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Statistical Mechanics

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Statistical Mechanics

this book have all the major questions that mostly come in delhi university exam

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btsarmy7magicshop
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SEMESTER VI (CBCS) BSC. (Hons.) physics-C XIV: Statistical Mechanics 4, Define ensemble, microstate and macro state. * ensemble isercotlection of large number of microscopically identica secentially independent system.) ‘ a ider anensemble Consisting of a large number of independent systems consisting of a large number of molecules, in the phase space. Each system Je may be represenrted by point known as phase point or representative e phase space. Let the phase space be divided into cells numbered 1, 2, 3, adjoining one another and having a volume equal to 84,89, «. 8q,5p, 8p, --- 8p, ae point for any system or molecule may be supposed to lie inside one of Avese cells. In)order to define the microstate of the ensemble we must specify the ‘spaividual position of phase points for each system or molecule of the @risemble. In words, =o which cell each system or molecule belongs temporarily. Such a deep analysis is quite unneccssary to determine the observable ies of any ensemble (or gas). For example, the density is same if the number {molecules in each volume element of ordinary space is the same regardless of whi molecule lie in any volume element. ‘macrostate)of the ensemble may be defined by the specification of the number of pl intf3 (j.e., system or molecules) in each cell of phase space such as 1, phase points are in cell 1, 1, phase points are in cell 2, n, phase points are in cell 3 and so on. Q.2. Eight similar coins are tossed for a large number of times. Calculate. (a) the probability of getting the heads of 5 coins uppermost, (b) the probability of most probable combination, (0 the probability of least probable combination. Ans. The probability of the combination a’b* is given by SI ris! 2" | but ormolecu int in thi Pi etc. P= where s=n-r (@) In this case n = 8, r= Sand s=3. the probability of getting the heads of 5 coins uppermost. (71) F MM Big Deepa: &.Se, Physics (Mons,) Statistical Mechanics [Sem \ SX6x7x8 1 1x2x3x4 Q. 8. Find the probabilit tails, (9 6 heads, 6 tails. ‘Ans. The probability of distribution (r,s) is given by. 1 P(r.s) = @ Here n= 12, r= 4,528 12! PG, 8)= FEA AKI” @ Here n= 12, r=s=6 12 6,6) = ce 94x10 postulate of equal probability. Probability of finding the phase point for a of phase space is identical with that for any other region or volume. This postulate is known as the postulate of equal a Q. 5. Derive an expression for number of microstates from + dE for 1-Dimension, Ans. For a single particle we have six dimensional Phase space, co-ordinates (x, y,2) and three momentum co-ordinates p, P,P, of a particle in the phase space. An element of volume in the: x by bs bp, = Op, Op, bp, ty that in tossing a coin 12 times, we get () 4 haed of equal extension Priori probability.” energy range Eto : | | | —)3=—rli‘“==; ae Classical Statistics B wal volume of the phase space is : ae (Sheedy tp tp, the limits of integration are to be specified. where “3 wenave fff t (y= (miei |, 2p e » 256 = [Be fs We, Q.3 Find the probability that in tossing a coin 12 times, we get()ny TF volume of phase space —— = V-4n(2me) (m/2e)de tails (id 6 heads, 6 tails. ‘Ans. The probability of distribution (r, s) is given by : nt 1 = AVIV mie!" de Pins) oy oe ‘The number of cells in the phase space @) Heren=12,r=4,s= ra @ Ir=4,s=8 Aes Bree Be 2 ee gag yD OE ag at 2 Q.6, Derive Maxwell distribution law. State its assumptions and limitations. (Here n=12, r=s=6 | _ Ans. Consider a system of N similar, but distinguishable molecules of a gas. We "know that the instantaneous state of a molecule is represented by a phase point in 12! __ the phase space. Let the phase space be