Module 2

Highway Geometrics

National Highway cross-sections in embankment and cutting are designed with specific
geometric standards to ensure safety and efficiency. Embankment sections involve raising the
road above the natural ground, while cutting sections involve lowering the ground
level. These sections include elements like carriageway width, shoulders, side slopes, and
drainage features, all designed to accommodate traffic and environmental conditions

Embankment Sections:

 Carriageway:

The paved width for traffic, typically 3.75m per lane for single-lane roads,
increasing with more lanes. Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement
depends on the width of the traffic lane and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane
depends on the width of the vehicle and the clearance. Side clearance improves
operating speed and safety.

 Shoulders:

Provide space for stopped vehicles and lateral support for the
pavement. Recommended width is 2.5m for 2-lane rural highways.

 Side Slopes:

The angle at which the embankment slopes down to the ground, often 2:1
(horizontal:vertical) or 1.5:1 depending on the soil type and height of the
embankment.

 Right of Way: The total width of land acquired for the highway, including the road
itself and any adjacent land.

 Roadway Width: The total width of the road, including lanes and shoulders.

 Kerb: A raised edge that delineates the pavement from the shoulder or verge, helping
with drainage and vehicle separation.

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  Camber:

The cross-slope of the pavement and shoulders to facilitate drainage, typically 2-3%.c amber
or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off rain water from road surface. The objectives of providing camber are:

 Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads

 Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
 Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety
Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Camber is measured in 1 in n or n
% (Eg. 1 in 50 or 2%) and the value depends on the type of pavement surface. The values
suggested by IRC for various categories of pavement are given in Table 1. The common
types of camber are parabolic, straight, or combination of them

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 Drainage:
Ditches or other features to channel water away from the road

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VARIOUS COMPONENTS

GRADIENT

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Factors to Consider for Road Gradient

The type of road surface

Drainage required

Nature of the ground

Nature of the traffic

Safety Required

Road and railway interaction

Bridge Approaches

The total height to be covered

Different types of road gradients

Ruling gradient

The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the maximum gradient with which the designer
attempts to design the vertical profile of the road. This depends on the terrain, length of the
grade, speed, pulling power of the vehicle and the presence of the horizontal curve. In flatter
terrain, it may be possible to provide flat gradients, but in hilly terrain it is not economical
and sometimes not possible also. The ruling gradient is adopted by the designer by
considering a particular speed as the design speed and for a design vehicle with standard
dimensions.

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Limiting gradient

This gradient is adopted when the ruling gradient results in enormous increase in cost of
construction. On rolling terrain and hilly terrain it may be frequently necessary to adopt a
limiting gradient. But the length of the limiting gradient stretches should be limited and must
be sandwiched by either straight roads or easier grades.

Exceptional gradient

Exceptional gradients are very steeper gradients given at unavoidable situations. They should
be limited for short stretches not exceeding about 100 metres at a stretch. In mountainous and

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steep terrain, successive exceptional gradients must be separated by a minimum 100 metre
length gentler gradient.

Minimum gradient

Minimum gradient is used at locations where surface drainage is important. Camber will take
care of the lateral drainage. But the longitudinal drainage along the side drains require some
slope for smooth flow of water. Therefore minimum gradient is provided for drainage
purposes and it depends on the rain fall, type of soil and other site conditions. A minimum of
1 in 500 may be sufficient for concrete drain and 1 in 200 for open soil drains are found to
give satisfactory performance..

Design speed

Design speed is the maximum safe speed at which vehicles can travel on a road under ideal
conditions, and it significantly influences the road's geometric design. This includes factors

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like curves, sight distances, and lane widths. It's a crucial parameter for ensuring safety and
efficiency in road design.

SIGHT DISTANCE

Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface, over which
a driver from a specified height above the carriage way has visibility of stationary or moving
objects. Three sight distance situations are considered for design:

• Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance

• Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is defined as twice SSD

• Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation

• Head light sight distance is the distance visible to a driver during night driving under the
illumination of head lights

• Safe sight distance to enter into an intersection

STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

Stopping sight distance is the minimum distance required for the driver to stop a vehicle
moving at design speed, without colliding with an obstruction. Stopping sight distance
comprises two parts, namely, lag distance and braking distance.

