Alternating-Current Circuits

12.1 AC Sources

In Chapter 10 we learned that changing magnetic flux can induce an emf according to
Faraday’s law of induction. In particular, if a coil rotates in the presence of a magnetic
field, the induced emf varies sinusoidally with time and leads to an alternating current
(AC), and provides a source of AC power. The symbol for an AC voltage source is

An example of an AC source is

V (t ) = V0 sin ωt (12.1.1)

where the maximum value V0 is called the amplitude. The voltage varies between V0 and
−V0 since a sine function varies between +1 and −1. A graph of voltage as a function of
time is shown in Figure 12.1.1.

Figure 12.1.1 Sinusoidal voltage source

The sine function is periodic in time. This means that the value of the voltage at time t
will be exactly the same at a later time t ′ = t + T where T is the period. The frequency,
f , defined as f = 1/ T , has the unit of inverse seconds (s−1), or hertz (Hz). The angular
frequency is defined to be ω = 2π f .

When a voltage source is connected to an RLC circuit, energy is provided to compensate

the energy dissipation in the resistor, and the oscillation will no longer damp out. The
oscillations of charge, current and potential difference are called driven or forced
oscillations.

After an initial “transient time,” an AC current will flow in the circuit as a response to the
driving voltage source. The current, written as

12-2
 I (t ) = I 0 sin(ωt − φ ) (12.1.2)

will oscillate with the same frequency as the voltage source, with an amplitude I 0 and
phase φ that depends on the driving frequency.

12.2 Simple AC circuits

Before examining the driven RLC circuit, let’s first consider the simple cases where only
one circuit element (a resistor, an inductor or a capacitor) is connected to a sinusoidal
voltage source.

12.2.1 Purely Resistive load

Consider a purely resistive circuit with a resistor connected to an AC generator, as shown

in Figure 12.2.1. (As we shall see, a purely resistive circuit corresponds to infinite
capacitance C = ∞ and zero inductance L = 0 .)

Figure 12.2.1 A purely resistive circuit

Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule yields

V (t ) − VR (t ) = V (t ) − I R (t ) R = 0 (12.2.1)

where VR (t ) = I R (t ) R is the instantaneous voltage drop across the resistor. The

instantaneous current in the resistor is given by

VR (t ) VR 0 sin ωt
I R (t ) = = = I R 0 sin ωt (12.2.2)
R R

where VR 0 = V0 , and I R 0 = VR 0 R is the maximum current. Comparing Eq. (12.2.2) with

Eq. (12.1.2), we find φ = 0 , which means that I R (t ) and VR (t ) are in phase with each
other, meaning that they reach their maximum or minimum values at the same time. The
time dependence of the current and the voltage across the resistor is depicted in Figure
12.2.2(a).

12-3
Figure 12.2.2 (a) Time dependence of I R (t ) and VR (t ) across the resistor. (b) Phasor
diagram for the resistive circuit.

The behavior of I R (t ) and VR (t ) can also be represented with a phasor diagram, as shown
in Figure 12.2.2(b). A phasor is a rotating vector having the following properties:

(i) length: the length corresponds to the amplitude.

(ii) angular speed: the vector rotates counterclockwise with an angular speed ω.

(iii) projection: the projection of the vector along the vertical axis corresponds to the
value of the alternating quantity at time t.
G
We shall denote a phasor with an arrow above it. The phasor VR 0 has a constant
magnitude of VR 0 . Its projection along the vertical direction is VR 0 sin ωt , which is equal
to VR (t ) , the voltage drop across the resistor at time t . A similar interpretation applies
G
to I R 0 for the current passing through the resistor. From the phasor diagram, we readily
see that both the current and the voltage are in phase with each other.

