Tropical forests (a.k.a.

jungle) are forested landscapes

in tropical regions: i.e. land areas approximately bounded by the tropic of
Cancer and Capricorn, but possibly affected by other factors such as prevailing
winds.
Forests are a precious resource provided by nature, which provides shelter for
many animals, birds, insects, reptiles and other living species. It is also a house
for varieties of plants and trees, from creeper to climber, herbs to shrubs and
long and giant trees.

Apart from animals and other living species, we all depend on these natural
resources for many things.

Forest ecosystems are a critical component of the

world’s biodiversity compared to other ecosystems. Globally, 5 to 6 per cent of
the earth’s land surface is covered by dense forests. About 70 to 80 per cent of
the world’s documented species can be found in these tropical forests.
Tropical forests also refer to tropical rainforests, with continuous rainfall
throughout the year. These include evergreen, seasonal, cloud forests, tropical
and subtropical. The tropical forests are situated in a broad zone outside the
equator. Globally these forests are found near the southern parts of Asia’s West
coast of India.
Other tropical rainforest places include Eastern Madagascar,
New Guinea, the West coast of India, Assam, Australia, the
Zaire basin, and the Pacific and Caribbean islands.
These rainforests consist of both biotic and abiotic factors and
are the largest ecosystems.

Types of Tropical Forests

• Moist, deciduous and semi-evergreen season.
• Flooded forest – They are found near the Amazon Basin of
South America, Indonesia and near the Congo Basin of
Central Africa.
• Montane rain forests or cloud forests – Found near the
Indian subcontinent, around the Caribbean, Central America
and other parts of Western coastal Africa.
• Lowland equatorial evergreen rain forests – Found in
mountain ranges between the altitude of 1500 and 3300 m.
 The Amazon is the world's largest and best known
tropical rainforest. As measured by primary forest
extent, the Amazon rainforest is more than three
times larger than that of the Congo Basin, the
world's second largest rainforest.

Tropical rainforests are one of the world’s most complex ecosystems.

These hot and humid forests harbor millions of species— 10 percent of
the world’s known species can be found in the Amazon alone—which
together form a unique structure that rises in stories from the forest
floor to the tops of the tallest trees.
• Features of Tropical Forest
An essential feature of the tropical rainforest is moisture, and
the major limiting factor is sunlight. It occurs in areas of heavy
rainfall, with relatively high temperatures and humidity
throughout the year. The yearly rain exceeds 2000 to 2250
millimetres, which ranges over the year. The average climate of
these tropical rainforests varies from warm and wet, with the
average annual temperature above 30 degrees C. The yearly
rainfall exceeds 2000 to 2250 millimetres, which ranges over
the year.

• Animals and Plants of Tropical Forest

The tropical rainforest is a wet and warm forest of trees that
grow very closely together. The moisture keeps the forest
interior warm and humid. Animals living in these rainforests
have been adapted to wet and warm climatic conditions.
The tropical rainforest is abundant with many species of wildlife and vegetation. Here
we can find a great and wide variety of colourful birds, dangerous animals, insects and a
lot more. Other animal species include jaguars, mountain gorillas, howler monkeys,
squirrels, monkeys, both poisonous and non-poisonous snakes, wide varieties of insects
and a lot more.

Nutrient-rich soil gives rise to tall trees that grow above 50 metres in height, and their
trunks measure 4 to 5 metres around with hardwood and broad leaves. Overall, these
trees look pretty similar to the umbrella from the top view of the forest. The most
common plants and trees of tropical forests include a wide variety of climbers, creepers,
epiphytes, stranglers, ferns, lianas, etc.