divided into a large number of cells 1, 2, 3, P(6, 6) = — =924x10"" (aig 616! ( Aas? the probate el probability h uit of finding i i forthe state of equilibrium ie, the eEfOn of phate spans of Sinding the phase point for a given system inat/f ways; but will always keep values clase to those for he tte ; or volume This stl ene! With that for any other region of equal most probable state, Let us supposes change obeying the fundamental postulate molecules whose phase points ium state. As the gas molecules therefore, n/s wll change continuously in many different ..n,be the numbe 's known as the postula jori of statistical mechanics; 5. Detivean erage on the Postulate of equal a prior ati ; eee ul .ber of molecules is const by *4 for Dimension : Pression for number of microstates from energy fans" 1) The total numbes 0 ae ay tnytathh tt constant, (8) co-ordinates y eee i E BN = 51,4 81+, +t Bm +. =0 of particle in the phase . sates p ie, ) logn, logs, +a+Be, = 0, yn ae m= Age™ oD vy is maximum, n, = 0 abilit 28% 7° the probabil z Pi re A= €7 is a new constant ie eps epee é ey when imum, where ult determines the most probable distributi the sn tog P is maximus Wis result determi st probable distribution of molecules among i iis possible individual states and is known as Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution a — (gy) (s2)" 8)" (8a) Se a Fag 4]ty : * ability fora motecule to have the energy, 3 a pg vata gait iogP= fog SL l057!+ O88 Using Siting’ formula, we Bet 0.7. State and prove law of equipartition of energy. JogP = NlogN-N- Som logm + Int Ln logs, oe The law states that the total kinetic energy of a dynamical system consisting, y aul Wer of particles in thermal equilibrium is equally divided among its pt Se thsefore sf frekdom and the average energy associated with each degree of : hnerek is Boltzmann's constant and T is the absolute temperature Jog P = NlogN=3n,1ogm, + Dm logs, oe 7 7 .e system Therefore, acording to equation (3), we get Far the proof of this theorem, let us consider a dynamical system with f degress : freedone Classically this system is described by f position co-ordinates (tv 4x. Hog P) = 0-F.n8(logn,)- Dy log n.8m, + Plog [Link] =| Tho total energy E of the system can then be written as function of these position 0 7 ‘d momenta co-ordinates, (since N log N ie, Bat nllogn Let p, be any particular Endllogn) = £8, =0 Therefore, equation () gives where €(p) is the function-et-momentum p, alone and the second term (1-420 .p,) is the function of all the position and momenta co- Tlogn,8n, jinates excluding the momentum p,. Classically the mean energy &, is defined as Classical Statistics 7 a 7 Deepa: BSc. Physics (Hons) Statistical Mechanics [Sem.-yp) edgy dg dp dp dp = average translational energy per molecule dado, da dp, dp... dp, put y ee eae sqefore equation. (1) becomes ces dp, fet dgdgs dg dpydp, é ¥ eT a Ray ap, fer dag, ya dp, ay Leede ~@ 4 Get .Q) where the integrals containing ¢#** ‘sand’ : 1ge** extend over all the q's and p's ex. or a separation of integrals is possible because E’ is independent of p. Teese that the integrals containing e®* are equal and hence cancel out. Thus, wehave je: the average kinetic energy of translation per molecule ofan ideial monoatomic sna given mass in directly proportional to absolute temperature ofthe gas. # Ceatly if average kinetic energy of translation of each molecule of the gas is eae sero the T=0. lease) a hus the absolute zero temperature is that temperature at which the average ep, © F cet energy of translation of each molecule ofthe gas is zero, je, the temperature siwhich the molecular translational velocities ofa gas are reduced to zero. (Q.9. Derive the relation between entropy and thermodynamic probability. ence show that constant in relation is Boltzmann constant. ‘Ans. As entropy and thermodynamical probability have their maximum values in equillibrium position, Boltzman concluded from this that entropy is a fuention of probability, ie, Since ¢, is quadratic in p, and expressed as S=fA) 4) «where Sis entropy and Qs the thermodynamical probability ofthe state. “To find out the nature ofthe function let us consider two completely independent systems A and B having entropies, and S, respectively. An entropy is an extensive {additive) quantity, the entropy Sof two systems together must be equal to the sum of their separate entropies, ie, $=5,45, 6) If the probability of Ais, and that of Bis Q,, then probability 2 of finding both the systems at the respective given conditions will be the product of these two probabilities [As the probabilities of a composite event is equal to the product of the probabilities ofthe individual and independent evens). Hence 2=2..0, =O Thus, we have $= Q)=f0,2) “a §,=fa) © . 8, Inter AQ). ® Renoir aa hee Using equation (7, (8) and (9), equation (5) takes the form ed te eg te Te AN molecules of» monoatomlg 0,0.) = (2) + AQ) 20) Ea egy tein om ol ows oy te Ditferentiating pally above sun wh pet 2 ant wees : vibrational, potential energ (an) =/(a) Let , be the translational energy, then according to lay ce a eal ae ee Ban a uation 11) and (12), give N 2 where T is the temperature (in kelvin ofthe system ang p c ind k is the Boltzm. a> —_ # © i ms oes A Aa The ceestzet sf reeeion Cin ars maior 5 acres vin cone 5 ep ed Geese 5 of _—rsconieatiraneones pCO fk. Se eau awd he decasn spins axing et vocal 10 Gi Ad se 2 oasis meas face in 10 Lert ret) $s totals Oe grnaslin or wag ¥ contlgaraion 8° Frees hr 5 feormstocamticd Syste B Bessie 22 + 7 anc Soh, Sn har ecuation Dvds “3 foe Sete Tt i te well venenatis Sotanseeh EMI OE Sin eniticaiinn sf sonetast kz Te conan ¢ aypesty 1 selon omitied 9 snedenng at eopturdett contr tee exgaswon Sf sre wie Sf a8 Mth BF 0 & spesyae: wou} 5 a esc Seantins Sf a Sa A 5 cage cwce 6 eye OWA YORE I sale lrcpades eve Sestint ABP) I sy) ie, where k is any constant. This gives, Integrating, we get fay fQ) log 2,+C, }og.2,+C, and In general we may write f{O) = klog Q+C $= k log Q+C a The constant of integration C in above equation is chosen in accordance wit thind law of thermodynamics also known is Nernst heat theorem. According to this theorem the entropy of a thermodynamical system tend zero as its temperature tends to absolute zero. The temperatures appro absolute zero are generally attained by the process of adiabatic demagnet The process requires to subject the paramagnetic salts to nigh magnetic Feld so the spins of the electrons align themsives parallel to the direction of the a field. Atabsolute zero all the electron spins are aligned parall tothe direction ft field since at absxolute zero there is no thermal energy to disturb their alignmey Thus at absolute zero there is only one configuration where all the electon spins ordered in a particular direction, e,, at absoluter zero, the thermodyna probability (or weight of configuration) is 1 Hence fora thermodynamical system at absolute zero = 1 and $=0, So that equation (13) yields C= 0. Hence S=kiog2 This isthe well known relation between entropy and probability Identification of constant k: The constant k appearing in relation (14) identified by considering an equivalent situation in theromodynamics, For consider the expansion of one mole of an ideal gas originally at pressure votume V, into an evacuated chamber of volume V, Te final pressure is, apd final volumeis V, + V, The problem isto find the isothermal change in the'en of this gas. When the containers of volumes V, and V, are connected, the probabil ae M+V, ‘As one mole of an ideal gas constains N (« Avogadro numb probability of a composite event is equal to the product of pie” Individual and independent events, therefore the probability of hares tes of the gas in the constainer of volume V. one ie. finding one molecule in the first container of volume V, is Classical Statistics - ‘i fedex, Ve, robability of finding one mole (= N molecules of an ideal gas in the final ame, +92) 8 o s ae] so V,+Vs