Introduction to

Quantum Computing
Quantum Computing
Why Quantum!
 MOORE’S LAW

• Moore's law is the observation that the number of transistors in an

integrated circuit (IC) doubles about every two years.
• The observation named after Gordon Moore, the co-founder of Fairchild
Semiconductor and Intel (and former CEO of the latter), postulated this
law in 1965.
 MOORE’S LAW & ITS END
• Moore’s law will come to a potential standstill in near future.
• Transistors can’t get smaller forever!
• And this bound is necessitated by Quantum Mechanics, more specifically,
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle.
• Increasing the number of transistors - reduction in size of the transistors.
• Now decreasing the transistor size too much would mean constricting the
flow of electricity- rather, constricting the channel of electron flow.
• Hence, it would mean the electron could tunnel out of the circuit
components, rendering them unusable.
• Other complications that hinders the miniaturization as predicted by
Moore’s law are heating issues and power issues.
• Thus, we see that increasing the processing power of a computer by
miniaturizing the IC chips has a potential drawback.
 The power of quantum algorithms
• Problems that are fundamentally unsolvable by classical algorithms
cannot be solved by quantum algorithms either.
• The added value of quantum algorithms is that they can solve some
problems significantly faster than classical algorithms.
• The best-known examples are Shor’s algorithm and Grover’s
algorithm.
• Shor’s algorithm is a quantum algorithm for integer factorization.
• Simply put, when given an integer N, it will find its prime factors.
• It can solve this problem exponentially faster than the best-known
classical algorithm can.
• Grover’s algorithm can search an unstructured database or
unordered list quadratically faster than the best classical algorithm
with this purpose.
 Hard Problems – Exponential Time

• The need for quantum computing arises from the limitations

of classical computing.
• While classical computers have made remarkable advances in
the past few decades, they still face significant challenges in
solving certain types of problems.

• Simulating physical systems (molecular/atomic/subatomic/

nuclear/particle physics simulations) would be more efficient
on a quantum computers because the physical world is
inherently quantum.
 Quantum Computing - Introduction
• A quantum computer is a machine
that performs calculations based
on the laws of quantum
mechanics.
• In a quantum computer,
information is encoded in qubits,
the quantum equivalent to
classical bit.

• The laws of quantum mechanics allow qubits to encode exponentially

more information than bits.
• By manipulating information stored in these qubits, scientists can quickly
produce high-quality solutions to difficult problems.
• Quantum computers take advantage of quantum mechanical phenomena
like quantum superposition and entanglement and can perform
calculations exponentially faster than any modern classical computer.
 Quantum Computing - Introduction
• Quantum computing holds promise for solving complex problems in fields
such as cryptography, optimization, drug discovery, and material science
much faster than classical computers.
• Even though the field of quantum computing is at the developing stage,
there are instances where quantum computers (currently with few
number of qubits) outperform the classical counterparts.
• Here are some examples:
• In October 2019, Google AI Quantum, with the help of NASA, became the
first to claim to have achieved quantum supremacy by performing
calculations on the Sycamore quantum computer more than 3,000,000
times faster than they could be done on “Summit”, generally considered
the world's fastest computer.
 Quantum Computing - Introduction
• In December 2020, a group at USTC (China) implemented a type of Boson
sampling on 76 photons with a photonic quantum computer, Jiuzhang, to
demonstrate quantum supremacy.
• The authors claim that a classical contemporary supercomputer would
require a computational time of 600 million years to generate the number
of samples their quantum processor can generate in 20 seconds.
• A quantum algorithm called the Shor’s algorithm, put forward by Peter
Shor, can efficiently find prime factors of an integer.
• Factoring is believed to be hard for classical computers and the best-
known classical algorithm for factoring runs in subexponential time.
• Shor’s algorithm is one of the few known quantum algorithms with
compelling potential applications and strong evidence of superpolynomial
speedup compared to best-known classical algorithms.
• (Currently, this algorithm is not fully exploited because factoring numbers
of practical significance requires far more qubits than presently available.)
 Challenges

• Presently quantum computing is in developing stage.