Resources of Tropical Forest

Tropical forests have maximum rates of terrestrial biodiversity with the most significant
living biomass. They are the most endangered habitat on earth and most vulnerable to
deforestation.
Around 140,000 sq. km of tropical forests are destroyed for timber and other wood
products every year. With the doubling of the human population every 5 to 10 years,
dense and substantial tropical forests are disappearing at an alarming rate.
 • HUMAN INTERACTION
Biodiversity is is the variety of life in a certain biome. For example, tropical
rainforests have a very high amount of biodiversity because tropical
rainforests contain so many different species of plants and animals.
Biodiversity is important because it helps keep biomes in order and to keep
them functioning. This is important to us because we get a lot of our food,
water, and resources from these biomes.
Human interaction is how humans affect a biome in both positive and
negative ways. There are many negative ways that humans affect the tropical
rainforests, but there are also some positive ways. One negative way is
logging. More than half the world's tropical rainforests have been lost due to
logging. Another negative impact is mining which also clears a lot of the
rainforest in order to have mining sites. One final way is agriculture.
Agricultural interests, mainly the soy industry, clear a lot of the forest so they
can plant crops.
Tropical Rainforest used to cover 14% of the earth, and they now only cover
6%. This is bad, but we also have positive human interactions! One positive
human interaction on tropical rainforests is reducing demand by persuading
people not to buy tropical hardwoods, which come from logging the tropical
rainforests. Another positive human interaction is conservation initiatives,
which is like WWF critical land and species in the tropical rainforests.
 • How do humans interact with the tropical rainforest?
Many activities contribute to this loss including subsistence activities,
oil extraction, logging, mining, fires, war, commercial agriculture,
cattle ranching, hydroelectric projects, pollution, hunting and
poaching, the collection of fuel wood and building material, and road
construction.
Human activity and development in the tropical rainforest has led to
the depletion of habitat for many of the earth's species.
Environmentalists estimate that we are losing 137 plant, animal, and
insect species every day due to rainforest deforestation.
Humans have converted forest to agricultural and urban uses,
exploited species, fragmented wildlands, changed the demographic
structure of forests, altered habitat, degraded the environment with
atmospheric and soil pollutants, introduced exotic pests and
competitors, and domesticated favored species.
 • Ecosystem threats include (1) climate change, (2) pollution, (3)
habitat destruction, (4) overexploitation, and (5) introduction of
invasive species.
Business and human activities can be direct threats to ecosystems.
They can cause destruction, degradation, and the impairment of
biodiversity and other natural resources. Ecosystem threats include
(1) climate change, (2) pollution, (3) habitat destruction,
(4) overexploitation, and (5) introduction of invasive species.
Business and human activities can stress the ecosystem they operate
in reducing its overall health and at some point the accumulation of
all negative impact from human activities can exceed the ecological
threshold of the planet. Driving these human activities are
population, affluence, and technology.
• Climate Change
Climate change is one of the greatest threats to sustainability. It is a
controversial and contested topic. The earth’s climate does fluctuate
over time due to a variety of factors. However, there is a significant
body of scientific research that indicates that global temperatures are
rising and that rising global temperatures are directly linked to human
activities involving the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG).
 • Pollution
Pollution is the contamination, harm, or disruption of the natural environment through
the emissions of harmful substances. Pollution is most typically associated
with anthropogenic sources but can also occur from natural activity, such as volcanic
eruptions. Pollution can impact air, water, and land. Pollutants include domestic,
industrial, and agricultural waste. It comes in many different forms and can be chemical
substances or noise, heat, or light.
• Habitat Destruction
Habitat destruction brought on by the activity of humans threatens resident species and
ecosystems. Two examples of habitat destruction are deforestation and desertification.
Deforestation occurs when a forest or stand of trees is removed, converting the land to a
nonforest use. This changes the ecosystem drastically and results in a dramatic loss of
biodiversity.
Deforestation can be the result of timber harvesting or of clearing land for agricultural,
commercial, or residential use. The loss of biodiversity and trees alters the ecosystem
and can result in aridity and erosion. It also results in climate change and extinction, and
it can lead to desertification if on a significant enough scale. The social impacts can
include displacement of indigenous peoples.
Desertification is the degradation of land quality and features low biodiversity, dry
conditions, and poor soil quality. Deserts are formed through both natural processes and
human activity.
 • Overexploitation
Overexploitation is a major threat to ecosystems and therefore
sustainability. It is the consumption of a natural resource at a rate
greater than that natural resource can maintain itself. Overhunting of
species (see “What Happened to All the Fish” as follows) is one of the
clearest examples of overexploitation, but there are other forms.
Land degradations are human-induced changes that impair the
capacity of the land to sustain life. Deforestation and overgrazing
exploit the land and result in the exceeding of sustainable yield.
• Invasive Species
Invasive species are brought on by transporting species either
intentionally or accidentally from other areas of the world. This can
be devastating to existing species as invasive species are introduced
on a timescale much more quickly than typically would happen with
evolution over longer time periods. This can include outcompeting
native species in the ecosystem, leading to the decline or extinction
of local species, and overpopulation as these invasive species may not
have any predators in this new ecosystem. They also can be a major
economic cost.
 Forests and non-timber forest products
Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are any product or service other than
timber that is produced in forests. They include fruits and nuts,
vegetables, fish and game, medicinal plants, resins, essences and a range
of barks and fibres such as bamboo, rattans, and a host of other palms
and grasses.
Over the past two decades, governments, conservation and development
agencies and non-government organisations have encouraged the
marketing and sale of NTFPs as a way of boosting income for poor people
in the tropics and encouraging forest conservation.
But different users define NTFPs differently, depending on their interests
and objectives. At CIFOR, the emphasis is on understanding how people
use forest resources, and on helping to improve the contribution these
resources make to the livelihoods of the world’s rural poor. Accordingly,
CIFOR uses an inclusive definition of NTFPs — one that even
encompasses wood products, such as those used for woodcarving or fuel.
Understanding NTFPs and people
NTFPs are used and managed in complex socio-economic and ecological
environments. In traditional forest communities, many NTFPs may be
used for subsistence while others are the main or only source of income.
Some NTFPs have significant cultural value, as totems, incense, and other
ritual items. Others have important medicinal value and contribute to the
community’s health and well-being.
 Forests and non-timber forest products
But as forest areas shrink, human populations grow, markets change, and
traditional management institutions lose their authority, the sustainable
production of many NTFPs is no longer assured. For example, as
international rattan prices increased in the 1980s and ‘90s, commercial
companies in Asia hired local people to harvest available resources.
Widespread over-exploitation resulted and in many places the resource
was destroyed, affecting the local biodiversity and leaving the people
without an important source of income.