The average value of current over one period can be obtained as:

1 T 1 T I T 2π t
I R (t ) =
T ∫0
I R (t ) dt =
T ∫0
I R 0 sin ωt dt = R 0
T ∫
0
sin
T
dt = 0 (12.2.3)

This average vanishes because

1 T
T ∫0
sin ω t = sin ω t dt = 0 (12.2.4)

Similarly, one may find the following relations useful when averaging over one period:

12-4
 1 T
T ∫0
cos ωt = cos ωt dt = 0

1 T
sin ωt cos ωt = ∫ sin ωt cos ωt dt = 0
T 0
(12.2.5)
1 T 1 T ⎛ 2π t ⎞ 1
sin 2 ωt = ∫ sin 2 ωt dt = ∫ sin 2 ⎜ ⎟ dt =
T 0 T 0
⎝ T ⎠ 2
1 T 1 T ⎛ 2π t ⎞ 1
cos 2 ωt = ∫ ω = ∫ ⎟ dt =
2
cos t dt cos 2 ⎜
T 0 T 0
⎝ T ⎠ 2

From the above, we see that the average of the square of the current is non-vanishing:

1 T 2 1 T 1 T ⎛ 2π t ⎞ 1
I R2 (t ) = ∫
T 0
I R (t )dt = ∫ I R2 0 sin 2 ωt dt = I R2 0 ∫ sin 2 ⎜
T 0 T 0 ⎝ T ⎠
⎟ dt = I R2 0
2
(12.2.6)

It is convenient to define the root-mean-square (rms) current as

I R0
I rms = I R2 (t ) = (12.2.7)
2
In a similar manner, the rms voltage can be defined as

VR 0
Vrms = VR2 (t ) = (12.2.8)
2

The rms voltage supplied to the domestic wall outlets in the United States is
Vrms = 120 V at a frequency f = 60 Hz .

The power dissipated in the resistor is

PR (t ) = I R (t ) VR (t ) = I R2 (t ) R (12.2.9)

from which the average over one period is obtained as:

2
1 2 Vrms
PR (t ) = I (t ) R = I R 0 R = I rms R = I rmsVrms =
2
R
2
(12.2.10)
2 R

12.2.2 Purely Inductive Load

Consider now a purely inductive circuit with an inductor connected to an AC generator,

as shown in Figure 12.2.3.

12-5
 Figure 12.2.3 A purely inductive circuit

As we shall see below, a purely inductive circuit corresponds to infinite capacitance

C = ∞ and zero resistance R = 0 . Applying the modified Kirchhoff’s rule for inductors,
the circuit equation reads

dI L
V (t ) − VL (t ) = V (t ) − L =0 (12.2.11)
dt

which implies

dI L V (t ) VL 0
= = sin ωt (12.2.12)
dt L L

where VL 0 = V0 . Integrating over the above equation, we find

VL 0 ⎛V ⎞ ⎛V ⎞ ⎛ π⎞
I L (t ) = ∫ dI L = ∫ sin ωt dt = − ⎜ L 0 ⎟ cos ωt = ⎜ L 0 ⎟ sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ (12.2.13)
L ⎝ ωL ⎠ ⎝ ωL ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

where we have used the trigonometric identity

⎛ π⎞
− cos ω t = sin ⎜ ω t − ⎟ (12.2.14)
⎝ 2⎠

for rewriting the last expression. Comparing Eq. (12.2.14) with Eq. (12.1.2), we see that
the amplitude of the current through the inductor is

VL 0 VL 0
I L0 = = (12.2.15)
ωL X L

where

X L =ωL (12.2.16)

is called the inductive reactance. It has SI units of ohms (Ω), just like resistance.
However, unlike resistance, X L depends linearly on the angular frequency ω. Thus, the
resistance to current flow increases with frequency. This is due to the fact that at higher

12-6
frequencies the current changes more rapidly than it does at lower frequencies. On the
other hand, the inductive reactance vanishes as ω approaches zero.

By comparing Eq. (12.2.14) to Eq. (12.1.2), we also find the phase constant to be

π
φ =+ (12.2.17)
2

The current and voltage plots and the corresponding phasor diagram are shown in the
Figure 12.2.4 below.

Figure 12.2.4 (a) Time dependence of I L (t ) and VL (t ) across the inductor. (b) Phasor
diagram for the inductive circuit.

As can be seen from the figures, the current I L (t ) is out of phase with VL (t ) by φ = π / 2 ;
it reaches its maximum value after VL (t ) does by one quarter of a cycle. Thus, we say that

The current lags voltage by π / 2 in a purely inductive circuit

12.2.3 Purely Capacitive Load

In the purely capacitive case, both resistance R and inductance L are zero. The circuit
diagram is shown in Figure 12.2.5.