ince from Boltzmann's relation AS = S,-5, = klog, ~klog®, = klog(,/2,) coe ; ted ra) e Nilog, YM Her ox (15) in (volume V1 the change in entropy when the gas changes from one state ( et eature T) to another state (volume V, + V, temperature T, is given by V+¥, M tempel 15 = Cylog, H+ Rog, {As the change in isothemal entropy is given by V+, as- te (474) Comparing equation (15) and 16. we gt (16) R x which is obviously Boltamann’s constant [Link] expression for probability distribution function and entropy of a two level system! = ‘Ans, Consider system BE = 26 magnetic moment } that can “ toa H, Let + ebe the energy associated wi = magnetic el asacated with another orientation, ene orientation and-« te IN. be the number of particales of energy +¢ and -€ sshere tel = HB. n isolated system is “octegadllea ti E=N,-N.o=(N,-N)e=ne AN -of particles is N, then 1 Pe N= Neo, An 3), we get ie, ‘of N-independent particles, each of be parallel or anti parallel to an My ee ics (Hons,) Statistical Mechanics (Sem, (N-n) a(N+nandE, = Now we wish to calculate the numberof accessible microstats of isola having constant energy E. 4 The accessible microstates, according to formula, are given by NI NIN Jog 9 = log N!~ log N, !log N! = Nllog, N-N -(N, log N,-N,)= ASN=N,N_wehave es Ope log) Qn) log Q = (N, +N) log NN, log N, —N log N_ = n(n. e(] “a 1 Nn) ) oie i ich i cal about the value n= Caussian distribution, which is symmetrical ; resents the average value of magnetization inthe absence of n ferme “The most probable value is same as the average value: ‘This rep! o(fig)-AS: ‘expected the field is zero. Tog Q = | N, log] 2 ]4.N_ tog} 2 magnetic fel = ‘ seal is given by y iN l J N copys ENE, ny (10) a [Neg #N- 8 n 3 [[Link]}(te on 085 . ee ei If-we use to approximation (8), we get me Using fg( 12%) « Hee ee = Koga 108.5 * oN we get ; y (2-4 - asic] log Q = sles (a) [nd IN using equation (1) for, we Be : : (Eley = (N,#N_log-(N, +N.) (N,+N_)log5-(N, +N.) se [m0 ie = Nlog--— By we (12) 82 ON a Bi -i.2+4( 4) | As there are only two possible orientations the probatility of each or stati ae ientat 1 +. Asthe total i OS 2/8 the total numberof particles is N and then all are indepenent, therefore ; © Jor, Ne probability of a given sequence of particle is (3) ‘The net magnetic moment = (N,~N_) =p. The probability P(M) ofthe system to possess the net magnetic yom a foment M= 2 swe get, parabola as shown in fig. 6:22. é replat graph of Classical Statistics 8 8 Deepa: BSc. Physi (Hons) Statistical Mechanics (Sem, being +0 through + -2 to-0, +0 and -=coinciding When magnetic moment p= 0, n=0, then from (11), the ento a Z the stirling approximation. This is just the entropy ofa possibleael — emperatute rang’ . because each particle can have two possiblities, Parallel or antipaal ich rea negative temperature, the following conditions must be regardless of the presence of other particles, Thus we coneluey ay nen ystem to hay accessible phase space has the proprties ofthe most probable condi . nite upper limit to the energy spectrum. with large numberof particles (N). Hon oftesne ust havea ie t be in they states isolated from positive a the negative temperature Q. 11, Explain the concept of negative temperature. ft must have Ans. The temperature I) is defined asthe reciprocal ti ates of slope of $ versus E curve ie, erp ergy ina magnetic fields E=—m hen show that fora N, and so n> Oand we get a decrease in ever i > N, ; Prdered state) and T <0 (negative temperature). Ths the system loses re areal a) behaviour. Thus the negative temperature T_corresponds to higher ener than | “idbs paradox = : positive temperature T.. 3 Qyanoanes Fy! a If T_ and T, systems are brought into thermal contact, the ene Ans. ing and leads to classical statistics. ane, t "By will and . tion, We from T. state to T, state, Thus according to concept of temperature reo ynas Boltzmann cou jes and using String approxima than T. laser is a device based on such aT_sytem, As energy contin This