EUROPEAN ACADEMIC RESEARCH

Vol. XII, Issue 6/ September 2024

Impact Factor: 3.4546 (UIF)

DRJI Value: 5.9 (B+)
ISSN 2286-4822
[Link]

The Impact of Cultural Context on Literary Translation

SONILA ALLA
PhD Candidate
Faculty of Foreign Languages
University of Tirana, Albania

Abstract
This article explores the critical role of cultural context in literary translation,
emphasizing its pivotal role in creating translations that resonate authentically with the target
audience while preserving the essence of the original work. Key theoretical frameworks, including
Eugene Nida’s dynamic equivalence and Lawrence Venuti’s strategies of foreignization and
domestication, underscore the necessity of cultural sensitivity in translation. Practical challenges
such as translating idioms, proverbs, and humor are discussed alongside strategies like cultural
substitution, footnotes, and collaborative translation. Case studies of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry’s The
Little Prince (Le Petit Prince) and Marcel Proust’s In Search of Lost Time (À la recherche du temps
perdu) illustrate successful and unsuccessful translations, highlighting the profound impact of
cultural understanding on translation outcomes. Through comprehensive analysis, this article
emphasizes the need for translators to be both linguistically proficient and culturally informed to
effectively convey the richness and significance of source texts to a global readership.

Key Words: Cultural Context, Literary Translation, Dynamic Equivalence, Foreignization,

Domestication, Idioms, Cultural Substitution, Translation Strategies, Case Studies, Antoine de
Saint-Exupéry, Marcel Proust

INTRODUCTION

Literary translation is more than a linguistic exercise; it is a cultural negotiation. The

process involves not only finding equivalent words in a different language but also
capturing the cultural nuances and contextual subtleties that give the original work its
depth and resonance. Cultural context shapes every aspect of a literary work, from
idiomatic expressions to social norms and historical references. Translators face the
formidable task of preserving the cultural essence of the original work while making it
accessible and meaningful to a new audience.
This challenge demands a deep understanding of both the source and target
cultures, as well as the ability to adapt cultural references and idiomatic expressions
without losing the original work’s essence. For example, a phrase that holds significant
cultural meaning in one language may lose its impact if translated literally into
another. A translator must find an equivalent expression in the target language that
conveys the same connotations and cultural significance, requiring creativity and a
deep understanding of both cultures.
Social norms and historical references add further complexity. Cultural
practices, societal expectations, and historical events that are well understood in the
source culture may be unfamiliar to the target audience. Translators need to decide how

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to handle these elements, whether by adding explanatory notes, incorporating

contextual adaptations, or finding culturally relevant analogues.
Cultural context also influences the reception of the translated work. Readers
from different backgrounds may interpret and appreciate the text in various ways
based on their cultural frameworks. This makes the translator’s role critical, as they
must anticipate and bridge these interpretative differences.
In conclusion, the impact of cultural context on literary translation
underscores the complexity and artistry involved. Translators must ensure their
translations convey not only the original text’s meaning but also its cultural richness
and authenticity. The result is a translation that resonates with readers across
cultures, preserving the unique voice and vision of the original author.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

Multiple influential ideas emphasize the critical importance of cultural context in

literary translation. Eugene Nida’s dynamic equivalence theory is notable for its
emphasis on eliciting a response from the target audience that closely resembles the
response of the source audience. Eugene Nida argues that a great translation goes
beyond a literal transfer of words and instead focuses on effectively conveying the
underlying meaning and cultural subtleties of the original text. In order to effectively
translate, translators must possess a profound understanding of the cultural and
emotional nuances included in the original material. This allows them to accurately
convey the desired impression in the target language (Nida, 1964).
Eugene Nida’s idea is especially significant when translating works that
contain a wealth of cultural allusions, idiomatic expressions, and proverbs. Dynamic
equivalency aims to adapt elements in a manner that maintains the original intent and
emotional impact rather than providing a literal translation that may mislead or
distance the intended audience. This approach requires translators to possess a
thorough comprehension of both the source and target cultures, enabling them to
discover analogous terms that deeply connect with the intended audience.
Lawrence Venuti’s foreignization and domestication tactics highlight the
critical decisions translators face when dealing with cultural factors. Foreignization
refers to the act of maintaining the distinctive features of the source culture, thereby
preserving its intrinsic foreign nature and offering the target audience an authentic
insight into the source culture. This approach frequently involves incorporating
unfamiliar terminology and cultural allusions to preserve the distinctive cultural
identity of the original. Venuti supports this method as a means of questioning the
established cultural norms of the target culture and fostering a broader range of
cultural viewpoints (Venuti, 1995).
Conversely, domestication modifies the text to conform to the cultural norms
and expectations of the intended audience, enhancing its accessibility and relatability.
This method usually entails altering or substituting culturally unique components with
ones that are more recognizable to the intended audience, thereby promoting better
understanding and involvement. Domestication typically occurs to texts intended for
widespread reading and enjoyment, aiding in bridging the cultural divide between the
source and target audiences. This process enhances the work’s readability and
acceptability.
Through the analysis of these theoretical frameworks, we may understand the
intricate equilibrium that translators must achieve between maintaining faithfulness to
the original text and making the required cultural adjustments for the intended