• Building practical and scalable quantum computers remains a
significant challenge.
• It is due to the delicate nature of qubits and the need to
maintain their quantum properties while performing
computations.
• Quantum superpositions and entangled states are exquisitely
fragile.
• They can be destroyed by slight perturbations from the
environment—or by attempts to measure them.
• A quantum computer needs protection from external noises.
 Technological leaders in quantum computing
• IBM - IBM is the current leader in quantum computing.
Recently, IBM unveiled “Condor”, a 1,121
superconducting qubit quantum processor.
• Google Quantum AI
• Amazon Braket
• Microsoft Azure
• Intel
• D-Wave
• Rigetti
• Xanadu
• Quantinuum
 Classical Computing and Classical Bit
• Computing – processing information
• Information is encoded in some physical systems
• Digital computing – basic unit of information is a bit
• A bit is capable of storing one piece of information, it can have a
value of either 0 or 1.
• A classical binary bit can only represent a single binary value, such
as 0 or 1, meaning that it can only be in one of two possible states.
• Either there is a current flow i.e. 1 or no current flow i.e., 0.
• With n bits, there is 2^n possible states, only one at a time.
• Everything i.e. our computers, supercomputers, servers, calculators
etc. stores the information using classical bit.
• Bit - physical system with two distinct states
• Basic unit of classical computation is a logic gate
• Information encoded in bit is processed using logic gates
 Qubit
• Quantum computation and quantum information are built
upon an analogous concept, the qubit – quantum bit.
• Qubit is the basic unit of information used to encode data in
quantum computing.
• Just as a classical bit has a state – either 0 or 1 – a qubit also
has a state.
• Two possible states for a qubit are the states |0⟩ and |1⟩,
which is analogous to the states 0 and 1 for a classical bit.
 Qubit
• The difference between bits and qubits is that a qubit can be
in a state other than |0⟩ or |1⟩.
• It is also possible to form linear combinations of states, often
called superpositions:
𝜓 = 𝛼 0 + 𝛽|1⟩
• Coefficients 𝛼 and 𝛽 are in general complex numbers, called
amplitudes.
 Qubit
• Put another way, the state of a qubit is a vector in a two-
dimensional complex vector space.
• The states |0⟩ and |1⟩ form an orthonormal basis for this
vector space.
• In the context of quantum computing, the states |0⟩ and
|1⟩ are known as computational basis states (or the standard
basis).
• The matrix representations of the basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩ are
1
0 =
0
0
1 =
1
 Measurement on Qubits
• Suppose a quantum system is in a superposed state 𝜓 = 𝛼 0 + 𝛽|1⟩
• If you measure the state of this system, you will always get either |0⟩ or
|1⟩ as a result of your measurement.
• i.e., we cannot examine a qubit to determine its quantum state, that is,
the values of α and β.
• Instead, quantum mechanics tells us that we can only acquire much more
restricted information about the quantum state.
• When we measure a qubit we get either the result |0⟩, with probability
𝛼 2 , or the result |1⟩, with probability 𝛽 2 .
 Measurement on Qubits
• Since the probabilities must sum to one, the coefficients 𝛼 and 𝛽 must
satisfy the normalization condition: |𝛼|2 + |𝛽|2 = 1.
• Geometrically, we can interpret this as the condition that the qubit’s state
be normalized to length 1.
• Thus, in general a qubit’s state is a unit vector in a two-dimensional
complex vector space.
• This contradiction between the unobservable state of a qubit and the
observations we can make lies at the heart of quantum computation and
quantum information.
 Physical realizations of qubits
• two different polarizations of a photon
• Alignment of a nuclear spin in a uniform magnetic
field;
• Two states of an electron orbiting a single atom such
as shown in Figure.
Qubit Architectures
 Bloch Sphere
• A qubit is vector in an abstract 2-dimensional vector space.
• Using the Bloch sphere, we can geometrically represent/visualize a qubit in the
real space.
• The Bloch sphere is a geometric representation of qubit states as points on the
surface of a unit sphere.
• The general state of a qubit is
𝜓 = 𝛼 0 + 𝛽|1⟩
• Because |𝛼|2 + |𝛽|2 = 1, we may rewrite |𝜓⟩ as
𝜃 𝜃
𝜓 = 𝑒 𝑖𝛾 cos 0 + 𝑒 𝑖𝜑 sin |1⟩ ,
2 2
• where 𝜃, 𝜑 and 𝛾 are real numbers.