is Mira logratithm of Taking given to system we get n=N,~N_=N-0=N>0, This means that all the articl =n Inn, +m, are in the upper state giving S = 0 (a complete ordered state) at T = -0 (he ae = Y[ningi-™ J difference between +0 and -0 is that +0 is aproached from the side of posing : temperature and -0 is approached from the side of negative temperature. the get UN Meese : Ne¥n n(&) Hence, the correct expression for entropy is $= i(InQ),., [zen] On using the result a8 © (-Be) inthis expression, we get & ss nfve w(Rete)] : i [Ne InZ-Sn mNsB% ne] 7 T i = aN +N InZ—N InN + pu) - Ni[InZ=InNe1]+ If we compare this expression for ent with that obtained without it, Mathematically, we ca in express correct single partice and N particle p functions as : Since internal energy U and pressurep depend on the derivative of the parti function, the presence of the factor N! does not lead to any change in t expressions. Fora gas of N molecules the correct expression for ition function is given by we obtain correct ex ou "el me Pression for entropy based on Boltzmann counting. 5ykInZ, » wi[invs3in(sryed (age - ove : V).3 3, (_m 3 olin) Rinse )]o 20a, ue : olin) Samat S(t) 3] Classical Statistics s can io 5 * vale ).c} a) aaa uf eey} ans of de Broglie wavelength, Eq (138) takes he orm n ter : « sill az | there is 9 sion (kone acres tin, Sey ee eae mined constant inthis equation, phn “reson rte einen ar, Terusnw show a Sacred ation cro : sack calculate the ee si pert on — I entropies O ‘The total initial entropy ofthe gas (Contained in two separate chases) 8 = oat ~~ 4 25, +5,=Nibsin(V/N) eal Nik MOON = conemo pts eel oN pr w (9) the final tony tS iN) - , i : Hence, the ~~ $ Nl nV) ~ NAVA NAES ea cleculs in theo chambers a Oe im al of the ores ae sie the ereropy of ming Using hist in (12.2 we dE 1 ® 8 s oft} )}-° ase afovenm(s) . une ncn ic ra oa ofthe parti dows an deal monatomic KAS Tis mens augue rete resuton of GBR Ps a Classical Stat ee ae ite iin a more compact an a eon 2 Si wo )-cs} n| et jee J were Co i sglie wavelength, Eq. (13.39) takes the form terms of de BIO% exp (Be) in this expression, we get a ge ky is +m in( Zexp(Be, )] 3 _quation () ROI the Sackur-Tetrode equation. Since there is no 7 Equnined constant in this equation, it gives absolute value of entropy of 2 rc gas-Ithas been established ‘experimentally that Sackur-Tetrode equation mic Brct expression forthe entropy of an ideal monatomic gas. * Sackur-Tetrode equation is free from Gibbs paradox and te now show thal the entropy of self airopies of the GAs tHE chambers are $, = Niglin(V/N) +0} 2 used InZ-m InN+By, 5 T = kJN+NInZ-NInN+ BU} caalate ! ‘mixing for a perfect gas. According to Eq. @) te 4 iH U cf - Ni[InZ=In N+1]+ 3 Z Hi and S| = Niflin(VJN,) +o} Itwe «expression for entropy obtained using Boltz a ‘The total initial entropy of the gas (contained in two a Vis given vith that obtained without it, we can conclude that Boltzmann counting nfige'fie 'Y separate chambers) Tre pavition function in the same WY 2° it does thermodyn: = +5,=N hel un yearend PaO) | Mathematically, we can express correct single partice and N particle pars, oonremoving the partion, A ees ee. | acid {@) the final entropy of the B98 is “ae ; 5, = Nk finvIN) +6] a Hence, the change in entropy is Sere SNe, in(VIN) Nf ln(V/ND—Nib VID © ary atthe same pressure and temperature, since the molecules in the two: ‘must be the same: the number densities of the two samples z Uand pressure depend on the derivatives Ni. MaNep Yona ae trio tps fhe actor NI doesnot lead to any ei ForagasofN mol nee 4 fageetNmoees the comet expression for partition vn pression fr entropy based on Boltzmann co AS= ky {os +N, y(t =n = yi ta a ° 42), we find thatthe entropy of mixing is 2=F0: 1 1\\-0 wn(2}h a “This means that removal ofthe part change the accessible microstates and eating forthe indistinguishable + gg ofan ideal monatomic gas is the key to the resolution of Gibbs’ Pa 2 2nk meee t nh 22 Noll Ftn(kt)+ 3 n)-taN inf), 3 