 21 x(t).
2.10. Consider a continuous-time LTI system whose step response is given by

s(t) = e−t u(t)

Determine and sketch the output of this system to the input x(t) shown in Fig. 2-15(a).
2.11. Consider a continuous-time LTI system described by (see Prob. 1.56)

1
R t+T /2
y(t) = T {x(t)} = T t−T /2
x(τ )dτ

(a) Find and sketch the impulse response h(t) of the system.
(b) Is this system causal?
 2.12. Let y(t) be the output of a continuous-time LTI system with input x(t). Find the output of
the system if the input is x′ (t), where x′ (t) is the first derivative of x(t).
2.13. Verify the BIBO stability condition [Eq. (2.21)] for continuous-time LTI systems.
 2.14. The system shown in Fig. 2-17(a) is formed by connecting two systems in cascade. The impulse
responses of the systems are given by h1 and h2 , respectively, and
h1 (t) = e−2t u(t) and h2 (t) = 2e−t u(t)

(a) Find the impulse response h(t) of the overall system shown in Fig. 2-17(b).
(b) Determine if the overall system is BIBO stable.
 Eigenfunctions of Continuous-Time LTI Systems

2.15. Consider a continuous-time LTI system with the input-output relation given by
Rt
y(t) = −∞ e−(t−τ ) x(τ )dτ

(a) Find the impulse response h(t) of this system.

(b) Show that the complex exponential function ext is an eigenfunction of the system.
(c) Find the eigenvalue of the system corresponding to est by using the impulse response h(t) obtained
in part (a).
2.16. Consider the continuous-time LTI system described by
1
R t+T /2
y(t) = T t−T /2
x(τ )dτ

(a) Find the eigenvalue of the system corresponding to the eigenfunction est .
(b) Repeat part (a) by using the impulse function h(t) of the system.
 2.17. Consider a stable continuous-time LTI system with impulse response h(t) that is real and even.
Show that cos ωt and sin ωt are eigenfunctions of this system with the same real eigenvalue.
 Systems Described by Differential Equations

2.18. The continuous-time system shown in Fig. 2-18 consists of one integrator and one scalar
multiplier. Write a differential equation that relates the output y(t) and the input x(t).
 2.19. The continuous-time system shown in Fig. 2-19 consists of two integrators and two scalar
multipliers. Write a differential equation that relates the output y(t) and the input x(t).
2.20. Consider a continuous-time system whose input x(t) and output y(t) are related by
dy(t)
dt + ay(t) = x(t)

where a is a constant.

(a) Find y(t) with the auxiliary condition y(0) = y0 and x(t) = Ke−bt u(t).
(b) Express y(t) in terms of the zero-input and zero-state responses.
2.21. Consider the system in Prob. 2.20.

(a) Show that the system is not linear if y(0) = y0 ̸= 0.

(b) Show that the system is linear if y(0) = 0
 2.22. Consider the system in Prob. 2.20. Show that the initial rest condition y(0) = 0 also implies
that the system is time-invariant.
2.23. Consider the system in Prob. 2.20. Find the impulse response h(t) of the system.
2.24. Consider the system in Prob. 2.20 with y(0) = 0

(a) Find the step response s(t) of the system without using the impulse response h(t).
(b) Find the step response s(t) with the impulse response h(t) obtained in Prob. 2.23.
(c) Find the impulse response h(t) from s(t).
 2.25. Consider the system described by
y ′ (t) + 2y(t) = x(t) + x′ (t)
Find the impulse response h(t) of the system.
Responses of a Discrete-Time LTI System and Convolution

2.26. Verify Eqs. (2.36) and (2.37); that is,

(a) x[n] ∗ h[n] = h[n] ∗ x[n]

(b) {x[n] ∗ h1 [n]} ∗ h2 [n] = x[n] ∗ {h1 [n] ∗ h2 [n]}
2.27. Show that

(a) x[n] ∗ δ[n] = x[n]

(b) x[n] ∗ δ[n − nP
0 ] = x[n − n0 ]
∞
(c) x[n] ∗ u[n] = k=−∞ x[k]
Pn−n0
(d) x[n] ∗ u[n − n0 ] = k=−∞ x[k]
2.28. The input x[n] and the impulse response h[n] of a discrete-time LTI system are given by
x[n] = u[n]

h[n] = αn u[n]

0<α<1

(a) Compute the output y[n] by Eq. (2.35).