Factors Affecting Stopping Sight Distance

As said, stopping sight distance is the minimum distance required for the driver to stop a
vehicle moving at design speed, without colliding with an obstruction. It depends on five
factors as mentioned below.
1. Design speed
2. Reaction time
3. Co-efficient of longitudinal friction
4. Longitudinal slope
5. The efficiency of the brakes

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ROAD DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The road drainage system is used to remove and dispose of surface and subsurface water. It
maintains the road’s stability and durability by keeping it as dry as possible. Water becomes
more prone to contamination the longer it remains on a surface. Highway design and
construction are not complete without the installation of suitable surface and subsurface
drainage systems

Purpose of road drainage

 Road drainage keeps the road surface and foundation as dry as possible.

 It maintains the road’s durability and stability.

 To maintain highway transportation at a low cost, a good drainage system is

necessary.

Why is drainage needed for roads?

Road drainage systems are installed to collect surface water run-off and protect the road’s
surface and subsurface from flooding. It is required for the following reasons:

 Prevent seepage, ponding, and flooding.

 Keep the carriageway, cycle way, and footpath free of water.
 Maintain as much dryness as possible for the underlying road structure.
 Prevent damage from hazardous surface water.
 Preventing surface water from flooding adjacent properties
Road Drainage System Requirements
The following are the requirements for a successful roadway drainage system:

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  The carriageway’s and shoulder’s surface water should be adequately drained off.
 Surface water from adjacent land should be kept out of the roadway.
 To remove all of the surface water gathered from the road, the side drain must have
enough capacity and a longitudinal slope.
 The flow of surface water across the road, shoulders, and slopes should not cause
erosion or cross ruts.
 It is important to effectively intercept and drain off seepage and other underground
water sources.
 Special precautions should be taken in water-logged areas.
 The road surface needs to have a good camber so that water can drain off quickly.

ROAD ARBORICULTURE

Roadside development and arboriculture are undertaken to achieve the following

objects/benefits:

1.To provide an attractive landscape of roadside.

2. To provide pleasant views of parking places.
3. To prevent soil erosion from the roadside.

4. To reduce headlight glare during night driving by the planted shrubs.

5. To intercept the annoying sound waves and fumes from road vehicles by the planted trees.
6. It provides shed to the road user.

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CURVE

A curve is nothing but an arc which connects two straight lines which are separated by some
angle called deflection angle. This situation occurs where the alignment of a road way or rail
way changes its direction because of unavoidable objects or conditions. The object may be a
hill or a lake or a temple etc. so, for the ease of movement of vehicle at this point a curve is
provided.

Types of Curves in Alignment of Highways

In general, there are two types of curves and they are

 Horizontal curves
 Vertical curves
Horizontal Curves
The curve provided in the horizontal plane of earth is called as horizontal curve. In connects
two straight lines which are in same level but having different directions. Horizontal curves
are of different types as follows

 Simple circular curve

 Compound curve
 Reverse curve
 Transition curve
 Spiral
 Lemniscate

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Compound Curve
Compound curve is a combination of two or more simple circular curves with different radii.
In this case both or all the curves lie on the same side of the common tangent.

Reverse Curve
Reverse curve is formed when two simple circular curves bending in opposite directions are
meet at a point. This points is called as point of reverse curvature. The center of both the
curves lie on the opposite sides of the common tangent. The radii of both the curves may be
same or different.

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Transition Curve
A curve of variable radius is termed as transition curve. It is generally provided on the sides
of circular curve or between the tangent and circular curve and between two curves of
compound curve or reverse curve etc. Its radius varies from infinity to the radius of provided
for the circular curve. Transition curve helps gradual introduction of centrifugal force by
gradual super elevation which provides comfort for the passengers in the vehicle without
sudden jerking.

a)Lemniscate
Lemniscate is a type of transition curve which is used when the deflection angle is very large.
In lemniscate the radius of curve is more if the length of chord is less.

b)Spiral Curve
Spiral is a type of transition curve which is recommended by IRC as ideal transition curve
because of its smooth introduction of centrifugal acceleration. It is also known as clothoid.

Vertical Curves
The curves provided in vertical plane of earth is called as vertical curve. This type of curves
are provided when the ground is non-uniform or contains different levels at different points.
In general parabolic curve is preferred as vertical curve in the vertical alignment of roadway
for the ease of movement of vehicles. But based on the convexity of curve vertical curves are
divided into two types

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  Valley curve
 Summit curve

Valley Curve
Valley curve connects falling gradient with rising gradient so, in this case convexity of curve
is generally downwards. It is also called as sag curve.

Summit Curve
Summit curve connects rising gradient with falling gradient hence, the curve has its convexity
upwards. It is also called as crest curve.