Figure 12.2.5 A purely capacitive circuit

12-7
Again, Kirchhoff’s voltage rule implies

Q(t )
V (t ) − VC (t ) = V (t ) − =0 (12.2.18)
C

which yields

Q(t ) = CV (t ) = CVC (t ) = CVC 0 sin ωt (12.2.19)

where VC 0 = V0 . On the other hand, the current is

dQ ⎛ π⎞
I C (t ) = + = ωCVC 0 cos ωt = ωCVC 0 sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ (12.2.20)
dt ⎝ 2⎠

where we have used the trigonometric identity

⎛ π⎞
cos ω t = sin ⎜ ω t + ⎟ (12.2.21)
⎝ 2⎠

The above equation indicates that the maximum value of the current is

VC 0
I C 0 = ωCVC 0 = (12.2.22)
XC

where

1
XC = (12.2.23)
ωC

is called the capacitance reactance. It also has SI units of ohms and represents the
effective resistance for a purely capacitive circuit. Note that X C is inversely proportional
to both C and ω , and diverges as ω approaches zero.

By comparing Eq. (12.2.21) to Eq. (12.1.2), the phase constant is given by

π
φ =− (12.2.24)
2

The current and voltage plots and the corresponding phasor diagram are shown in the
Figure 12.2.6 below.

12-8
Figure 12.2.6 (a) Time dependence of I C (t ) and VC (t ) across the capacitor. (b) Phasor
diagram for the capacitive circuit.

Notice that at t = 0 , the voltage across the capacitor is zero while the current in the circuit
is at a maximum. In fact, I C (t ) reaches its maximum before VC (t ) by one quarter of a
cycle ( φ = π / 2 ). Thus, we say that

The current leads the voltage by π/2 in a capacitive circuit

12.3 The RLC Series Circuit

Consider now the driven series RLC circuit shown in Figure 12.3.1.

Figure 12.3.1 Driven series RLC Circuit

Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule, we obtain

dI Q
V (t ) − VR (t ) − VL (t ) − VC (t ) = V (t ) − IR − L − =0 (12.3.1)
dt C

which leads to the following differential equation:

12-9
 dI Q
L + IR + = V0 sin ωt (12.3.2)
dt C

Assuming that the capacitor is initially uncharged so that I = + dQ / dt is proportional to

the increase of charge in the capacitor, the above equation can be rewritten as

d 2Q dQ Q
L 2
+R + = V0 sin ω t (12.3.3)
dt dt C

One possible solution to Eq. (12.3.3) is

Q(t ) = Q0 cos(ω t − φ ) (12.3.4)

where the amplitude and the phase are, respectively,

V0 / L V0
Q0 = =
( Rω / L) 2 + (ω 2 −1/ LC ) 2 ω R 2 + (ω L −1/ ω C )2
(12.3.5)
V0
=
ω R 2 + ( X L − X C )2

and

1⎛ 1 ⎞ X L − XC
tan φ = ⎜ω L − = (12.3.6)
R⎝ ω C ⎟⎠ R

The corresponding current is

dQ
I (t ) = + = I 0 sin(ωt − φ ) (12.3.7)
dt

with an amplitude

V0
I 0 = −Q0ω = − (12.3.8)
R 2 + ( X L − X C )2

Notice that the current has the same amplitude and phase at all points in the series RLC
circuit. On the other hand, the instantaneous voltage across each of the three circuit
elements R, L and C has a different amplitude and phase relationship with the current, as
can be seen from the phasor diagrams shown in Figure 12.3.2.

12-10
Figure 12.3.2 Phasor diagrams for the relationships between current and voltage in (a)
the resistor, (b) the inductor, and (c) the capacitor, of a series RLC circuit.

