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DAILY
CLASS NOTES
Geography
Lecture - 16
Geomorphic Process
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Geomorphic Process
Geomorphic Processes:
The endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical stresses and chemical actions on earth materials and bringing
about changes in the configuration of the surface of the earth are known as geomorphic processes. (Geo- earth,
morphism- change/formation)
Type of Geomorphic movements:
❖ The Earth’s surface is continuously subjected to external forces originating within the Earth’s atmosphere and
by internal forces from within the Earth.
❖ The external forces are known as exogenic forces and the internal forces are known as endogenic forces.
❖ Endogenic forces: There are two types:
➢ Diastrophism (very slow and takes thousands of years). It is responsible for the formation of Islands,
continents, mountains, plateaus, etc.
➢ Sudden movement (quick and takes less time) Examples: Earthquakes and volcanism (to study in later
period)
❖ Exogenic forces: Weathering, mass wasting, erosion, and deposition are slow exogenic geomorphic processes.
The actions of exogenic forces result in the wearing down (degradation) of relief/elevations and filling up
(aggradation) of basins/ depressions, on the earth’s surface.
Endogenic Process:
❖ The large-scale movements on the earth's crust or its surface brought down by the forces emanating from deep
below the earth's surface are called endogenic geomorphic movements or simply endogenic movements (endo:
internal; genic: origin; geo: earth; morphic: form).
❖ The geomorphic processes that are driven by the forces emanating from deep below the earth's surface are
called endogenic geomorphic processes (folding, faulting, etc.).
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The Force Behind Endogenic Movements:
❖ The ultimate source of energy behind forces that drive endogenic movements is the earth's internal heat.
❖ Differences in temperature and pressure (temperature gradients or geothermal gradients and pressure
gradients) among various layers of the earth give rise to density differences and these density differences give
rise to conventional currents.
❖ Convectional currents in the mantle drive the lithospheric plates (crust and upper mantle) and the movement
of the lithospheric plates (tectonics) is the cause behind endogenic movements.
Diastrophism:
❖ Diastrophism refers to the deformation of the Earth's crust due to dystrophic movements (deforming
movements) such as folding, faulting, warping (bending or twisting of a large area) and fracturing.
❖ All processes that move, elevate, or build up portions of the earth's crust come under diastrophism. They
include:
1. Orogenic processes involving mountain building through severe folding (crust is severely deformed into
folds) and affecting long and narrow belts of the earth's crust;
2. Epeirogenic processes involving the uplift or warping of large parts of the earth's crust (simple
deformation)
Orogenic Processes:
Folding
❖ It occurs when the landform is up-wrapped due to intense
compressive forces that operate within the earth.
❖ Folding occurs in relatively elastic rocks as even after the
compressive force they are not broken.
❖ Folding results in the formation of Anticline (Anticlinal
mountains) and Syncline (Synclinal valleys)
Types of Folds:
❖ Symmetrical Fold: If both the limbs are inclined equally or at equal angles it is known as
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❖ Asymmetrical Fold: If both the limbs are inclined at different angle then it is known as Asymm
❖ Monocline Fold: A monocline is a step-like fold in rock strata consisting of a zone of steeper dip within an
otherwise horizontal or gently dipping sequence.
❖ Isoclinal Fold: An Isoclinal fold has limbs that are essentially parallel to each other and thus approximately
parallel to the axial plane.
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❖ Recumbent Fold: A recumbent fold has an essentially horizontal axial plane. Such kind of folding is seen in
regions of complex fold mountains such as Himalayas. Both the limbs become parallel to each other as well
as they are parallel to ground surface.
❖ Overthrust fold: An overthrust fold is a type of fold that occurs when one layer of rock is thrust over another
layer. This type of fold is typically formed in areas where there is a lot of horizontal pressure, such as in
mountain ranges.