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EXTRA WIDENING OF HIGHWAY

Extra widening on the curves of the road refers to the additional width of the carriageway that
is required on a curved section of the road over and above the width required on the straight
section.

Additional width at the horizontal curve is required due to the following reasons.

1) Rigidity of wheelbase:- Due to the rigidity of wheelbase, the rear wheel of the vehicle
moving along the curve does not follow the same track/path taken by front steering curves. i.e
Off-tracking.

2) Preferential use of outer lanes:- A driver prefers the outer lane for greater visibility and
easy gradient.

3) More clearance between opposite vehicles:- Where the road visibility is inadequate,
drivers, to be on the safer side, have a tendency to keep greater clearance between opposite
vehicles on curves of the road.

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4) Difference in slip angle:- It has been observed that when the vehicle is understeering, the
slip angle of the front tires is more than of the rear tyre/wheels and the front tyre may tend to
go out of pavement. In oversteering vehicles vice versa.

Types of Extra Widening

A) Mechanical extra widening (Wm)

B) Psychological extra widening (Ws)

A) Mechanical extra widening

It is the amount of extra width required due to the rigidity of the wheelbase

Wm = n (L2/2R)

B) Psychological extra widening

The widening required due to the psychosocial tendency to maintain greater clearance
between vehicles is called psychological widening.

Hence, total extra widening = Mechanical widening + Psychological widening

SUPERELEVATION

Superelevation is the transverse slope provided to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and
reduce the tendency of vehicle to overturn and to skid laterally outwards by raising the pavement
outer edge with respect to inner edge. superelevation is represented by “ e ”.

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Where e = rate of superelevation in % f = lateral friction factor = 0.15 V =
velocity of vehicle in m/s g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s 2 R =
radius of circular curve in meters.

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Materials Used in Road Construction

Road materials can be versatile to cater to a variety of road types and categories. Commonly
used road materials range from natural soils, aggregates, binders such as lime, asphalt,
concrete, and assorted products used as admixtures for improved road quality.

1. Soil

Soil is the principal material for the foundation, subgrade, or even the pavement (for low-cost
village roads with light traffic). On the other hand, when highways are built on an
embankment at the desired level, soil is used as the principal embankment material.
Moreover, because all constructions must eventually rest on and transmit loads to ‘mother
earth,’ soil and rock serve as foundation materials.

Most of the time, the soil is used after some sort of stabilization treatment, such as
compaction and strengthening by adding appropriate admixtures, to improve the performance
of the road. Mineral aggregates derived from rocks are the primary component of practically
all highway pavement sub-bases and bases.

Soils, as a natural material, have many properties that must be carefully considered before
constructing a road. For example, soils with more clay and silt particles are more prone to
erosion and contraction when exposed to water. To avoid performance degradation, such soils
require particular care.

2. Aggregate

Aggregates are used in the construction of granular bases, sub-bases, bituminous mixes, and
cement concrete. They are also the fundamental component of a relatively inexpensive road
known as a water-bound macadam.

Stone aggregate, often known as mineral aggregate, is by far the most important component
of road construction materials. It is created by fracturing naturally occurring rocks into coarse
aggregate (like gravel) or fine aggregate (like sand).

Similar to soil, aggregates also need to be evaluated by a road engineer to ensure that they are
sturdy and durable enough for a specific project. These properties are influenced by their
origin, mineral components, and the nature of the bonds between the components.

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To ensure sturdy and durable roads, aggregates like dirt must be evaluated by a road
engineer. Their origin, mineral components, and adhesion forces between the components all
have an impact on these qualities.

3. Asphalt and Bitumen

Asphalt and bitumen are frequently confused as the same item, but they are not. While
asphalt is a mixture of aggregates, binder, and filler and is used to build roads and associated
furniture, bitumen is the semi-solid glue that works as the binding agent in asphalt.

Bitumen, commonly known as mineral tar, is produced from the incomplete distillation of
crude petroleum. It is composed of 87% carbon, 11% hydrogen, and 2% oxygen.

Asphalt, on the other hand, is produced in a plant that heats, dries, and mixes aggregate,
bitumen, and sand into a composite mix. Depending on the type of project, the material is
subsequently applied on-site with a paving machine at a specified or required thickness.

When asphalt is employed in road construction, it takes the form of a composite material
known as asphalt concrete. This road construction material is made up of 70% asphalt and
30% aggregate. Asphalt is 100% recyclable, making it one of the most preferred materials for
road construction.