While commercial NTFPs can be of considerable value to poor people, it is

important to recognize the constraints that exist outside the mere
collecting and harvesting of NTFPs. Poor people are poor because they
have limited access to markets, insufficient capital and generally weak
bargaining power. Some NTFPs may offer employment and income
generating opportunities. But realizing this potential will require investing
in other areas as well, such as micro-finance schemes, transport and
training. It is also important to understand how the whole NTFP chain
operates, from raw material production to the final market, to identify
bottlenecks and understand their potential.
• Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) contribute significantly
to a rural household's livelihood in the African semi-arid
tropics. On average, income from NTFPs accounted for 39%
of total household income and had a strong equalizing
effect on it. However, the economic relevance of NTFPs
differs between households: Poorer households are
relatively more dependent on NTFPs in order to fulfill basic
needs than wealthier households.
• However, the latter extract more NTFPs in quantitative
terms and have significantly higher cash returns than poorer
ones. This is mainly due to a significant greater land holding.
Net income from NTFPs reflects traditional sources of
livelihoods of different ethnic groups. In conclusion, both
conservation and development strategies should take into
consideration the socio-economic context of different
beneficiaries of savanna woodland resources in order to
apply appropriate measures to poverty reduction.
Ecosystem services are commonly defined as the benefits people
obtain from nature. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, a United
Nations report describing the condition and trends of the world's
ecosystems, categorizes ecosystem services as:
• Provisioning Services such as food, clean water, fuel, timber, and other goods;
Regulating Services such as climate, water, and disease regulation as well as
pollination;
Supporting Services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling; and
Cultural Services such as educational, aesthetic, and cultural heritage values,
recreation, and tourism.