❖ Neppe: A neppe is a small, conical fold that is formed in layers of sedimentary rock. Neppe folds are typically
formed when there is a lot of vertical pressure, such as in areas where there are glaciers.
Faulting:
❖ Faulting represents a crack in the rocks along the lines or zones of weakness. After breaking the rocks, the
landform will undergo displacement and give rise to block mountains and rift valleys.
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❖ Faulting is the process by which rocks are broken and displaced. It is caused by a variety of forces, including
tensional forces, compressional forces, and shearing forces.
❖ Tensional forces cause rocks to stretch and pull apart. This can lead to the formation of faults along which
rocks on either side of the fault move away from each other. Elastic rocks are more likely to deform by faulting
in response to tensional forces than brittle rocks.
❖ Compressional forces cause rocks to squeeze and shorten. This can lead to the formation of folds, which are
bends in the layers of rock. Compression folding is a type of folding that occurs when the rocks are compressed
in a horizontal direction.
❖ Shearing forces cause rocks to slide past each other. This can lead to the formation of strike-slip faults, which
are faults along which the rocks on either side of the fault move horizontally past each other.
❖ Horst blocks are uplifted blocks of rock that are bounded by normal faults. They are formed when the crust is
stretched and thinned, causing blocks of rock to be uplifted relative to the surrounding rocks.
Types of Faulting:
1. Normal Faults: Normal faults are associated with tensional
forces, where the hanging wall (upper block) moves downward
relative to the footwall (lower block). These faults are typically
found at divergent plate boundaries, where tectonic plates are
pulling apart.
2. Reverse Faults (Thrust Faults): In contrast to normal faults,
reverse faults are associated with compressional forces, where the
hanging wall moves upward relative to the footwall. These faults
are commonly found at convergent plate boundaries, where
tectonic plates are colliding and pushing together.
3. Lateral Faults, also known as Wrench Faults or Transcurrent
Faults, are strike-slip faults that exhibit significant horizontal
displacement along their plane. These faults are typically found
in areas where tectonic plates are sliding horizontally past each
other, resulting in the lateral offset of the landmasses. California's
San Andreas Fault is a notable example of a lateral fault.
4. Step Faults, on the other hand, are a type of normal fault that
exhibits a series of step-like offsets along its fault plane. These
steps are formed when the faulting process repeatedly reactivates,
causing the hanging wall to descend in a series of steps. Step
faults are often found in areas where the crust is undergoing extensional forces, such as at divergent plate
boundaries or in rift valleys.
Examples Of Faulting:
❖ Great African Rift Valley
❖ Dead sea
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❖ Red sea
❖ Lake Baikal
❖ Rhine Valley
❖ Vindhyes & Satpuras
❖ Tanganyika Lake
❖ Lake Balkash.
Epeirogenic Or Continent-forming Movements:
❖ Epeirogeny or continent-forming movements are radial movements (act along the radius of the earth). Their
direction may be towards (subsidence) or away (uplift) from the centre.
❖ Upliftment:
➢ Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea
caves and fossiliferous beds above sea level are
evidence of upliftment.
➢ In India, raised beaches occur at several places along
the Kathiawar, Nellore, and Tirunelveli coasts.
➢ Several places that were on the sea some centuries
ago are now a few miles inland due to upliftment. For
example, Coringa near the mouth of the Godavari,
Kaveripattinam in the Kaveri delta and Korkai on the
coast of Tirunelveli were all flourishing seaports
about 1,000 to 2,000 years ago.
❖ Subsidence:
➢ Submerged forests and valleys, as well as buildings, are evidence of subsidence.
➢ In 1819, a part of the Rann of Kachchh was submerged as a result of an earthquake.
➢ The presence of peat and lignite beds below the sea level in Tirunelveli and the Sundarbans is an example
of subsidence.
➢ The Andamans and Nicobars have been isolated from the Arakan coast by submergence of the intervening
land
➢ A large part of the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait is very shallow and has been submerged in geologically
recent times. A part of the former town of Mahabalipuram near Chennai is submerged in the sea.