4. Cement Concrete

Cement concrete is by far the best road material in terms of durability and toughness, and it is
also known for its flexibility and ease of construction. It is made by combining cement,
coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, water, and chemical admixtures (which account for 25–40%
of the total weight of the concrete). A major drawback of cement-based concrete is its
contribution to carbon emissions.

Although its initial cost is high, considering its long span of life and low maintenance, the
life-cycle cost of cement concrete roads becomes rather low. Concrete can also be utilised to
increase the tensile strength of existing pavement layers.

Because of the excellent binding property of cement, well-mixed concrete contains very few
voids and quickly sets and hardens. The concrete, when cured with water, provides a durable,
stable, and long-lasting road surface that can withstand repeated impacts from heavy
commercial vehicles.

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5. Composite Pavement

This type of pavement combines cement, concrete, and asphalt to create a “super” pavement.

Because composite pavements can offer higher levels of performance and durability, both
physically and functionally, they may eventually become less expensive than regular
pavements.

Concrete has the drawback of being prone to issues like reflective cracking and rutting in the
surface layer. However, these potential problems can be avoided by using a high-quality
asphalt surface or other (expensive) mitigation measures.

6. Eco-Friendly Road Materials

There is growing pressure on road builders to reduce their carbon footprint. This is significant
in light of the fact that cement, a crucial component in the construction of roads, emits one
tonne of carbon for every tonne that is produced.

The use of alternative road construction materials, such as recycled crushed concrete, which
can result in significant energy and manufacturing cost reductions, can reduce carbon
emissions.

Utilising environment-friendly concrete, which reduces the need for Portland cement in road
construction, is another way to achieve sustainability.

Additionally, by using recycled materials and components made from industrial waste,
greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced, along with the cost of construction.

Recycled concrete aggregate, recovered asphalt pavement, and coal combustion products
from coal-fired power plants are the ingredients of more sustainable road construction.

Test on Aggregates

Aggregate is used in layers of the flexible pavement. Therefore, testing of aggregates

becomes important. Properties like strength, toughness, etc. are all checked as explained

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below. As such aggregate testing could be classified into two broad categories as mentioned
below.

1. Test for Strength of Aggregate

2. Test for Shape of Aggregate

Test for Strength of Aggregate

Crushing Test of Aggregates

This test is done to find the strength of aggregates. The test procedure involves the following
steps.

1. The aggregate specimen is weighed (W1).

2. The specimen is filled in a cylindrical mold of diameter 15.2cm in three layers with
each layer being subjected to 25 blows.
3. A plunger of diameter 15cm is placed on the top of the mold.
4. The entire setup is placed in a compression testing machine and is subjected to a load
rating of 4 tons/min until it reaches a load of 40ton.
5. After attaining the max load, the load is released and is allowed to settle down.
6. The specimen is taken and sieved in a 2.36mm sieve. The weight of material retained
in the sieve is found (W2).

Crushing value = ((W1 - W2 ) / W1) *100

For a good quality aggregate, the crushing value should be as low as possible. IRC
recommends a crushing strength of 30% for the wearing course and 45% for the base course.

Impact Test of Aggregates

This test is done to find the toughness characteristics of aggregates. The test procedure
involves the following steps.

1. The aggregate specimen is weighed (W1).

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 2. The specimen is filled in a cylindrical mold in three layers with each layer being
subjected to 25 blows.
3. A hammer weighing 13.5 to 14kg is dropped on the specimen from a height of 38cm
15 times.
4. The specimen is taken and sieved in a 2.36mm sieve. The weight of material passing
the sieve is found (W2).

Impact value = (W2 / W1) *100

For a good quality aggregate, the impact value should be as low as possible. IRC
recommends an impact value of 30% for the wearing course and 45% for the base course.

Abrasion Test of Aggregates

Abrasion test is done to find the wearing and tearing characteristics of the aggregate. Los
Angels abrasion test is usually performed. The test procedure involves the following steps.

1. A specimen of aggregate (5 - 10kgs) is taken and weighed (W1)

2. Los Angel's apparatus consists of a hollow drum with a diameter of 70cm and length
of 50cm. The cylinder is placed in a horizontal position.
3. The specimen is loaded up in the cylinder and the abrasion charges are placed.
(Abrasion charges are spheres made of cast iron having a diameter of 48mm each and
a weight of 390-450gm each). The drum is rotated at 30-33 rpm for a total revolution
of 500-1000.
4. The specimen is taken and sieved in a 1.7mm sieve and passing material weight is
obtained (W2).