From Figure 12.3.2, the instantaneous voltages can be obtained as:

VR (t ) = I 0 R sin ω t = VR 0 sin ω t
⎛ π⎞
VL (t ) = I 0 X L sin ⎜ ω t + ⎟ = VL 0 cos ω t (12.3.9)
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ π⎞
VC (t ) = I 0 X C sin ⎜ ω t − ⎟ = −VC 0 cos ω t
⎝ 2⎠

where

VR 0 = I 0 R, VL 0 = I 0 X L , VC 0 = I 0 X C (12.3.10)

are the amplitudes of the voltages across the circuit elements. The sum of all three
voltages is equal to the instantaneous voltage supplied by the AC source:

V (t ) = VR (t ) + VL (t ) + VC (t ) (12.3.11)

Using the phasor representation, the above expression can also be written as
G G G G
V0 = VR 0 + VL 0 + VC 0 (12.3.12)
G
as shown in Figure 12.3.3 (a). Again we see that current phasor I 0 leads the capacitive
G G
voltage phasor VC 0 by π / 2 but lags the inductive voltage phasor VL 0 by π / 2 . The three
voltage phasors rotate counterclockwise as time passes, with their relative positions fixed.

12-11
Figure 12.3.3 (a) Phasor diagram for the series RLC circuit. (b) voltage relationship

The relationship between different voltage amplitudes is depicted in Figure 12.3.3(b).

From the Figure, we see that
G G G G
V0 = | V0 | = | VR 0 + VL 0 + VC 0 | = VR20 + (VL 0 − VC 0 ) 2
= ( I 0 R)2 + ( I 0 X L − I 0 X C )2 (12.3.13)
= I 0 R 2 + ( X L − X C )2

which leads to the same expression for I0 as that obtained in Eq. (12.3.7).

It is crucial to note that the maximum amplitude of the AC voltage source V0 is not equal
to the sum of the maximum voltage amplitudes across the three circuit elements:

V0 ≠ VR 0 + VL 0 + VC 0 (12.3.14)

This is due to the fact that the voltages are not in phase with one another, and they reach
their maxima at different times.

12.3.1 Impedance

We have already seen that the inductive reactance X L = ω L and capacitance reactance
X C = 1/ ω C play the role of an effective resistance in the purely inductive and capacitive
circuits, respectively. In the series RLC circuit, the effective resistance is the impedance,
defined as

Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2 (12.3.15)

The relationship between Z, XL and XC can be represented by the diagram shown in

Figure 12.3.4:

12-12
 Figure 12.3.4 Diagrammatic representation of the relationship between Z, X L and X C .

The impedance also has SI units of ohms. In terms of Z, the current may be rewritten as

V0
I (t ) = sin(ω t − φ ) (12.3.16)
Z

Notice that the impedance Z also depends on the angular frequency ω, as do XL and XC.

Using Eq. (12.3.6) for the phase φ and Eq. (12.3.15) for Z , we may readily recover the
limits for simple circuit (with only one element). A summary is provided in Table 12.1
below:

Simple 1 ⎛ XL − XC ⎞
R L C X L = ωL XC = φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟ Z = R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
Circuit ωC ⎝ R ⎠

purely
resistive R 0 ∞ 0 0 0 R
purely
inductive 0 L ∞ XL 0 π /2 XL
purely
capacitive
0 0 C 0 XC −π / 2 XC

Table 12.1 Simple-circuit limits of the series RLC circuit

12.3.2 Resonance

Eq. (12.3.15) indicates that the amplitude of the current I 0 = V0 / Z reaches a maximum
when Z is at a minimum. This occurs when X L = X C , or ω L = 1/ ωC , leading to

1
ω0 = (12.3.17)
LC

The phenomenon at which I 0 reaches a maximum is called a resonance, and the

frequency ω 0 is called the resonant frequency. At resonance, the impedance
becomes Z = R , the amplitude of the current is

12-13
 V0
I0 = (12.3.18)
R

and the phase is

φ =0 (12.3.19)

as can be seen from Eq. (12.3.5). The qualitative behavior is illustrated in Figure 12.3.5.

Figure 12.3.5 The amplitude of the current as a function of ω in the driven RLC circuit.