3 [i }+ pints) Sin 2) m a) =nelin(Y).3 Salat) n(n Classica They OF Radiation ~~, gecond from all posible decay 9 10) FS then a, signifies the absorpivg nS 80, yt 0d mensions; itis a fraction w f mabe perfectly blackbody, ris y ati explain distribution Classical Theory of Radiation Q snc UNV of radig i mer an im investiga » 1 Heda Blakbody at ite stn 7 anong pea erimental rangement of Lug Petre, Q. 1. State the properties of thermal radiation, a bane ody aaa apeth ea and i town i fi [Link] investigations show that thermal radiation has following prope. eit ee measured by a ey heated pa Thermal radiation travels through empty space withthe velocity of tee pet ae BUS Chamber Thermal radiation like light travels in straight lines, ight, ‘The radi reflected, the parallel i 3. Thermal radiation lke light, obeys the inverse square law of distance 1, on ABC pase ome Thermal radiation is reflected and refracted like light 6007 ed by the Teena (concave mizror) M, a hee em exhibits the phenomenon of interference, diffraction and Polarization jg. ff the sltS,, The bolometeris, a serve al ‘Saar rn light. . be srotated slowly so that Siferent pats of theradatonspecrum acter to on the bolometer and the corresponding deflections in canae Bip bolometer circuit are read. The nest of eek in {is proportional tothe deflection in the salvanometet. Then acurve( fg 2)s dawn betwen ake ed the wavelength. Q.2 Define the following terms: (a) Total energy density (b) Spectral energy density (0 Emissivity (@ Spectral emissive power (@ Spectral absorptivity As (@)1. Total energy density (x) at any point denotes the total radiant forall wavelength from 0 to per unit volume around that point. Its unif isJm= 2 Spectral energy density (u,) for the wavelength [Link] a measure ofthe and = from (6) in (7), we get ie temperature and as result the energy density u changes by infi Substituting the values of oT Qu ~ a. Classical Theor, of Radiation ris 2 Pa = U-TS«. 4 Fe U-tS=avT' Saye —Lavr! iy sre Gibbs function i Go Fepv=ievT' shat =0 o, Derive Wein’s distribution law and Wein’s displacement law. We frst calculate the changein wavelength ofan em. vave when t suffers anpierefetions fom slow} moving val ofa sper enclosure. The waves enclosure wil be incident on the walls tall angles. For normal incidence, ide thé io frequency» changes fo 0 (1) in accordance with Doppler fect. ine we a A, log Abeing corsa of integration ed log u=4 log 7 +106" =Al ’ 5 pee : etuequency ofthe refleced wave wil decease ure bya factor of (1 2) : secause the source (walls of container) i in mation. The resultant frequency after a thtthe total ateof emission of radiant energy peg ne reflection i, therefore, given by Butitcanbe sto density by the eaton js related to the enet (o/c) 1+(e/¢) oth since v/c << 1, this relation can be simplified to 20 ie 1 Es jue ee E pact’ or E=oT* + constant called Stefan’ constant. The value of Stefan’s where ois r 5672 « 104 joule m* sec? (K)”* oe (0.8 Obtain the expression for pressure, entropy, helmoltz free so that Sy Gibbs function of the blackbody: radiation, Ana Since radiation pressure is one-third of the energy density, we u1 /: P23 3 ie ‘To obtain expression for entropy, we must know C,, which, in tm, Jnovledge ofthe total internal energy of the cavity radiation enclosed in’ Using Eq, (11.7), wecan write U=wW=avTt eile Theheat capacity at constant volume eee Ilustration ofthe change in Fig.2: Dt ‘wavelength of an electron- ‘wave inside an expanding spherical qe (#) =4aVT° ‘magnetic wave reflected from enclosure Tocalculate entropy, we, Thy ‘a moving surface we assume that the temperature ofthe Walls ofthe aw 2a "increased in an isochoric process from 0 to T, Then, we can write a © s={t t For an obliquely incident wavelrot the change in wavelength in ome reflection, ~ |pCut=|aavrerega uganda tang 100s The Helmholtz free energy is ae Hes) hata wave propagati So the voul dana ven by E4: 3), If» << G We can assy a 0 the enlosure expands by ons ote that