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audience. Both Eugene Nida’s theory of dynamic equivalence and Lawrence Venuti’s
tactics of foreignization and domestication offer useful insights into the intricate
process of making decisions in literary translation. These frameworks emphasize the
importance of cultural sensitivity and contextual comprehension in achieving a good
translation, ensuring that the translated piece connects with the intended audience
while maintaining the original’s core.

PRACTICAL CHALLENGES IN LITERARY TRANSLATION

Translators have multiple obstacles while working with culturally dense materials, as
their job goes beyond simply converting language to encompass the deep subtleties of
the original culture. A major obstacle is in the translation of idioms and proverbs, which
are intricately woven into the cultural fabric of the source language. Idioms and
proverbs frequently contain cultural knowledge, social conventions, and historical
background that may lack clear counterparts in the desired language. For example, the
English expression ―raining cats and dogs‖ does not have a clear counterpart in other
languages. Readers would be confused by a literal translation, as the imagery does not
effectively communicate the intended idea. However, the translator is required to locate
a culturally suitable substitute that effectively communicates the identical notion of
intense precipitation. To guarantee the translated idiom resonates with the target
audience while maintaining the essence of the original, a thorough comprehension of
both cultures is necessary for this procedure.
Another notable obstacle involves the interpretation of cultural allusions and
comedic elements. Cultural allusions frequently encompass distinctive aspects of the
originating culture, such as significant historical occurrences, cultural customs, or
unique geographic sites. The target audience may not be familiar with these allusions,
thus it is necessary to either provide a lengthy explanation or find a culturally
equivalent reference that preserves the original impact of the text.
For example, translating cultural references in Leo Tolstoy’s works requires
the transmission of Russian life and historical elements that may be unfamiliar to
readers from different cultures. Tolstoy’s literary masterpieces, including War and
Peace (Tolstoy, 2007) and Anna Karenina (Tolstoy, 2000), are deeply immersed in
Russian history, societal traditions, and the complexities of the Russian nobility. The
inclusion of numerous allusions to the Napoleonic Wars, Russian military structure,
and distinct Russian customs in War and Peace necessitates the translator to offer
explanatory information to ensure that non-Russian readers can properly comprehend
the importance of these components. A translator may use footnotes or endnotes to
elucidate the historical backdrop of the Battle of Borodino or the societal importance of
attending a Russian ball. Humor poses a notably intricate difficulty, as it frequently
depends on clever use of language, familiarity with culture, and adherence to social
conventions. Translating humor involves both linguistic proficiency and a deep
comprehension of the comedy customs and societal context of the originating culture.
Translating the works of Shakespeare into other languages requires both linguistic
proficiency and a profound comprehension of Elizabethan culture and humor.
Shakespeare’s plays frequently incorporate puns, double entendres, and cultural
allusions that pose challenges when attempting direct translation. The translator must
employ innovative strategies to effectively communicate the comedic elements in a
manner that is easily understandable and entertaining for the intended recipients, all
while maintaining the original work’s cleverness and appeal.

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For instance, in the translation of A Midsummer Night’s Dream, the character of