12.4 Power in an AC circuit

In the series RLC circuit, the instantaneous power delivered by the AC generator is given
by

V0 V02
P (t ) = I (t ) V (t ) = sin(ωt − φ ) ⋅ V0 sin ωt = sin(ωt − φ ) sin ωt
Z Z (12.4.1)
V2
= 0 ( sin 2 ωt cos φ − sin ωt cos ωt sin φ )
Z

where we have used the trigonometric identity

sin(ω t − φ ) = sin ω t cos φ − cos ω t sin φ (12.4.2)

The time average of the power is

12-14
 1 T V0 2 1 T V0 2
T ∫0 Z T ∫0 Z
P(t ) = sin 2
ω t cos φ dt − sin ωt cos ωt sin φ dt

V2 V2
= 0 cos φ sin 2 ωt − 0 sin φ sin ωt cos ωt (12.4.3)
Z Z
2
1 V0
= cos φ
2 Z

where Eqs. (12.2.5) and (12.2.7) have been used. In terms of the rms quantities, the
average power can be rewritten as

1 V0 2 V 2
P(t ) = cos φ = rms cos φ = I rmsVrms cos φ (12.4.4)
2 Z Z

The quantity cos φ is called the power factor. From Figure 12.3.4, one can readily show
that

R
cos φ = (12.4.5)
Z

Thus, we may rewrite P(t ) as

⎛R⎞ ⎛V ⎞
P(t ) = I rmsVrms ⎜ ⎟ = I rms ⎜ rms ⎟ R = I rms
2
R (12.4.6)
Z
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ Z ⎠

In Figure 12.4.1, we plot the average power as a function of the driving angular
frequency ω.

Figure 12.4.1 Average power as a function of frequency in a driven series RLC circuit.

We see that P(t ) attains the maximum when cos φ = 1 , or Z = R , which is the
resonance condition. At resonance, we have

12-15
 2
Vrms
P max = I rmsVrms = (12.4.7)
R

12.4.1 Width of the Peak

The peak has a line width. One way to characterize the width is to define ∆ω = ω + − ω − ,
where ω ± are the values of the driving angular frequency such that the power is equal to
half its maximum power at resonance. This is called full width at half maximum, as
illustrated in Figure 12.4.2. The width ∆ω increases with resistance R.

Figure 12.4.2 Width of the peak

To find ∆ω , it is instructive to first rewrite the average power P(t ) as

1 V0 2 R 1 V0 2 Rω 2
P(t ) = = (12.4.8)
2 R 2 + (ω L − 1/ ωC ) 2 2 ω 2 R 2 + L2 (ω 2 − ω02 ) 2

with P(t ) max

= V02 / 2 R . The condition for finding ω ± is

1 V0 2 1 V0 2 Rω 2
P(t ) = P (t ) ⇒ = = (12.4.9)
2 max
ω± 4 R 2 ω 2 R 2 + L2 (ω 2 − ω02 ) 2 ω±

which gives

2
⎛ Rω ⎞
(ω − ω ) = ⎜
2 2 2
0 ⎟ (12.4.10)
⎝ L ⎠

Taking square roots yields two solutions, which we analyze separately.

case 1: Taking the positive root leads to

12-16
 Rω +
ω +2 − ω 02 = + (12.4.11)
L

Solving the quadratic equation, the solution with positive root is

2
R ⎛ R ⎞
ω+ = + ⎜ ⎟ + ω0
2
(12.4.12)
2L ⎝ 4 L ⎠

Case 2: Taking the negative root of Eq. (12.4.10) gives

Rω −
ω −2 − ω 02 = − (12.4.13)
L

The solution to this quadratic equation with positive root is

2
R ⎛ R ⎞
ω− = − + ⎜ ⎟ + ω0
2
(12.4.14)
2L ⎝ 4L ⎠

The width at half maximum is then

R
∆ω = ω+ − ω− = (12.4.15)
L

Once the width ∆ω is known, the quality factor Q (not to be confused with charge) can
be obtained as

ω0 ω0 L
Q= = (12.4.16)
∆ω R

Comparing the above equation with Eq. (11.8.17), we see that both expressions agree
with each other in the limit where the resistance is small, and ω ′ = ω02 − ( R / 2 L) 2 ≈ ω0 .