Forests and grasslands provide a wide range of ecosystem services. In addition to

providing food, fuel and fiber, forests clean the air, filter water supplies, control floods
and erosion, sustain biodiversity and genetic resources, and provide opportunities for
recreation, education, and cultural enrichment. Sequestering (or releasing) carbon is a
form of climate regulation, which is another important ecosystem service provided by
forests and grasslands; specifics of climate regulation depend upon ecosystem
structure, composition, and management.
Forests and grasslands provide a wide range of ecosystem services. In
addition to providing food, fuel and fiber, forests clean the air, filter
water supplies, control floods and erosion, sustain biodiversity and
genetic resources, and provide opportunities for recreation,
education, and cultural enrichment. Sequestering (or releasing)
carbon is a form of climate regulation, which is another important
ecosystem service provided by forests and grasslands; specifics of
climate regulation depend upon ecosystem structure, composition,
and management.

Ecosystem services may be local, regional, or global in scale. For

example, the provision of clean water is most often a regional service,
most accessible to those within a watershed's boundaries. Climate
regulation can be local or global. By removing and releasing carbon
dioxide and other gases, ecosystems regulate the global climate, but
land-use change can affect local micro-climates by influencing
variables such as temperature and precipitation.
• What Is a Silvicultural System?
A silvicultural system is a planned program of silvicultural treatments
designed to achieve specific stand structure characteristics to meet site
objectives during the whole life of a stand.
A silvicultural system generally has the following basic goals:
• Provides for the availability of many forest resources (not just timber)
through spatial and temporal distribution.
• Produces planned harvests of forest products over the long term.
• Accommodates biological/ecological and economic concerns to ensure
sustainability of resources.
• Provides for regeneration and planned seral stage development.
• Effectively uses growing space and productivity to produce desired goods,
services, and conditions.
Meets the landscape- and stand-level goals and objectives of the landowner
(including allowing for a variety of future management options).
• Considers and attempts to minimize risks from stand-damaging agents such
as insects, disease, and windthrow.
• Even-aged and Uneven-aged Stands
Even-aged stands generally have one age class, although two age classes can
be found in some twolayered natural or managed stands. These stands
generally have a well-developed canopy with a regular top at a uniform
height. Pure even-aged stands generally have a nearly bell-shaped diameter
distribution. This means that most trees are in the average diameter class.
Uneven-aged stands have three or more well-represented and well-defined
age classes, differing in height, age, and diameter. Often these classes can be
broadly defined as regeneration (perhaps regeneration and sapling), pole, and
sawtimber (perhaps small and large sawtimber).
In the classic managed form, where diameters are a good approximation for
age, distribution of diameters will approach the classic inverted-J form. The
objective of such an approach is to promote sustained regular harvests, with
short intervals, at the stand level. Uneven-aged stands have an uneven and
highly broken or irregular canopy (often with many gaps). This broken canopy
allows for greater light penetration and encourages deeper crowns and
greater vertical structure in a stand. Integrating “Reserves”
 • The Clearcut System: The clearcut system manages successive
even-aged stands by cutting the entire stand of trees at planned
intervals (the rotation) then regenerating and tending a new stand
in place of the old. The clearcut system is the most straightforward
and easiest system to use, and has been applied around the world.
While it has been successful for pure timber management, especially
for valuable shadeintolerant species, concern over aesthetics, habitat
impacts, and watershed impacts have prompted interest in alternate
systems in many areas. A “clearcut” means a silvicultural system that
removes the entire stand of trees in a single harvesting operation
from an area that is about two acres or greater; and at least two tree
heights in width, and is designed to manage the area as an even-aged
stand.
• Seed Tree System: In a seed tree system the entire cutting unit is
managed as it is with clearcut systems except that, for a
designated time period, harvesting excludes those trees selected
for the purpose of supplying seed. Trees are generally left just to
supply seed for the next crop; therefore, the best phenotypes
should be selected to try to encourage desirable genetic traits to
meet specified management objectives.
• Shelterwood System In a shelterwood system the old stand is removed in a
series of cuttings to promote the establishment of a new even-aged stand
under the shelter of the old one. The primary intent of this system is to
protect and shelter the developing regeneration. Generally, shelterwood
systems aim at natural regeneration, although some planting may occur to
diversify the species mix, bolster stocking and introduce improved seed.
The central theme to shelterwoods is that the overstory leave-trees are
left on site to protect the regenerating understorey until the understorey
no longer requires the protection.