Bottom serves as a source of amusement through puns and wordplay. Bottom’s
statement, ―I see their knavery; this is to make an ass of me‖ (Shakespeare, 2007), is
particularly humorous due to the double entendre, which transforms Bottom into a
literal donkey. A translator’s task is to locate a corresponding expression in the desired
language that preserves both the pun and the humorous impact. Effective comedy
typically necessitates creative language selection and a comprehension of the cultural
context of the intended audience.
Similarly, translating cultural humor, such as British irony and
understatement, can be a challenge. When translating Douglas Adams’ The
Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, a translator must adeptly handle the distinctly
British dry and sardonic humor. The inclusion of phrases such as ―Don’t Panic‖ (Adams,
2007) on the cover of the handbook may require modification to effectively connect with
readers from other cultural backgrounds. Translators may opt to include modest
explanatory annotations or seek out comparable phrases that convey the same
humorous undertone in the language being translated.
To summarize, the translation of cultural references and comedy requires a
sophisticated comprehension of both the original and destination cultures. Translators
must employ tactics such as thorough explications, cultural replacements, and
inventive linguistic resolutions to guarantee that the translated piece retains its initial
impact and strikes a chord with the intended recipients. Translators can maintain the
cultural depth and comedic elements of the original content by successfully navigating
these intricate challenges, ensuring global accessibility and reader engagement.

CASE STUDIES

Successful Translation: Antoine de Saint-Exupéry’s The Little Prince

The Little Prince by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry is a timeless masterpiece that has been
effectively translated into other languages, preserving its profound philosophical and
cultural significance across various linguistic contexts. Katherine Woods’ English
translation is particularly renowned for its adeptness in capturing the quirky and
profound essence of the original French text. Woods skillfully maneuvered through the
cultural subtleties and symbolic aspects, guaranteeing that the story’s overarching
messages remained powerful and emotionally significant to readers across the globe
(Saint-Exupéry, 1943).

Retaining Philosophical Depth

The Little Prince contains a wealth of philosophical contemplations and existential
ponderings that surpass cultural limitations. Katherine Woods’s translation adeptly
communicates these profound philosophical truths while preserving their authentic
spirit. For instance, the renowned quote, ―Il est très simple : on ne voit bien qu’avec le
cœur. L’essentiel est invisible pour les yeux,‖ 1 illustrates the idea that one can only
truly see with the heart. Katherine Woods translated this as, ―And now here is my
secret, a very simple secret: It is only with the heart that one can see rightly; what is
essential is invisible to the eye.‖2 This translation preserves the profound meaning and
emotional impact of the original phrase in English. This sentence conveys the book’s

1 See page 83 at: [Link]

2
See page 48 at: [Link]

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core topic regarding the significance of internal qualities compared to external

appearances—a message that has a worldwide impact.

Navigating Cultural Nuances

Katherine Woods’s translation is particularly adept at understanding and conveying
the many cultural intricacies found in the original text. In his narrative, Antoine de
Saint-Exupéry incorporated aspects of French culture and his own experiences as a
pilot. For instance, the author’s recollections of his own aircraft accident in the Sahara
infuse the portrayal of the desert when the narrator encounters the Little Prince.
Woods effectively conveys the barren splendor and dreamlike nature of the desert,
allowing English readers to experience the same feelings of awe and self-reflection as
French readers do.

Preserving Allegorical Elements

The Little Prince is an allegorical narrative, where characters and events represent
wider human experiences and provide moral teachings. Katherine Woods’s translation
successfully preserves these allegorical themes. In the English translation, the
characters, including the conceited rose, the fox who imparts wisdom about
relationships to the prince, and the diverse residents of the planets the prince explores,
all maintain their symbolic importance. The translated version skillfully preserves the
fox’s teachings on taming and the fundamental nature of relationships, retaining its
initial warmth and wisdom. The translation of the original line, ―Tu deviens
responsable pour toujours de ce que tu as apprivois‖ 3 becomes, ―You become responsible,
forever, for what you have tamed‖4.

Ensuring Universal Themes

The Little Prince has gained worldwide recognition due to its examination of universal
concepts such as love, grief, companionship, and the pursuit of significance. Katherine
Woods’s translation guarantees that these concepts remain comprehensible and
emotionally impactful for an audience that speaks English. Katherine Woods
successfully maintains the original text’s emotional tone and philosophical depth,
allowing readers to personally connect with the Little Prince’s journey, irrespective of
their cultural background.