12.5 Transformer

A transformer is a device used to increase or decrease the AC voltage in a circuit. A

typical device consists of two coils of wire, a primary and a secondary, wound around an
iron core, as illustrated in Figure 12.5.1. The primary coil, with N1 turns, is connected to
alternating voltage source V1 (t ) . The secondary coil has N2 turns and is connected to a
“load resistance” R2 . The way transformers operate is based on the principle that an

12-17
alternating current in the primary coil will induce an alternating emf on the secondary
coil due to their mutual inductance.

Figure 12.5.1 A transformer

In the primary circuit, neglecting the small resistance in the coil, Faraday’s law of
induction implies

dΦB
V1 = − N1 (12.5.1)
dt

where Φ B is the magnetic flux through one turn of the primary coil. The iron core, which
extends from the primary to the secondary coils, serves to increase the magnetic field
produced by the current in the primary coil and ensure that nearly all the magnetic flux
through the primary coil also passes through each turn of the secondary coil. Thus, the
voltage (or induced emf) across the secondary coil is

dΦB
V2 = − N 2 (12.5.2)
dt

In the case of an ideal transformer, power loss due to Joule heating can be ignored, so
that the power supplied by the primary coil is completely transferred to the secondary coil:

I1V1 = I 2V2 (12.5.3)

In addition, no magnetic flux leaks out from the iron core, and the flux Φ B through each
turn is the same in both the primary and the secondary coils. Combining the two
expressions, we are lead to the transformer equation:

V2 N 2
= (12.5.4)
V1 N1

By combining the two equations above, the transformation of currents in the two coils
may be obtained as:

12-18
 ⎛V ⎞ ⎛ N2 ⎞
I1 = ⎜ 2 ⎟ I2 = ⎜ ⎟ I2 (12.5.5)
⎝ V1 ⎠ ⎝ N1 ⎠

Thus, we see that the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage is determined by the
turn ratio N 2 / N1 . If N 2 > N1 , then V2 > V1 , which means that the output voltage in the
second coil is greater than the input voltage in the primary coil. A transformer with
N 2 > N1 is called a step-up transformer. On the other hand, if N 2 < N1 , then V2 < V1 , and
the output voltage is smaller than the input. A transformer with N 2 < N1 is called a step-
down transformer.

12.6 Parallel RLC Circuit

Consider the parallel RLC circuit illustrated in Figure 12.6.1. The AC voltage source is
V (t ) = V0 sin ωt .

Figure 12.6.1 Parallel RLC circuit.

Unlike the series RLC circuit, the instantaneous voltages across all three circuit elements
R, L, and C are the same, and each voltage is in phase with the current through the
resistor. However, the currents through each element will be different.

In analyzing this circuit, we make use of the results discussed in Sections 12.2 – 12.4.
The current in the resistor is

V (t ) V0
I R (t ) = = sin ωt = I R 0 sin ωt (12.6.1)
R R

where I R 0 = V0 / R . The voltage across the inductor is

dI L
VL (t ) = V (t ) = V0 sin ωt = L (12.6.2)
dt
which gives

V0 t V V ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
I L (t ) = ∫ sin ωt ' dt ' = − 0 cos ωt = 0 sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ = I L 0 sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ (12.6.3)
0 L ωL XL ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

12-19
where I L 0 = V0 / X L and X L = ω L is the inductive reactance.

Similarly, the voltage across the capacitor is VC (t ) = V0 sin ωt = Q(t ) / C , which implies

dQ V ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
I C (t ) = = ωCV0 cos ωt = 0 sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ = I C 0 sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟ (12.6.4)
dt XC ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

where I C 0 = V0 / X C and X C = 1/ ωC is the capacitive reactance.

Using Kirchhoff’s junction rule, the total current in the circuit is simply the sum of all
three currents.

I (t ) = I R (t ) + I L (t ) + I C (t )
⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ (12.6.5)
= I R 0 sin ωt + I L 0 sin ⎜ ωt − ⎟ + I C 0 sin ⎜ ωt + ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠

The currents can be represented with the phasor diagram shown in Figure 12.6.2.