• Selection System Selection systems remove mature timber either as single

scattered individuals or in small groups at relatively short intervals,
repeated indefinitely, where an uneven-aged stand is maintained.
Regeneration should occur throughout the life of the stand with pulses
following harvest entries. These systems depend on recruitment of trees
into successive age classes over time and the predictable yield from
merchantable age classes.
 HarvestinG?
Harvesting includes marking the trees to be removed (in
selective cutting), felling and processing (conversion) of trees,
and transportation of the wood from the felling site, or stump
area, to a roadside storage site or a central processing yard
(landing) in the forest.
This timber harvesting method is small-scale clear-cutting
when a stand is cut down over 40-50 years by groups of trees.
A cut-down area depends on a grown plant type: openings of
less than one-quarter of an acre are suitable for shade-tolerant
trees and larger spaces for sun-loving trees.

Harvesting Methods
• Hand Harvesting.
• Harvesting with Hand Tools.
• Harvesting with Machinery.
There are many methods of timber harvesting, but selective logging is
the most sustainable method of harvesting trees. three common
methods: Group selection, Clearcutting, and Partial harvesting. Each of
these methods has its advantages, but there are also disadvantages.
Selective Logging Is The Most Sustainable Method Of Harvesting Trees
• Although there are many benefits of using selective logging as the
most sustainable method of harvesting trees, there are also many
disadvantages. Unlike clear-cutting, this practice has numerous
downsides, including increased fire risk, reduced seedling diversity,
and decreased carbon storage. Fortunately, there are some ways to
minimize these risks.
• The process of selective logging is a great way to maximize wood
production while still preserving the ecosystem. Although this
method still requires logging some trees, it does not result in
significant damage to the rest of the stand. In addition, the process
leaves small openings in the forest, which can be naturally regrown
through the seed fall of neighboring trees. Selective harvesting also
provides aesthetic diversity in young forests. While partial harvesting
costs more than other methods, it offers the most environmentally
friendly option.
While commercial logging is the most widespread method, selective
logging is an environmentally friendly alternative that preserves the
diversity of a forest. By removing the lower-risk trees while leaving
higher-potential trees in the forest, selective logging helps restore
forest health and increase seedling growth. While selective logging is
not completely sustainable, it can help preserve species and avoid
forest fires. The environmental benefits of this method are clear.

• Group Selection
One of the most important factors in determining the sustainable
level of tree harvesting is the type of trees that are cut. The type of
wood harvested by group selection depends on how the stands are
structured. Individual selection cutting is more beneficial for stands
with irregular structures, as the process enables the harvest of larger
trees. However, group selection harvesting is better for stands with
irregular stand structures, since the technique allows more
medium-sized trees to be harvested.
• Clearcutting
Clearcutting has long been a proven tool for managing native forests and has become a
preferred method of logging. It allows forest managers to control the species of trees they
harvest and re-establish healthy stands. However, it does not always result in the most
sustainable harvesting practice.
Another advantage to clearcutting is that it encourages the growth of species that require
higher light intensity. Clearcutting also frees up an area that is nearly double the height of
adjacent trees. This allows the most sunlight to reach the saplings and helps prevent them
from being shaded by other trees. Clearcutting is also one of the most efficient ways to
harvest a large volume of trees.