Examples of Translation Excellence

Dialogue with the Rose: The conversations between the Little Prince and his rose are
tender and poignant. Woods’s translation captures the rose’s vanity and vulnerability,
reflecting the complexities of love and care. The rose’s declaration, ―And if I know—I,
myself—one flower which is unique in the world, which grows nowhere but on my
planet, but which one little sheep can destroy in a single bite some morning, without
even noticing what he is doing—Oh! You think that is not important!‖5, is rendered
with the same sense of importance and fragility as in the original French, ―Et si je
connais, moi, une fleur unique au monde, qui n’existe nulle part, sauf dans ma planète,
et qu’un petit mouton peut anéantir d’un seul coup, comme ça, un matin, sans se rendre
compte de ce qu’il fait, ce n’est pas important ça!‖6

3
See page 83 at: [Link]
4
See page 48 at: [Link]
5
See page 18 at: [Link]
6
See page 30 at: [Link]

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Meeting the Fox: The fox’s lessons on taming and friendship play a crucial role in
conveying the story’s main theme. Katherine Woods’s translation of the fox’s sad
explanation accurately reflects the original’s beautiful cadence and profound emotional
intensity:
―To me, you are still nothing more than a little boy who is just like a hundred thousand
other little boys. And I have no need of you. And you, on your part, have no need of me.
To you, I am nothing more than a fox like a hundred thousand other foxes. But if you
tame me, then we shall need each other. To me, you will be unique in all the world. To
you, I shall be unique in all the world...‖7
In French, this sentiment is beautifully expressed:
―Tu n’es encore pour moi qu’un petit garçon tout semblable à cent mille petits garçons.
Et je n’ai pas besoin de toi. Et tu n’as pas besoin de moi non plus. Je ne suis pour toi
qu’un renard semblable à cent mille renards. Mais, si tu m’apprivoises, nous aurons
besoin l’un de l’autre. Tu seras pour moi unique au monde. Je serai pour toi unique au
monde…‖8
Katherine Woods’s translation guarantees that the message about the connections of
friendship has an equally profound impact on English readers as it did in the original
French.

The Pilot’s Perspective: The story’s narrative structure, presented through the
viewpoint of a pilot who experiences a crash in the desert, closely parallels Antoine de
Saint-Exupéry’s actual life encounters. Woods effectively captures the pilot’s sense of
solitude and introspection, leading to a profoundly enchanting and meaningful
encounter with the Little Prince.

Overall, Katherine Woods’s English translation of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry’s The

Little Prince demonstrates the effective preservation of cultural and philosophical
intricacies in literary translation. Katherine Woods skillfully handles cultural
subtleties, maintains allegorical elements, and ensures the enduring impact of the
story’s universal themes. This enables English-speaking readers to appreciate the
ageless charm and wisdom of The Little Prince while staying true to the original French
masterpiece.

Unsuccessful Translation: Marcel Proust’s In Search of Lost Time

Unlike the successful translations that effectively capture the intricate beauty of
Marcel Proust’s prose, the first English translation of In Search of Lost Time received
significant criticism for its inability to fully convey the subtleties of Marcel Proust’s
writing style and the cultural context of early 20th-century France. This example
highlights the crucial importance of possessing profound cultural comprehension in the
process of translating literature in order to safeguard the nuances and opulence of the
original piece (Proust, 1922).

Lack of Cultural Sensitivity

The initial English translation of Marcel Proust’s In Search of Lost Time received
criticism for its failure to adequately capture the rich social nuances and cultural
backdrop of French society portrayed in the original text. While praised for its elegant
prose and ease of comprehension, critics criticized Charles Kenneth Scott Moncrieff’s

7
See page 46 at: [Link]
8
See page 78 at: [Link] .
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translation for its deficiencies in capturing some themes and maintaining lexical
precision. The English version of Marcel Proust’s tale failed to effectively communicate
the nuances of social traditions and the aristocratic environment, resulting in a reduced
level of depth and authenticity (Proust, 1922/1992; Carter, 2013).

Failure to Capture Stylistic Nuances

Marcel Proust’s writing is famous for its complex phrases, detailed metaphors, and deep
understanding of human psychology. The original French text has a complex narrative
structure that mirrors the protagonist’s fragmented recollections and subjective views.
Conversely, the early English translation faced difficulties in reproducing Marcel
Proust’s poetic writing style and intricate sentence constructions, leading to a story that
seemed lacking in depth and less emotionally stirring. The translation sometimes
oversimplified or diminished the novel’s intricate and sophisticated style, characterized
by Marcel Proust’s use of elaborate metaphors and nuanced changes in tone, thereby
diminishing the author’s intended immersive experience.

Examples of Translation Shortcomings

Social Etiquette and Manners: In Search of Lost Time thoroughly analyzes the
intricacies of French social customs, ranging from aristocratic soirées to bourgeois rites.
Marcel Proust’s characters navigate an intricate network of social codes and customs
that influence their relationships and identities. Nevertheless, the initial English
translation faced difficulties in accurately capturing these nuanced differences in
behavior and social structure, leading to a depiction of French society that appeared
shallow and lacking in genuineness.