between tWosuecessiyg r go the ime between reflections, sped by a wave in one second is ff . forall ‘changeit 27 c08 sions sul right-hand side of ¢ )\2rcose, +s the distance traversed in one second. erating Eq, (40), wefind that a + = constant or S her at is the wavelength of a wave is linearly i iz eh ee rly proportional to the (size) We will now derive the relation conn er .ecting the temperature of encl radius. Ths follows directly from the first law of thermodynamics: In anadiabatic process 8Q= 0. Al better tc ic process, Iso we know ati ae te know that for radiation U=#V: sure. aw)+2ay = aV)45aV =0 ee Vdutudy +4, 3 =0 du Integrating, we get W* = K, a constant Classical Theory of Radiation a a on Stet Aa, Hence we can rewrite Eq, (853) as 4 Tine K where K’ is some other constant, 6 ‘ 4n sora spherical enclosure V= Fr Sowe ind that Ta constant _ aes, or ry a) otis, temperature i inversely proportional tothe radius of the spheric ‘Combining Eqs. (74) and (7), we get recy a « a T containe- or AT = constant ‘This means that if radiation of is adiabatically expanded, it ch ‘wavelength of radiation is disp] wa snains constant. In particular, if we follow the madman of the radiation um, it follows T-inverse law. This isthe so ([Link] expression for number of modes per unit volume in Ala i range vtov# dx. Hence derive Rayleigh-jeans Law. : ao Ans. Rayleigh Jeaus Law: 4 mtnitn Maxwell baid light EM vibration where electric and may. Vectors; alo tothe of propaga i ‘ 5 0) ee follows that the total no. of soto the dir of propagation. have only integer value it indy haber sill witha [Link] radiation Where Since Ma ether wil be equal to the no of point of interecton of 0 are prese fe ‘ Assumption: Walls are Perfectly elasic/replecting a barn u, there will be one pt. tothe radiation ie. radiation are no allowed to wat For iibe given by the total volume of sphere/llipsoid. Futher, oe ved Ip Votes Hence, the total no. wile given by thetoal ols Pte Te aut ts s only the values of 1, "ly "are perm . 3o see =) é Bs oe the champer aback particle is placed after he time cucloure get filled with stationor ionory waves 4 ofall wavelengths because black pardideunits radiation *— © Which is reflected by the w pees tec by yet ‘The reflected and emitted waves inl Here analogy can be takenf af from acoustics in th nodes separated by 12. In ni athe inte sound, Statwrary waves Ber, then a ey] f sss (Hor 4 ° x5; Total No. of mode ‘These waves are trans\ component is independen Stauding waves per unt volume i pater, we must therefore double the no, rhe freq. ange vto(0+do)is Q.11. Deri 's ionizatic QL Dee saha’s ionization formula. Also state its assumptions. Ans Toarveat Soh oomls, we assume that 7 tribution of nuclear s il 2 ay agi hota oes aa! Aol 3. Dynamical equilibrium between ionisation and recombination (due! Wynamical equilibri pte een ionisati nati capture) is reached at a given Teperaue and pressings ‘ where A*is a sin Positive ion, ‘ a singly ionised posit If we teeat this as a reaction e : equilibrium, we can write n different components of an Dba, 0 vg) Statistical Mechanics [Sem Vy 100 Deepa: BSC. PRY a y ying b/w vand?* do verse and hence can be polarised and each — Rayleigh jeans Classical Theory of Radiation 101 FisthecomponentindexforA,A‘Or isthe stoichiometric cot ichiometric cofficetnt where i th component, and ji, is chemical potential of the kth atom, sane th comE he bing Eqs. 1) and (2 frthis case, we can write the chemi potenti s sa He +a0(22) at oe where Z(T) refers to the contributions of the internal modes (rotational, prational and electronic) to the partition function. Note that itis a function of T Jutnat of pressure at configuration is equivalent tothe presence of several ase contained in a veoh Lets assume that and ane the partial Pressures ‘exerted by the atom, vest muand the electron respectively: Let thelr masses e mi mand m, respectively areace, te chemical potential ofthe th component in the system is given by ne