• Partial Harvesting
partial-cutting increased the number of trees and diversity by 50%, compared to
clear-cutting, which reduced diversity and increased erosion.
Although some forest landowners prefer this type of cutting, the process is not completely
sustainable and may cause more damage than a prescribed clearcut. In Pennsylvania, for
example, most forest stands are uniform in age and diameter, a result of extensive logging
during the turn of the century. Even in uniform stands, however, there are differences in
diameter between the trees. The trees that are crowded by dominant trees tend to have
smaller crowns and slower diameter growth.
One study found that partial harvesting is the most sustainable method of logging in mixed
temperate forests. In British Columbia, for example, it increased the abundance of southern
red-backed voles. And when it comes to small mammals, it reduces the richness of many
species.
 Conventional Vs Reduced Impact logging

Conventional logging is the most common form of logging used by

commercial companies to cut down selected mature trees for their
timber. This form of logging has a high impact on the forest but leads to
a desirable high yield for the logging companies.

Often times timber companies defend their method by claiming it is

selective and ensures re-growth since they are selecting only certain
types of trees to log and not all of them. In reality, large areas of
rainforests are often destroyed in order to remove the few selected logs.
For every selected tree that is logged, 10 to 20 others are severely
damaged and left to decompose, producing carbon emissions.

Heavy machinery is used to access the forests and many excessive roads
and skid trails are built, which both cause unnecessary trees to be felled
and compaction of the soil. Such significant soil compaction leads to
associated problems of decreased ability of roots to penetrate the soil,
increased erosion, and loss of soil nutrients due to lack of organic
matter, all of which hinder the possibility of regeneration.
Reduced impact logging (RIL) is a management practice often advocated to reduce
damage while maximizing sustained yield. It focuses on diversifying and adding value
to forest products, excluding certain zones of the forest from logging, and setting
aside areas for wildlife habitat. This is done through extensive pre-harvest planning,
where trees are inventoried and mapped out for the most efficient and
cost-effective harvest. Reduced impact logging leaves some trees behind to act as
“seed trees” to allow quicker re-growth. Skid trails and roads are minimized through
planning and all machinery uses rubber tires to reduce soil compaction and
disturbance as much as possible.

The direction of the felling of trees is controlled to produce the least amount of
damage to surrounding trees and forest resources, and vines that connect trees are
cut so felled trees don’t pull down others with them. The combination of these
management techniques allow for reduced forest damage and enhanced
regeneration, which in the long run leads to a more sustainable yield.

Studies in Southeast Asia, Africa, and South and Central America have clearly documented
that the undesired impacts of selective logging on residual stands and soils can be
substantially reduced through implementation of a series of recommended logging
practices by crews that are appropriately trained, supervised, and compensated.
Reduced impact logging (RIL) is the intensively planned and carefully controlled
implementation of timber harvesting operations to minimize environmental
impacts on forest stands and soils. It involves a number of practical measures, such
as:
Pre-harvest forest inventories and the mapping of individual crop trees
• The pre-harvest planning of roads, skid trails and landings to minimize soil
disturbance and to protect streams and waterways with appropriate crossings
• Pre-harvest vine-cutting in areas where heavy vines connect tree crowns
• The construction of roads, landings and skid trails in accordance with
environmentally friendly design principles
• The use of appropriate felling and bucking techniques, such as directional
felling, cutting stumps low to the ground to avoid waste, and the optimal
crosscutting of tree stems into logs in ways that maximize the recovery of useful
wood
• The winching of logs to planned skid trails, ensuring that skidding machines
remain on trails at all times
• Where feasible, the use of yarding systems that protect soils and residual
vegetation by suspending logs above the ground or by otherwise minimizing soil
disturbance
• Conducting post-harvest assessments to provide feedback to resource
managers and logging crews and to evaluate the degree to which RIL guidelines
have been applied.
Ecological models can be used for survey, to
reveal system properties, establish research
priorities, and to test scientific hypotheses.
Hence, we consider them useful as
experimental tools.

Ecosystem modelling can be used to provide

necessary information for developing regional
conservation and development strategy for
optimising land use. It can also be used to
derive different development scenarios.