Psychological Depth: Marcel Proust’s examination of memory and awareness

explores the profound aspects of human experience, uncovering the complicated
mechanisms of the mind and the transient quality of time. The original French
language utilizes deep contemplations and vibrant sensory descriptions to evoke the
inner realm of the protagonist. However, the early English translation frequently fell
short in conveying Marcel Proust’s profound psychological observations and the novel’s
deep contemplation on memory and identity. Occasionally, the translation
oversimplified or disregarded the intricate emotions, existential quandaries, and the
protagonist’s developing perspectives, thereby reducing the emotional and philosophical
resonance of the story.

Cultural Context: The narrative of In Search of Lost Time takes place in France
during a period of transition, spanning from the Belle époque to the aftermath of World
War I. Marcel Proust’s tale mirrors wider socioeconomic changes, encompassing the
diminishing influence of the nobility, the ascent of the bourgeoisie, and the cultural
metamorphoses of early 20th-century Europe. The initial English translation faced
difficulties in accurately portraying the historical and cultural aspects, leading to a
narrative that seemed disconnected from its historical setting and less impactful for
modern readers.

The Importance of Deep Cultural Understanding

The example of Marcel Proust’s In Search of Lost Time highlights the imperative for
translators to have a deep cultural comprehension of the original material. Critics
criticized the initial English translation for its inability to fully convey the complex
elegance of Marcel Proust’s writing style and the cultural environment of France in the

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early 20th century. Translators are responsible for not just accurately translating the
words but also capturing the cultural, historical, and emotional subtleties that give the
original text its profoundness and importance. Without this comprehension,
translations are at risk of becoming shallow and failing to connect with the intended
audience. This example highlights the critical role of cultural sensitivity in literature
translation and serves as a reminder of the difficulties in translating literary
masterpieces while maintaining their cultural and stylistic subtleties for a global
audience (Wikipedia) (Mantex).

Strategies for Effective Cultural Translation

To effectively navigate the intricacies of cultural context in literary translation,
translators must employ a variety of strategies to ensure that the translated work
resonates with the intended audience while preserving the essence of the original.
Essential tactics used to achieve this balance include:

Cultural substitution: Cultural substitution involves replacing culturally distinctive

elements in the original text with counterparts that are more recognizable to the
intended audience. This approach is particularly useful when the specific cultural
custom or allusion is not essential to the story but helps establish a relevant setting
(Baker, 1992; Nida, 1964). For instance, if a novel mentions a traditional Japanese tea
ceremony, the translator could substitute it with a British afternoon tea, provided the
cultural practice is not crucial to the story but serves to evoke a sense of formality and
tradition. This substitution enhances the target audience’s comprehension of the
situation, preventing unfamiliar cultural details from becoming distractions.

Footnotes and annotations: Footnotes and annotations serve to offer supplementary

elucidations for culturally distinctive terms, references, and behaviors, facilitating
readers’ comprehension of the source culture at a more profound level (Baker, 1992;
Nida, 1964). Academic and scholarly translations frequently employ this approach,
prioritizing the preservation of cultural and historical precision. For instance, while
translating a historical work set in ancient China, the translator may incorporate
footnotes to elucidate traditional traditions, historical events, or particular
terminologies that are challenging to translate directly. These comments guarantee
that the reader acquires a more comprehensive comprehension of the cultural backdrop
without interrupting the narrative’s continuity.

Collaborative translation Collaborative translation entails working with cultural

experts or native speakers of the original language to enhance the translation’s cultural
accuracy (Venuti, 2004). This coordinated effort ensures the accurate interpretation and
transmission of cultural nuances in the target language. When translating complex
literary works containing cultural references and idiomatic expressions, the main
translator may seek guidance from a native speaker or cultural expert to ensure the
appropriate representation of these elements. This collaboration can prevent
misunderstandings and guarantee that the translated content retains its original
cultural richness and significance.

Example Applications:
Cultural Substitution: In translating Alberto Moravia’s works, where he often
references Italian societal norms and specific Roman locations, a translator might
replace a lesser-known Italian cultural reference with a more universally recognized

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one if it doesn’t alter the narrative’s intent. For instance, substituting a traditional
Roman festival with a more widely known celebration like Carnival could help readers
from different backgrounds relate better (Moravia, 1954; Baker, 1992; Nida, 1964).