Abrasion Value = (W2/W1) * 100

The abrasion value shall not exceed 30% for the wearing course and 45-50% for the base
course.

Soundness Test of Aggregates

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This test is done to check the durability characteristics of the aggregate. The test procedure
involves the following steps.

1. A sample of aggregate is taken (W1)

2. It is immersed in a solution of sodium sulfate or magnesium sulfate for 16 to 18 hours
3. After immersion, the sample is taken out from the solution and it is dried at a
temperature of 105 to 110°C
4. The dried aggregate is immersed once again in the magnesium sulfate or sodium
sulfate solution and the process is repeated 10 times
5. After 10 cycles the weight of the specimen of aggregate is obtained (W2)

Soundness Value = ((W1-W2) / W1) * 100

The soundness value shall not exceed 12% in the case of sodium sulfate solution and 18% in
the case of magnesium sulfate solution.

Test for Shape of Aggregate

Three types of tests are available to determine the shape of aggregates. Below mentioned are
the tests available.
 Flakiness Test
 Elongation Test
 Angularity Test

Flakiness Index Test

A flakiness test is done to find the thickness of the aggregate i.e., the least lateral dimension.
The thickness of the aggregate or least lateral dimension should not be less than 0.6 times the
mean size of the aggregate i.e., 0.6(x+y/2), where, x smaller size of the aggregate in the
sample, y is the larger size of the aggregate.

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The flakiness index is the ratio of the weight of particles/aggregates smaller than 0.6 times
the mean size to the weight of the total sample of aggregate. In other words, % by weight of
particles smaller than 0.6 times the mean size.

Flakiness index = (W2/W1) * 100

where,

W2 - the weight of aggregate passing through a slot having size 0.6 times the mean size of
the aggregate
W1 - Total weight of the aggregate specimen

The flakiness index shall not exceed 15%

Elongation Index Test

Elongation represents the greatest dimension of aggregate which shall not exceed 1.8 times
the mean size of the aggregate.

The elongation index is defined as the % of the weight of aggregate having size more than 1.8
times the mean size.

ELongation index = (W2/W1) * 100

where,

W2 - the weight of aggregate retained on slot having size 1.8 times the mean size of
aggregate
W1 - Total weight of the aggregate sample

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The elongation index shall not exceed 15%. The combined value of flakiness and elongation
index shall not exceed 30%

Angularity Number Test

Angularity represents the opposite of roundness. If the aggregate is angular beyond a certain
limit more voids will be present which is not preferable. According to Indian Standard, the
maximum percentage of solids in aggregate is 67%. This means the standard voids in the
aggregate is 33%. If the void percentage is greater than 33% then it means that the aggregate
is angular.

The angularity number is defined as the percentage of void in excess of 33% or the
percentage of solid lower than 67%.

Angularity Number = 67% - ((Vs/V)*100)

where,
Vs - the volume of solids
V - total volume of aggregates
Angularity Number = 67% - ((Ws/Gs*V)*100)

where,
Ws - the weight of solids
Gs - specific gravity of solids

The angularity number shall be in a range of 0 to 11%.

Different Forms of Bitumen

1. Cutback Bitumen

Normal practice is to heat bitumen to reduce its viscosity. In some situations preference is
given to use liquid binders such as cutback bitumen. In cutback bitumen suitable solvent is

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used to lower the viscosity of the bitumen. From the environmental point of view also
cutback bitumen is preferred. The solvent from the bituminous material will evaporate and
the bitumen will bind the aggregate. Cutback bitumen is used for cold weather bituminous
road construction and maintenance. The distillates used for preparation of cutback bitumen
are naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil, and furnace oil. There are different types of cutback
bitumen like rapid curing (RC), medium curing (MC), and slow curing (SC). RC is
recommended for surface dressing and patchwork. MC is recommended for premix with less
quantity of fine aggregates. SC is used for premix with appreciable quantity of fine
aggregates.

2. Bitumen Emulsion

Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a finely divided

condition in an aqueous medium and stabilised by suitable material. Normally cationic type
emulsions are used in India. The bitumen content in the emulsion is around 60% and the
remaining is water. When the emulsion is applied on the road it breaks down resulting in
release of water and the mix starts to set. The time of setting depends upon the grade of
bitumen. The viscosity of bituminous emulsions can be measured as per IS: 8887-1995.
Three types of bituminous emulsions are available, which are Rapid setting (RS), Medium
setting (MS), and Slow setting (SC). Bitumen emulsions are ideal binders for hill road
construction. Where heating of bitumen or aggregates are difficult. Rapid setting emulsions
are used for surface dressing work. Medium setting emulsions are preferred for premix jobs
and patch repairs work. Slow setting emulsions are preferred in rainy season.