Figure 12.6.2 Phasor diagram for the parallel RLC circuit

From the phasor diagram, we see that

G G G G
I0 = I R0 + I L0 + IC 0 (12.6.6)

and the maximum amplitude of the total current, I 0 , can be obtained as

G G G G
I 0 =| I 0 |=| I R 0 + I L 0 + I C 0 |= I R2 0 + ( I C 0 − I L 0 ) 2
2 2 (12.6.7)
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= V0 + ⎜ ω C − ⎟ = V + ⎜ − ⎟
R2 ⎝ ωL ⎠ 0
R2 ⎝ X C X L ⎠

12-20
Note however, since I R (t ) , I L (t ) and I C (t ) are not in phase with one another, I 0 is not
equal to the sum of the maximum amplitudes of the three currents:

I 0 ≠ I R 0 + I L0 + IC 0 (12.6.8)

With I 0 = V0 / Z , the (inverse) impedance of the circuit is given by

2 2
1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= + ⎜ ωC − = + ⎜ − ⎟ (12.6.9)
Z 2
R ⎝ ω L ⎟⎠ R2 ⎝ X C X L ⎠

The relationship between Z , R , X L and X C is shown in Figure 12.6.3.

Figure 12.6.3 Relationship between Z , R , X L and X C in a parallel RLC circuit.

From the figure or the phasor diagram shown in Figure 12.6.2, we see that the phase can
be obtained as

V0 V0
−
⎛ IC 0 − I L0 ⎞ X C X L ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
tan φ = ⎜ ⎟= = R⎜ − ⎟ = R ⎜ ωC − (12.6.10)
⎝ I R0 ⎠ V0 ⎝ XC X L ⎠ ⎝ ω L ⎠⎟
R

The resonance condition for the parallel RLC circuit is given by φ = 0 , which implies

1 1
= (12.6.11)
XC X L

The resonant frequency is

1
ω0 = (12.6.12)
LC

which is the same as for the series RLC circuit. From Eq. (12.6.9), we readily see that
1/ Z is minimum (or Z is maximum) at resonance. The current in the inductor exactly

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cancels out the current in the capacitor, so that the total current in the circuit reaches a
minimum, and is equal to the current in the resistor:

V0
I0 = (12.6.13)
R

As in the series RLC circuit, power is dissipated only through the resistor. The average
power is

V02 V02 V02 ⎛ Z ⎞

P(t ) = I R (t )V (t ) = I (t ) R =
2
R sin ωt =
2
= ⎜ ⎟ (12.6.14)
R 2 R 2Z ⎝ R ⎠

Thus, the power factor in this case is

P(t ) Z 1
power factor = 2
= = = cos φ (12.6.15)
V / 2Z
0 R ⎛ R ⎞
2

1 + ⎜ RωC −
⎝ ω L ⎟⎠

12.7 Summary

• In an AC circuit with a sinusoidal voltage source V (t ) = V0 sin ωt , the current is

given by I (t ) = I 0 sin(ωt − φ ) , where I 0 is the amplitude and φ is the phase
constant. For simple circuit with only one element (a resistor, a capacitor or an
inductor) connected to the voltage source, the results are as follows:

Resistance Current
Circuit Elements Phase angle φ
/Reactance Amplitude
V0
R I R0 = 0
R
V0 π /2
X L = ωL I L0 =
XL current lags voltage by 90 °
1 V −π / 2
XC = IC 0 = 0
ωC XC current leads voltage by 90°

where X L is the inductive reactance and X C is the capacitive reactance.

• For circuits which have more than one circuit element connected in series, the
results are

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 Circuit Elements Impedance Z Current Amplitude Phase angle φ

I0 =
V0 π
R 2 + X L2 0 <φ <
R + X L2
2
2
I0 =
V0 π
R 2 + X C2 − <φ < 0
R + X C2
2
2
I0 =
V0 φ > 0 if X L > X C
R 2 + ( X L − X C )2
R + ( X L − X C )2 φ < 0 if X L < X C
2

where Z is the impedance Z of the circuit. For a series RLC circuit, we have

Z = R2 + ( X L − X C )
2

The phase angle between the voltage and the current in an AC circuit is

⎛ X L − XC ⎞
φ = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ R ⎠

• In the parallel RLC circuit, the impedance is given by

2 2
1 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
= + ⎜ ωC − = +⎜ − ⎟
Z 2
R ⎝ ω L ⎟⎠ 2
R ⎝ XC X L ⎠

and the phase is

⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤ −1 ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
φ = tan −1 ⎢ R ⎜ − ⎟ ⎥ = tan ⎢ R ⎜ ωC −
⎣ ⎝ X C X L ⎠⎦ ⎣ ⎝ ω L ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦

• The rms (root mean square) voltage and current in an AC circuit are given by

V0 I0
Vrms = , I rms =
2 2

• The average power of an AC circuit is

P(t ) = I rmsVrms cos φ

where cos φ is known as the power factor.