Footnotes and Annotations: The English translation of The Betrothed by Alessandro

Manzoni makes significant use of footnotes and annotations to provide explanations
about the historical and cultural context of 17th-century Italy. This provides clarity for
readers who are not familiar with the history and traditions of Italy, allowing them to
comprehend the background in which the novel takes place (Manzoni, 1983; Baker,
1992; Nida, 1964; Hermans, 2007).

Collaborative Translation: The translation of The Shadow of the Wind by Carlos

Ruiz Zafón into English required collaboration with local Spanish speakers to
accurately depict the cultural and historical complexities of post-war Barcelona. This
collaborative approach ensured the preservation of the intricate atmospheric nuances
and cultural references essential to the novel’s setting (Zafón, 2004; Venuti, 2008;
Tymoczko, 2007).

By implementing these tactics, translators can bridge cultural gaps, making the
translated work comprehensible to the intended audience while preserving the
original’s cultural richness and depth. This ensures that the translation accurately
mirrors the original work’s purpose and significance.

CONCLUSION

Cultural context has a significant influence on literary translation, affecting both the
translation process and the target audience’s reception. Translators need more than
linguistic skills; they must develop cultural sensitivity and expertise to grasp the
profound meanings inherent in the original text. Theoretical frameworks, such as
Eugene Nida’s dynamic equivalence and Lawrence Venuti’s tactics of foreignization and
domestication, emphasize the importance of cultural factors in translation. These
frameworks provide insights into reconciling faithfulness to the source material with
the need to make it relatable to a diverse audience.
Practical challenges further highlight the need for cultural context in
translation. Idioms, proverbs, cultural references, and humor often pose difficulties due
to their deep roots in the original culture. Accurate translation of these elements
requires a sophisticated understanding of both the source and target cultures to prevent
misinterpretations. It may be necessary to substitute idiomatic terms with culturally
suitable alternatives to convey the same intensity and emotion.
Case studies of successful and unsuccessful translations illustrate the pivotal
role of cultural context. For example, Katherine Woods’s translation of Antoine de
Saint-Exupéry’s The Little Prince preserves cultural subtleties and allegorical
components, enabling it to connect deeply with readers. Conversely, the first English
version of Marcel Proust’s In Search of Lost Time was criticized for cultural
insensitivity, failing to convey the intricate cultural and historical context of the
original work.
Translators use various tactics to manage cultural nuances in literary
translation. Cultural substitution involves replacing specific features with familiar
equivalents for the target audience. Footnotes and annotations provide supplementary
explanations, helping readers understand the source culture. Collaborative translation,

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involving cultural experts or native speakers, ensures accurate interpretation of

cultural subtleties.
In summary, the importance of cultural context in literary translation cannot
be overstated. Translators must bridge cultural gaps to preserve the original content’s
depth and significance. By using strategic methods and incorporating theoretical
knowledge, translators can effectively communicate the complexity of literary works to
a global audience. Considering cultural context ensures translations maintain the
original text’s integrity while resonating with the intended audience, enhancing the
global literary landscape.

REFERENCES

1. Adams, D. (2007). The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy. London: Pan Books.
2. Baker, M. (1992). In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. London: Routledge.
3. Carter, W. C. (2013). Swann’s Way. New Haven: Yale University Press.
4. Hermans, T. (2007). The Conference of the Tongues. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.
5. Lefevere, A. (1992). Translation, Rewriting, and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. London: Routledge.
6. Manzoni, A. (1983). The Betrothed (B. Penman, Trans.). New York: Penguin Books.
7. Moravia, A. (1954). The Woman of Rome (L. Holland, Trans.). New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
8. Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating: With Special Reference to Principles and Procedures
Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: Brill Archive.
9. Proust, M. (1922/1992). In Search of Lost Time (C. K. Scott Moncrieff, Trans.). New York: Modern Library.
10. Saint-Exupéry, A. de. (1943). The Little Prince (K. Woods, Trans.). New York: Reynal & Hitchcock.
11. Shakespeare, W. (2007). A Midsummer Night’s Dream. London: Penguin Classics.
12. Tolstoy, L. (2000). Anna Karenina (C. Garnett, Trans.). New York: Modern Library.
13. Tolstoy, L. (2007). War and Peace (C. Garnett, Trans.). New York: Vintage Classics.
14. Tymoczko, M. (2007). Translation and Power. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
15. Venuti, L. (1995). The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation. London: Routledge.
16. Zafón, C. R. (2004). The Shadow of the Wind (L. Graves, Trans.). New York: Penguin Books.

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