3. Bituminous Primers

In bituminous primer the distillate is absorbed by the road surface on which it is spread. The
absorption therefore depends on the porosity of the surface. Bitumen primers are useful on
the stabilised surfaces and water bound macadam base courses. Bituminous primers are
generally prepared on road sites by mixing penetration bitumen with petroleum distillate.

4. Modified Bitumen

Certain additives or blend of additives called as bitumen modifiers can improve properties of
Bitumen and bituminous mixes. Bitumen treated with these modifiers is known as modified

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bitumen. Polymer modified bitumen (PMB)/ crumb rubber modified bitumen (CRMB)
should be used only in wearing course depending upon the requirements of extreme climatic
variations. The detailed specifications for modified bitumen have been issued by IRC: SP:
53-1999. It must be noted that the performance of PMB and CRMB is dependent on strict
control on temperature during construction. The advantages of using modified bitumen are as
follows

 Lower susceptibility to daily and seasonal temperature variations

 Higher resistance to deformation at high pavement temperature
 Better age resistance properties
 Higher fatigue life for mixes
 Better adhesion between aggregates and binder
 Prevention of cracking and reflective cracking
The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In general,
Bitumen should posses following desirable properties.

 The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the hottest
weather the mix should not become too soft or unstable, and during cold
weather the mix should not become too brittle causing cracks.
 The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be
adequate. This can be achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of suitable
grades or by heating the bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing.
 There should be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and
aggregates used in the mix.

Pavement
A pavement is one type of hard surface made from durable surface material laid down on an
area which is intended to carry vehicular or foot traffic. its main function is to distribute the
applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade through different layers. The road structure should
provide sufficient skid resistance, proper riding quality, favorable light reflecting
characteristics, and low noise pollution. Its goal to reduce the vehicle transmitted load, so that
they will not exceed bearing capacity of the sub-grade. The pavements or roads are paying a
crucial role in the development of any construction.

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Pavement Structure and its Components

Pavement structure is a combination of

 Sub-base course

 Base course

 and Surface course

These components are placed on a subgrade to support the traffic load and distribute it to
the roadbed soil.

Sub-base course

The layer (or) layers of specified or selected material designed thickness placed on a
subgrade to support a base course or a surface course.

Base course

The layer (or) layers of specified or selected material designed thickness placed on a sub
base to support a surface course.

Surface course

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The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and normally contains the
highest quality materials. It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, noise
control, rut, and shoving resistance and drainage.

Types of pavements:

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There are major two types of pavement based on their structure,

1. Flexible pavement.

2. Rigid Pavement.

1.Flexible pavements

In Flexible pavement, wheel loads are transferred to subgrade by grain-to-grain transfer

through the points of contact in the granular structure. The wheel load stresses acting on the
pavement are distributed to a larger area and the stress decreases with the depth. Considering
this load distribution characteristic of flexible pavements, it has many layers. It transmits
load to the subgrade through a combination of layers. Flexible pavement distributes load over
a relatively smaller area of the subgrade beneath. The initial installation cost of a flexible
pavement is quite low which is why this type of pavement is more commonly seen
universally. However, the flexible pavement requires maintenance and routine repairs
every few years. In addition, flexible pavement deteriorates rapidly; cracks and potholes are
likely to appear due to poor drainage and heavy vehicular traffic.

2.RIGID PAVEMENT
Rigid pavement can either be a cement concrete slab or cement reinforced concrete
constructed directly on sub grade or improved sub grade (using a dry lean concrete layer).

In rigid pavements joints need to be taken care by sufficient reinforcement or aggregate

interlocking action. The design is based on the stiffness of the slab supported by stiffness of
subgrade soil.

In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the pavement behaves like an
elastic plate resting on a viscous medium. Rigid pavements are constructed by Portland
cement concrete (PCC) and should be analyzed by plate theory instead of layer theory,
assuming an elastic plate resting on viscous foundation. Plate theory is a simplified version of
layer theory that assumes the concrete slab as a medium thick plate which is plane before
loading and to remain plane after loading.

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