Human Development
1. Fertilization
● Definition: Union of haploid sperm (n) and haploid ovum (n) → diploid zygote (2n).
● Site: Ampulla of fallopian tube (widest section).
● Timing: Usually within 12–24 hours after ovulation.
● Steps:
1. Sperm Transport: Sperm undergo capacitation in female reproductive tract
— biochemical changes remove proteins from sperm head.
2. Acrosomal Reaction: Enzymes (hyaluronidase, acrosin) released to
penetrate corona radiata & zona pellucida.
3. Fusion of Membranes: Sperm head fuses with oocyte plasma membrane.
4. Cortical Reaction: Release of cortical granules → zona pellucida hardens →
blocks polyspermy.
5. Oocyte Completion of Meiosis II → female pronucleus forms.
6. Male Pronucleus Formation → both nuclei fuse → zygote.
2. Cleavage
● Definition: Rapid mitotic divisions of zygote without growth in size.
● Timeline:
○ Day 1: 2-cell stage.
○ Day 2: 4-cell stage.
○ Day 3: 8-cell stage.
○ Day 4: Morula (~16 cells).
○ Day 5–6: Blastocyst formation.
● Blastocyst Structure:
○ Trophoblast → later forms chorion & placenta.
○ Inner Cell Mass (Embryoblast) → embryo proper.
○ Blastocoel → fluid-filled cavity.
● Implantation:
○ Occurs 6–7 days after fertilization.
○ Trophoblast differentiates into:
■ Cytotrophoblast (inner layer)
■ Syncytiotrophoblast (outer layer; invades endometrium, secretes
hCG).
3. Gastrulation
● Definition: Process by which the blastula reorganizes into a gastrula with 3 germ
layers.
● Key Structure: Primitive Streak — site of cell migration.
● Germ Layers & Derivatives:
1. Ectoderm:
■ Epidermis of skin, hair, nails.
■ Nervous system (brain, spinal cord).
■ Sensory organs (eyes, ears).
■ Pituitary gland, adrenal medulla.
2. Mesoderm:
■ Muscles, bones, cartilage.
■ Cardiovascular & lymphatic systems.
■ Kidneys, ureters, gonads.
■ Dermis of skin.
3. Endoderm:
■ Lining of digestive tract & respiratory tract.
■ Liver, pancreas, thyroid, parathyroid.
■ Urinary bladder lining.
4. Neurulation
● Initiation: Notochord induces overlying ectoderm to form neural plate.
● Steps:
1. Neural plate folds → neural groove.
2. Edges fuse → neural tube (future brain & spinal cord).
3. Neural crest cells migrate → form PNS, pigment cells (melanocytes), facial
cartilage.
● Clinical Note: Failure to close tube → Spina bifida or Anencephaly.
● Prevention: Maternal folic acid supplementation.
5. Organogenesis
● Begins after neurulation.
● Ectoderm → CNS, PNS, skin, glands, tooth enamel.
● Mesoderm → Skeleton, muscles, heart, blood vessels, kidneys, reproductive organs.
● Endoderm → Gut lining, lungs, liver, pancreas, glands.
6. Stages of Pregnancy
First Trimester (0–12 weeks):
● Organogenesis complete by end of trimester.
● Heartbeat detectable (week 4–5).
● Limb buds, eyes, ears appear.
● Risk of congenital malformations highest.
Second Trimester (13–28 weeks):
● Rapid body growth.
● Movement felt by mother (quickening).
● Skin covered by vernix caseosa and lanugo hair.
Third Trimester (29–40 weeks):
● Fat deposition.
● Brain growth.
● Lungs mature (surfactant production).
7. Placenta
● Origin: Maternal endometrium + fetal trophoblast.
● Functions:
1. Exchange of oxygen, CO₂, nutrients, and wastes.
2. Hormone secretion: hCG, Progesterone, Estrogen, Human placental
lactogen (hPL).
3. Barrier to some harmful agents (but not viruses, alcohol, drugs).
8. Birth (Parturition)
● Stages:
○ Dilation Stage: Cervix dilates; amniotic sac ruptures.
○ Expulsion Stage: Baby delivered.
○ Placental Stage: Placenta expelled.
● Hormones:
○ Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions.
○ Prostaglandins: Enhance contractions.
9. Disorders
● Neural Tube Defects: Spina bifida, anencephaly.
● Chromosomal Abnormalities: Down syndrome (Trisomy 21), Turner’s syndrome
(XO).
● Teratogens:
○ Alcohol → Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.
○ Thalidomide → limb deformities.
○ TORCH infections (Toxoplasma, Others, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, Herpes).
10. Aging
● Definition: Progressive decline after maturity.
● Theories:
○ Wear-and-Tear: Accumulated damage to tissues.
○ Genetic Clock: Pre-programmed cell death.
○ Free Radical: Oxidative cell damage over time.
11. Key Experiments
● Spemann-Mangold Organizer: Dorsal lip of blastopore controls axis formation.
● Hans Driesch: Early embryonic cells are totipotent.