• We can always ignore the global phase

factor of a quantum state, we can write
𝜃 𝑖𝜑
𝜃
𝜓 = cos 0 + 𝑒 sin |1⟩
2 2
• The numbers 𝜃 and 𝜑 define a point on the
unit three-dimensional sphere, as shown in
Figure.
• This sphere is called the Bloch sphere.
 Multiple Qubits – Two Qubits

• Suppose we have two qubits.

• If these were two classical bits, then there would be four
possible states, 00, 01, 10, and 11.
• Correspondingly, a two qubit system has four computational
basis states denoted by |00⟩, |01⟩, |10⟩, |11⟩.
• A pair of qubits can also exist in superpositions of these four
states,
𝜓 = 𝛼00 00 + 𝛼01 01 + 𝛼10 10 + 𝛼11 11
• Expansion coefficients 𝛼𝑖𝑗 are complex numbers.
• The notation, for e.g., |10⟩ means that this ket represents a
state composed of two qubits, with the first qubit in the state
|1⟩ and the second qubit in the state |0⟩.
 Multiple Qubits – Two Qubits
𝜓 = 𝛼00 00 + 𝛼01 01 + 𝛼10 10 + 𝛼11 11
• Significance of the expansion coefficients 𝛼𝑖𝑗 are as follows:
• If we measure the state |𝜓⟩, we would get one of the basis states |𝑖𝑗⟩
2
(with 𝑖, 𝑗 = 0, 1) with probability 𝛼𝑖𝑗 .
• Since the sum of the probabilities must add to 1, the coefficients 𝛼𝑖𝑗 must
satisfy the normalization condition
2 2 2 2
𝛼00 + 𝛼01 + 𝛼10 + 𝛼11 =1
• Or in other words, similar to the case for a single qubit, the measurement
result 𝑥 (= 00, 01, 10 or 11) occurs with probability 𝛼𝑥 2 , with the state
of the qubits after the measurement being |𝑥⟩.
• The above normalization condition can also be written as
෍ 𝛼𝑥 2 =1,
𝑥∈ 0,1 2
2
• where the notation 0,1 means ‘the set of strings of length two with
each letter being either zero or one’.
 Multiple Qubits – Two Qubits

𝜓 = 𝛼00 00 + 𝛼01 01 + 𝛼10 10 + 𝛼11 11

• Now, suppose we measure only one of the qubits of a two qubit system.
• Consider the state |𝜓⟩ above. What is the probability for finding the first
qubit in the state |0⟩?
• You can probably guess the answer: measuring the first qubit alone gives
|0⟩ with probability 𝛼00 2 + 𝛼01 2 .
• Suppose your measurement on the first qubit of |𝜓⟩ returns the state 0 .
What would be the state |𝜓′⟩ post-measurement?
• The answer is
′
𝛼00 00 + 𝛼01 01
𝜓 =
𝛼00 2 + 𝛼01 2
• Note how the post-measurement state is re-normalized by the factor
𝛼00 2 + 𝛼01 2 so that it still satisfies the normalization condition, just
as we expect for a legitimate quantum state.
 Two Qubits – Bell/EPR States
• Important two qubit states are the Bell states or EPR pairs (named after -
Bell, and Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen – who first pointed out the strange
properties of states like these)
• These states are responsible for many
surprises in quantum computation and
quantum information.
• They are key ingredient in quantum
teleportation and superdense coding and
the prototype for many other interesting
quantum states.

• The Bell state |𝛽00 ⟩ has the property that upon measuring the first qubit,
one obtains two possible results:
• 0 with probability 1/2, leaving the post-measurement state 𝛽′ = |00⟩ ,
and 1 with probability 1/2, leaving 𝛽′ = |11⟩.
• As a result, a measurement of the second qubit always gives the same
result as the measurement of the first qubit.
• That is, the measurement outcomes are correlated. (Entanglement)
 Elements of Quantum Computation

• Classical computer circuits consist of wires and logic gates.