(b) Compute the output y[n] by Eq. (2.39).
2.29. Compute y[n] = x[n] ∗ h[n] where

(a) x[n] = αn u[n], h[n] = β n u[n]

(b) x[n] = αn u[n], h[n] = α−n u[−n] with 0 < α < 1
 2.30. Evaluate y[n] = x[n] ∗ h[n], where x[n] and h[n] are shown in Fig. 2-23, (a) by an analytical
technique, and (b) by a graphical method.
 2.31. If x1 [n] and x2 [n] are both periodic sequences with common period N, the convolution of x1 [n]
and x2 [n] does not converge. In this case, we define the periodic convolution of x1 [n] and x2 [n] as
PN −1
f [n] = x1 [n] ⊗ x2 [n] = k=0 x1 [k]x2 [n − k]
Show that f [n] is periodic with period N.
2.32. The step response s[n] of a discrete-time LTI system is given by

s[n] = αn u[n] with 0 < α < 1

Find the impulse response h[n] of the system.

 Properties of Discrete-Time LTI Systems

2.33. Show that if the input x[n] to a discrete-time LTI system is periodic with period N, then the
output y[n] is also periodic with period N.
 2.34. The impulse response h[n] of a discrete-time LTI system is shown in Fig. 2-26(a). Determine
and sketch the output y[n] of this system to the input x[n] shown in Fig. 2-26(b) without using the
convolution technique.
 2.35. A discrete-time system is causal if for every choice of n0 the value of the output sequence y[n]
at n = n0 depends on only the values of the input sequence x[n] for n ≤ n0 (see Sec. 1.5D). From this
definition derive the causality condition (2.44) for a discrete-time LTI system; that is,

h[n] = 0 where n < 0

 2.36. Consider a discrete-time LTI system whose input x[n] and output y[n] are related by
Pn
y[n] = k=−∞ 2k−n x[k + 1]
Is the system causal?
2.37. Verify the BIBO stability condition [Eq. (2.49)] for discrete-time LTI systems.
2.38. Consider a discrete-time LTI system with impulse response h[n] given by
h[n] = αn u[n]
(a) Is this system causal?
(b) Is this system BIBO stable?
 Systems Described by Difference Equations

2.39. The discrete-time system shown in Fig. 2-28 consists of one unit delay element and one scalar
multiplier. Write a difference equation that relates the output y[n] and the input x[n]
 2.40. The discrete-time system shown in Fig. 2-29 consists of two unit delay elements and two scalar
multipliers. Write a difference equation that relates the output y[n] and the input x[n]. S
 2.41. Consider the discrete-time system in Fig. 2-30. Write a difference equation that relates the
output y[n] and the input x[n].
 2.42. Consider a discrete-time system whose input x[n] and output y[n] are related by
y[n] − ay[n − 1] = x[n]
where a is a constant. Find y[n] with the auxiliary condition

y[−1] = y−1
and
x[n] = Kbn u[n]
 2.43. Consider the discrete-time system in Prob. 2.42. Find the output y[n] when x[n] = Kδ[n] and
y[−1] = y−1 = α
2.44. Consider the discrete-time system in Prob. 2.43 for an initially at rest condition.

(a) Find in impulse response h[n] of the system.

(b) Find the step response s[n] of the system.
(c) Find the impulse response h[n] from the result of part (b).
 2.45. Find the impulse response h[n] for each of the causal LTI discrete-time systems satisfying the
following difference equations and indicate whether each system is a FIR or an IIR system.