rel) zai Ann where N, is Avogadro's number Itisimportantto point out here that for ost reactions of the type (1), we measure energies from the ground state, ‘The partition functions in this case are given by Z, 7 By 2.22, and Zi=Zexp(-e /hsT) where €” is the fonisation energy: At equilibrium Eq, 2) implies that HHH =O ‘Assumption (b) implies that 0, = 01 0." cuemieal potentials in this result with approPrate partition es a +f 8) zaovea? par st) zt" Inp, * of(a24) samen tne : 1. Therefore, on substituting for the functions, we get On rearranging terms and taking antilog “of both sides, we can write ree tae i Bis ots «( ( ) oa Wit Number of resonators between frequency range v and v+ dvs given by! 8x0" : 7 Now theenergy density bel the average energy of PI in this frequiency range v he range do can be obtained by mul by the number of oscillators per unit} Quantum Theory of Radiation’ Baa 106 106 SnkT conics Rayleigh olds for shorter ravens and Rayte, poyleigty Edh= eo 1s we see that x is, We can thus say that both the Wiens and py, ar law for longer war ated in the Planck’ a. Wey He Ban te Jean's law are inco : ee of Planck’ radiation lay, By e [Link] experi Jaw has been _ eT fs. The Planck’ 3.2000 ce we shal planck Ea= ssa verified by numerous SPT ion due tO discuss the experime! Q.4. Show that the number of photons in black body radiation at a tempera- ture Tis equal fo gsheim. Lummer and Pringshein). U0 tions ; used a special bare flack ming 1 were practically js yin) pee body rai my oe he black-body radiation was Pie) ea The! . a a through afluorsper prism, ‘Ans. Number of resonators per unit volume in the frequency range » and + do ced by refract produ at sng very transparent tothe infra-red Brotdo { fiuorspar eing wen) Tor pay to apply corrections in order 0 conver the inan enclosute= "5 fer at eermalene This was doneby means ofthe known disperonags : ormal 7 spectrum to the coe re minor was used to obtain the imageofthe slit. This image was foggy Measure ons Denmer-Kuribaum linear spectrum bolometer which was used to ‘Total energy of resonators per unit volume inthe enclosure distribution of enertgy. This bolometer was enclosed in ang. (em ho ) Energy of each resonator = ear the radiant energy righcaseinorderto diminish the absoprtion effets due to water Vapour and ay vi dioxide. The distribution of energy in’ the spectrum for a ae Ma , 621 K and 1646 K was obtained and the curves were plotted. It was found, Energy of each photon =ho. : ae distribution of energy in the spectrum of blackbody as found by Planck’; fe ‘Theretore, number of photons in the enclosure per unit volume inthe frequency Jaw was in perfect agreement with the experiments. ‘ range vand 0+ do, “The actual form ofthe distribution curve which has been derived by Planck ee theoretical considerations represents the experimental results accurately. Pla SFR . formula isthe same thing as an experimental verification of Wien’s law. The; 1rVis the volumecf the enclosure, then number of phtons in the enclosure| shown in fig. for a temperature of 1600 K, in accordance with the three laws, b tut Pearly the cose sgreement between Wiens and Plancl-s feat iia frequency range 9 +4 iene 1 wide deviation from that of Rayleigh’s. The circles show the actual obser . a ey the energy distribution inthe spectrum of a black-body at 1600K. The thick show the distribution predictedby Planck’sformula indicating that the Pl is in perfect agreement with the experiments. The lower dotted line, which. with the thick full line upto about ?,= 2.2 microns, corresponds to Wiens for while the upper thin solid lineis from the Rayleigh-Jean’s formula, It is evident the curve obtained by Planck approximated to that to Wien for small wavelenl and to that of Rayleigh for long wavelengths, d Itis desirable at this stage to have a comparison between the three formulae in an analytical way, Putting z #2, the three radia WT may be written an

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