• The wires are used to carry information (bits) around the circuit,
while the logic gates perform manipulations of the information,
converting it from one form to another.
• Analogous to the way a classical computer is built from an electrical
circuit containing wires and logic gates, a quantum computer is built
from a quantum circuit containing wires and elementary quantum
gates to carry around and manipulate the quantum information
 Elements of Quantum Computation

• A quantum circuit consists of sequence of building

blocks (gates) that carry out computations.
• Wires carry qubits to the gates.
• A quantum gate is an operation applied to a qubit that
changes the quantum state of the qubit.
• Each gate carry out elementary computations.
• A circuit as a whole carry out complex computations.
Single Qubit Gates
 Quantum NOT gate (X gate, Pauli-X gate):

• Analogous to classical NOT gate we can define the quantum

NOT gate, whose action on qubits is as follows:
0 → 1
1 → |0⟩
• In fact, quantum gate acts linearly, that is
𝛼 0 + 𝛽|1⟩ → 𝛼 1 + 𝛽 0
• The circuit symbol for the 𝑋-gate is as shown below:
𝑋0 = 1
𝑋 1 = |0⟩
𝑋(𝛼 0 + 𝛽|1⟩) = 𝛼 1 + 𝛽 0
 Matrix representation of X-gate
0 1
𝑋≡
1 0
• The relations 𝑋 0 = 1 and 𝑋 1 = |0⟩ in matrix form are
0 1 1 0
=
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
=
1 0 1 0
• The relation 𝑋(𝛼 0 + 𝛽|1⟩) = 𝛼 1 + 𝛽 0 in matrix form is
0 1 𝛼 𝛽
𝛽 =
1 0 𝛼
 The 𝒀 gate (The Pauli-𝒀 gate)

• The 𝑌 gate maps |0⟩ to 𝑖|1⟩ and |1⟩ to – 𝑖|0⟩.

• The effect of 𝑌 on a superposition is
𝑌(𝛼 0 + 𝛽|1⟩) = −𝑖𝛽|0⟩ + 𝑖𝛼 1
• The matrix for 𝑌 gate is
0 −𝑖
𝑌≡
𝑖 0
• The circuit symbol for the 𝑌-gate is as shown below:
 The 𝒁 gate (The Pauli-𝒁 gate)
• The 𝑍 gate leaves |0⟩ unchanged, and flips the sign of
|1⟩ to give −|1⟩.
• The effect of 𝑍 on a superposition is
𝑍(𝛼 0 + 𝛽|1⟩) = 𝛼 0 − 𝛽|1⟩
• The matrix for 𝑍 gate is
1 0
𝑍≡
0 −1
• The circuit symbol for the 𝑍-gate is as shown below:
 The Hadamard gate
• The Hadamard gate (𝐻) is one of the most useful
quantum gates.
• The action of 𝐻 on the standard basis is as follows:
• 𝐻 turns the state 0 into ( 0 + |1⟩)/ 2, and
• 𝐻 turns the state 1 into ( 0 − |1⟩)/ 2.
• The matrix for 𝐻 gate is
1 1 1
𝐻≡
2 1 −1
• The circuit symbol for the Hadamard gate is as shown
below:
 The 𝑺 gate (The Phase gate)
• The 𝑆 gate leaves |0⟩ unchanged, but maps |1⟩ to
𝑖|1⟩.
• The effect of 𝑆 on a superposition is
𝑆(𝛼 0 + 𝛽|1⟩) = 𝛼 0 + 𝛽𝑖|1⟩
• The matrix for 𝑆 gate is
1 0
𝑆≡
0 𝑖
• The circuit symbol for the 𝑆-gate is as shown below:
 The 𝑻 gate (The 𝝅/𝟖 gate)

• The 𝑇 gate leaves |0⟩ unchanged, but maps |1⟩ to

𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 |1⟩.
• The effect of 𝑇 on a superposition is
𝑇(𝛼 0 + 𝛽|1⟩) = 𝛼 0 + 𝛽𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4 |1⟩
• The matrix for 𝑇 gate is
1 0
𝑇≡
0 𝑒 𝑖𝜋/4
• The circuit symbol for the 𝑇-gate is as shown below:
Constraints on matrices used as quantum gates
• For a quantum state 𝜓 = 𝛼 0 + 𝛽|1 the
normalization condition requires
|𝛼|2 + |𝛽|2 = 1
• This must also be true of the quantum state 𝜓 ′ =
𝛼′ 0 + 𝛽′|1⟩ after a quantum gate has acted.
• It turns out that the appropriate condition on the
matrix representing the gate is that the matrix
describing the single qubit gate be unitary.
• For example, for the NOT gate it is easy to verify that
𝑋 † 𝑋 = 𝐼.
• Amazingly, this unitarity constraint is the only
constraint on quantum gates.
• Any unitary matrix specifies a valid quantum gate!
Multiple Qubit Gates
Two/Three Qubit Gates
 The CNOT (Control-NOT, CX) gate
• This gate has two input qubits- the control qubit and
the target qubit.
• Let the two qubit state is represented as |𝑥1 𝑥2 ⟩, the
leftmost qubit (𝑥1 ) is the control bit and the next
qubit (𝑥2 ) is the target bit.
• The action of the CNOT gate is as follows:
• If the control qubit is set to 0, then the target qubit is
unchanged.
• If the control qubit is set to 1, then the target qubit is
flipped.
• In equations:
00 → 00 ; 01 → 01 ; 10 → 11 ; 11 → 10
 The CNOT (Control-NOT, CX) gate