• The resonant frequency ω 0 is

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 1
ω0 =
LC

At resonance, the current in the series RLC circuit reaches the maximum, but the
current in the parallel RLC circuit is at a minimum.

• The transformer equation is

V2 N 2
=
V1 N1

where V1 is the voltage source in the primary coil with N1 turns, and V2 is the
output voltage in the secondary coil with N 2 turns. A transformer with N 2 > N1 is
called a step-up transformer, and a transformer with N 2 < N1 is called a step-down
transformer.

12.8 Problem-Solving Tips

In this chapter, we have seen how phasors provide a powerful tool for analyzing the AC
circuits. Below are some important tips:

1. Keep in mind the phase relationships for simple circuits

(1) For a resistor, the voltage and the phase are always in phase.
(2) For an inductor, the current lags the voltage by 90 ° .
(3) For a capacitor, the current leads to voltage by 90 ° .

2. When circuit elements are connected in series, the instantaneous current is the same for
all elements, and the instantaneous voltages across the elements are out of phase. On
the other hand, when circuit elements are connected in parallel, the instantaneous
voltage is the same for all elements, and the instantaneous currents across the elements
are out of phase.

3. For series connection, draw a phasor diagram for the voltages. The amplitudes of the
voltage drop across all the circuit elements involved should be represented with
phasors. In Figure 12.8.1 the phasor diagram for a series RLC circuit is shown for both
the inductive case X L > X C and the capacitive case X L < X C .

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 Figure 12.8.1 Phasor diagram for the series RLC circuit for (a) X L > X C and (b)
X L < XC .
G G
From Figure 12.8.1(a), we see that VL 0 > VC 0 in the inductive case and V0 leads I 0 by a
phase φ . On the other hand, in the capacitive case shown in Figure 12.8.1(b), VC 0 > VL 0
G G
and I 0 leads V0 by a phase φ .

4. When VL 0 = VC 0 , or φ = 0 , the circuit is at resonance. The corresponding resonant

frequency is ω0 = 1/ LC , and the power delivered to the resistor is a maximum.

5. For parallel connection, draw a phasor diagram for the currents. The amplitudes of the
currents across all the circuit elements involved should be represented with phasors. In
Figure 12.8.2 the phasor diagram for a parallel RLC circuit is shown for both the
inductive case X L > X C and the capacitive case X L < X C .

Figure 12.8.2 Phasor diagram for the parallel RLC circuit for (a) X L > X C and (b)
X L < XC .
G G
From Figure 12.8.2(a), we see that I L 0 > I C 0 in the inductive case and V0 leads I 0 by a
phase φ . On the other hand, in the capacitive case shown in Figure 12.8.2(b), I C 0 > I L 0
G G
and I 0 leads V0 by a phase φ .

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(b) Find the current across the inductor.

(c) What is the magnitude of the total current?

(d) Find the impedance of the circuit.

(e) What is the phase angle between the current and the voltage?

12.11.6 LC Circuit

Suppose at t = 0 the capacitor in the LC circuit is fully charged to Q0 . At a later time

t = T / 6 , where T is the period of the LC oscillation, find the ratio of each of the
following quantities to its maximum value:

(a) charge on the capacitor,

(b) energy stored in the capacitor,

(c) current in the inductor, and

(d) energy in the inductor.

12.11.7 Parallel RC Circuit

Consider the parallel RC circuit shown in Figure 12.11.5.

Figure 12.11.5 Parallel RC circuit

The AC voltage source is V (t ) = V0 sin ω t .

(a) Find the current across the resistor.

(b) Find the current across the capacitor.

(c) What is the magnitude of the total current?

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