(a) y[n] = x[n] − 2x[n − 2] + x[n − 3]

(b) y[n] + 2y[n − 1] = x[n] + x[n − 1]
(c) y[n] − 12 y[n − 2] = 2x[n] − x[n − 2]
 SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS

2.46. Compute the convolution y(t) = x(t) ∗ h(t) of the following pair of signals:
( (
1 −a < t ≤ a 1 −a < t ≤ a
(a) x(t) = h(t) =
0 otherwise 0 otherwise
( (
t 0<t≤T 1 0 < t ≤ 2T
(b) x(t) = h(t) =
0 otherwise 0 otherwise
(c) x(t) = u(t − 1), h(t) = e−3t u(t)
2.47. Compute the convolution sum y[n] = x[n] ∗ h[n] of the following pairs of sequences:

(a) x[n] = u[n], h[n] = 2n u[−n]

(b) x[n] = u[n] − u[n − N ], h[n] = αn u[n], 0 < α < 1
(c) x[n] = ( 21 )n u[n], h[n] = δ[n] − 12 δ[n − 1]
2.48. Show that if y(t) = x(t) ∗ h(t), then
y ′ (t) = x′ (t) ∗ h(t) = x(t) ∗ h′ (t)
2.49. Show that
x(t) ∗ δ ′ (t) = x′ (t)
2.50. Let y[n] = x[n] ∗ h[n]. Then show that
x[n − n1 ] ∗ h[n − n2 ] = y[n − n1 − n2 ]
 2.51. Show that
Pn0 +N −1
x1 [n] ⊗ x2 [n] = k=n0 x1 [k]x2 [n − k]
for an arbitrary starting point n0
 2.52. The step response s(t) of a continuous-time LTI system is given by
s(t) = [cos ω0 t]u(t)
Find the impulse response h(t) of the system.
 2.53. The system shown in Fig. 2-31 is formed by connection two systems in parallel. The impulse
responses of the systems are given by
h1 (t) = e−2t u(t) and h2 (t) = 2e−t u(t)

(a) Find the impulse response h(t) of the overall system.

(b) Is the overall system stable?
2.54. Consider an integrator whose input x(t) and output y(t) are related by
Rt
y(t) = −∞ x(τ )dτ
(a) Find the impulse response h(t) of the integrator.
(b) Is the integrator stable?
 2.55. Consider a discrete-time LTI system with impulse response h[n] given by
h[n] = δ[n − 1]
Is this system memoryless?
 2.56. The impulse response of a discrete-time LTI system is given by
h[n] = ( 12 )n u[n]
Let y[n] be the output of the system with the input

x[n] = 2δ[n] + δ[n − 3]

Find y[1] and y[4].
2.57. Consider a discrete-time LTI system with impulse response h[n] given by
h[n] = (− 21 )n u[n − 1]
(a) Is the system causal?
(b) Is the system stable?
 2.58. Consider the RLC circuit shown in Fig. 2-32. Find the differential equation relating the output
current y(t) and the input voltage x(t).
 2.59. Consider the RL circuit shown in Fig. 2-33.

(a) Find the differential equation relating the output voltage y(t) across R and the the input voltage
x x(t).
(b) Find the impulse response h(t) of the circuit.
(c) Find the step response s(t) of the circuit.
2.60. Consider the system in Prob. 2.20. Find the output y(t) if x(t) = e−µt u(t) and y(0) = 0.
 2.61. Is the system described by the differential equation
dy(t)
dt + 5y(t) + 2 = x(t)
linear?
2.62. Write the input-output equation for the system shown in Fig. 2-34.
 2.63. Consider a discrete-time LTI system with impulse response
(
1 n = 0, 1
h[n] =
0 otherwise

Find the input-output relationship of the system.

 2.64. Consider a discrete-time system whose input x[n] and output y[n] are related by
y[n] − 21 y[n − 1] = x[n]
with y[−1] = 0 Find the output y[n] for the following inputs:

(a) x[n] = ( 13 )n u[n];

(b) x[n] = ( 21 )n u[n]
 2.65. Consider the system in Prob. 2.42. Find the eigenfunction and the corresponding eigenvalue of
the system.