00 → 00 ; 01 → 01 ; 10 → 11 ; 11 → 10
• In general, the action of CNOT gate on an arbitrary
basis state 𝐴𝐵 can be summarized as
𝐴𝐵 → 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊕ 𝐴
• Here ⊕ is addition modulo two.
• That is, the control qubit and the target qubit are
XOR-ed and stored in the target qubit.
• This is exactly what the classical XOR gate does.
• Thus we see that the CNOT is a generalization of the
classical XOR gate.
 The CNOT (Control-NOT, CX) gate
• The circuit symbol and the matrix representation (𝑈𝐶𝑁 ) of the
CNOT gate is shown below.

• The top line represents the control qubit, while the bottom
line represents the target.
• You can easily verify that the first column of 𝑈𝐶𝑁 describes the
transformation that occurs to 00 , and similarly for the other
computational basis states, 01 , 10 , and 11 .
†
• 𝑈𝐶𝑁 is a unitary matrix, that is, 𝑈𝐶𝑁 𝑈𝐶𝑁 = 𝐼.
 The Toffoli (CCNOT) gate
• The Toffoli gate (controlled-controlled-NOT) is a three-qubit gate.
• Let the three qubit state be represented as |𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 ⟩, the leftmost
qubits (𝑥1 and 𝑥2 ) are the control bits and the rightmost qubit (𝑥3 )
is the target bit.
• The action of the Toffoli or CCNOT gate is described as follows:
• If either (or both) control qubits is (are) set to 0, then the target
qubit is unchanged.
• If the control qubits both are set to 1, then the target qubit is
flipped.
• In equations:
000 → 000 ; 001 → 001 ; 010 → 010 ; 011 → 011
100 → 100 ; 101 → 101 ; 110 → 111 ; 111 → 110
 The Toffoli (CCNOT) gate
000 → 000 ; 001 → 001 ; 010 → 010 ; 011 → 011
100 → 100 ; 101 → 101 ; 110 → 111 ; 111 → 110
• In general, the action of CNOT gate on an arbitrary basis state
𝐴𝐵𝐶 can be summarized as 𝐴𝐵𝐶 → |𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 ⊕ 𝐴𝐵⟩, where
⊕ is addition modulo two.

• One can verify explicitly that 𝐶𝐶𝑁𝑂𝑇 is a unitary matrix, and

thus the Toffoli gate is a legitimate quantum gate.
 Some remarks on quantum gates

• There are many interesting multi-qubit quantum

gates other than the controlled-NOT.
• However, in a sense the CNOT and single qubit gates
are the prototypes for all other gates because of the
following remarkable universality result:
• Any multiple qubit logic gate may be composed from
CNOT and single qubit gates.
 Measurement ‘gate’
• In quantum circuits measurement operation is represented by
a ‘meter’ symbol, as shown in Figure below.