Mapping Of North America:
❖ North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population
after Asia, Africa, and Europe.
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❖ North America is the third largest continent after Asia and Africa.
❖ From south to north, it extends from 7°N to 85°N latitude and east to west from 20°W to 179°.
❖ In other words, its northern boundary is only about 500 kilometres away from the North Pole. There are five
time zones in North America.
❖ The Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle passes through the continent and the 100°W longitude.
❖ It is bounded by three major oceans: the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and the
Arctic Ocean to the north.
❖ North America encompasses three large countries: Canada, the United States, and Mexico.
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Major Physical Divisions of North America:
❖ The Western Cordillera
❖ The Central Lowlands
❖ The Eastern Highlands
The Western Cordilleras
The parallel ranges of young fold mountains run from Alaska and extend into
South America as the Andes.
❖ As they resemble twisted cords they are known as Cordilleras.
❖ Fold mountains are formed when tectonic plates push the Earth's crust and
force it to form ridges and valleys.
❖ Volcanic rocks from the base of fold mountains.
❖ The Cordilleras are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Mount St. Helena is
in the USA.
The Western Cordilleras
❖ Some of the rivers flow westwards and some eastwards with the
Cordilleras acting as the water divide.
❖ The snow-covered Cordilleras act as a barrier to moisture-laden winds and cause relief rainfall.
❖ The Rocky Mountains, Alaska Range, Cascades, Sierra Nevada, and the Sierra Madre are the chief rang
❖ The Grand Canyon is a network of deep narrow valley cuts into the dry Colorado Plateau.
❖ The Old Faithful" is a natural geyser (a hot waterspout).
The Eastern Highlands:
❖ They are old fold mountains that stretch from the valley of River St. Lawrence to Southern USA.
❖ They are not high or as continuous as the Cordilleras.
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❖ The highlands are also known as the Laurentian highlands in Canada and the Appalachians in the USA and
are less than 2,000 meters in height.
❖ Their eastern slopes facing the Atlantic Ocean are very steep causing waterfalls in the streams that flow to the
coast
Drainage System of North America
There are many rivers in North America.
❖ Rivers draining into the Gulf of Mexico
❖ Rivers draining into the Atlantic Ocean
❖ Arctic Ocean drainage
❖ Pacific Ocean Drainage
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Drainage System of North America:
❖ The rivers draining into the Gulf of Mexico
❖ Rivers draining into the Atlantic Ocean
❖ Arctic Ocean drainage
❖ Pacific Ocean Drainage
Industrial Centers of North America
United States of America:
❖ West Coast Important Cities:-
➢ Seattle is the world's largest aircraft assembly centre. Lumbering, fish canning, aluminium smelting
electrical.
➢ San Francisco is known as 'The City of Golden Gate'. Famous for oil refining and shipbuilding.
➢ Los Angeles is known for its film industry - Hollywood.
❖ Great Lake Region:-
➢ Famous for heavy industries and iron and steel.
➢ Important cities - Chicago, Pittsburg, Cleveland, Toledo, Detroit, etc.
➢ Detroit - greatest automobile region of USA.
➢ Akron - the world's largest synthetic rubber and tyre-making centre.
➢ Pittsburg - highest production of Iron and steel.
Texas:
❖ Houston - Oil refinery, shipbuilding, chemical, and machinery are important industries located here
Canada:
❖ Hamilton - located at the head of Lake Ontario. It is known as the Birmingham of Canada.
❖ Sudbury - Located on the shore of Lake Huron. It is one of the most productive mining areas of
❖ Arvida - Situated on Saguenay River. It has the largest aluminum smelter in the world.
❖ Sarnia - Located on the shore of Lake Huron. It has the largest oil refinery in the world.
❖ Ottawa - Paper and pulp and sawmilling