• This operation converts a single qubit state 𝜓 = 𝛼 0 + 𝛽|1⟩

into a probabilistic classical bit 𝑀 (distinguished from a qubit
by drawing it as a double-line wire), which is 0 with
probability 𝛼 2 , or 1 with probability 𝛽 2 .
 Quantum Algorithm/Quantum Circuits
• An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure to perform a calculation, or a
sequence of instructions to solve a problem, where each step can be
performed on a computer.
• An algorithm is a quantum algorithm when it can be performed on a
quantum computer.
• Quantum algorithms are most commonly described by a quantum circuit.
• A quantum circuit is a model for quantum computation, where the steps
to solve the problem are quantum gates performed on one or more
qubits.
• A quantum gate is an operation applied to a qubit that changes the
quantum state of the qubit.
• Quantum gates can be divided into single-qubit gates and two-qubit gates,
depending on the number of qubits on which they are applied at the same
time.
• Three-qubit gates and other multi-qubit gates can also be defined.
• A quantum circuit is concluded with a measurement on one or more
qubits.
 Quantum Circuits
• A quantum circuit is a prescription for quantum operations we
will perform on some set of quantum data encoded in qubits.
• A quantum circuit consists of sequence of building blocks
(gates) that carry out computations.
• Each gate carry out elementary computations.
• A circuit as a whole carry out complex computations.
 Quantum Circuits

• A typical quantum circuit consists a network of 𝑛 qubits, with

three stages:
• Initialisation of all qubits in the state |0⟩.
• Quantum gates, which represent unitary transformations.
• A final layer of measurements in the computational basis, on
some or all of the qubits.
 Quantum Circuits

• The circuit is to be read from left-to-right.

• Each line in the circuit represents a wire in the quantum circuit.
• This wire does not necessarily correspond to a physical wire:
• It may correspond instead to the passage of time, or perhaps to a physical
particle such as a photon moving from one location to another through
space.
• It is conventional to assume that the state input to the circuit is a
computational basis state, usually the state consisting of all |0⟩s.
 Quantum Circuits

• The gates are shown as rectangular blocks (There are exceptions, for
example: CNOT, CCNOT, etc.).
• In the quantum circuit model, we have qubits carried along wires, and
quantum gates that act on the qubits.
• A quantum gate acting on 𝑛 qubits has the input qubits carried to it by 𝑛
wires, and 𝑛 other wires carry the output qubits away from the gate.
• In the above figure, the rectangular box with the meter symbol at the
rightmost end of the first line, represent the measurement of a single
output bit.
• All the output qubits need not be measured in a quantum circuit.
 Some simple quantum circuits

• Here we have the input qubit in the |0⟩ state and it is carried on to an 𝑋-
gate (quantum NOT gate).
• Under the action of the 𝑋-gate, the input qubit is transformed to |1⟩ state.
• This output state can be measured using a measurement operation as
shown in the circuit below.

• The output of the measurement will be with a 100% probability a classical

bit 1 corresponding to the ket |1⟩.
 Some simple quantum circuits

• Here we have the input qubit in the |0⟩ state and it is carried on to the
first 𝑋-gate and is transformed to a |1⟩ state.
• This transformed state is input to the second 𝑋-gate and we get the state
|0⟩ as the output.
• This output state can be measured using a measurement operation as
shown in the circuit below.

• The output of the measurement will be with a 100% probability a classical

bit 0 corresponding to the ket |0⟩.
 Some simple quantum circuits

• Here we have the input qubit in the |0⟩ state and it is carried on to an 𝐻-
gate (Hadamard gate).
• Under the action of the 𝐻-gate, the input qubit is transformed to an equal
1
superposition state 0 + |1⟩ .
2
• Now suppose we measure the output state using a measurement
operation as shown in the circuit below.

• As the outcome of the measurement, we would either get the classical bit
0 with probability 1/2 or the classical bit 1 with probability 1/2.
 Some simple quantum circuits

• CNOT gate acts on two qubits, a control qubit (C) and a target qubit (T).
• In this circuit, the first qubit, which is the control qubit, is in state |1⟩.
• The second qubit, which is the target qubit, is in the state |0⟩.
• Since the control qubit is |1⟩, the CNOT applies an 𝑋-gate to the target
qubit transforming it to the state 1 .
• The control qubit is carried to the output untransformed.
• The net output is the two qubit state 1 1 = |11⟩.
 SWAP gate/circuit

• The effect of this circuit, is to interchange the state of the two qubits.
 EPR/Bell pair generating circuit

• The effect of this circuit, for the given input, is to produce the
EPR/Bell state 𝛽00 .
 EPR/Bell pair generating circuit

• All other EPR/Bell states can be produced by the same circuit

by just varying the input states.
 Building from controlled-Z and 𝐻 gates

• The effect of this circuit is 10 → |11⟩.

• Similarly if we vary the input, we can show:

• i.e. this circuit satisfies the same logic that of a CNOT gate.
Building from controlled-Z and 𝐻 gates