MM 754
Sustainable Materials for
Water Treatment
Dr. Prasanna Kumar S Mural
Department of Metallurgical Engineering & Materials Science
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai-400076, India
Water Testing
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Basic Tests
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pH Measurement
Definition
• pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration:
𝑝𝐻 = − log10 𝐻 +
• The scale ranges from 0 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly alkaline), with 7 being neutral.
• Each unit change in pH represents a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration.
• Significance
• pH strongly influences chemical reactions in natural waters and treatment systems.
• Plays a crucial role in:
• Water supply and wastewater treatment (ensuring safety and compliance).
• Water softening, coagulation, precipitation, disinfection, and corrosion control.
• Alkalinity and CO₂ measurement as well as monitoring fluoride activity.
• Environmental limits:
• Typical acceptable drinking water pH: 6.5 – 8.5 (as per WHO guidelines).
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pH Measurement Method
• Electrometric method is the standard:
• Uses a glass electrode that produces an EMF proportional to hydrogen
ion concentration.
• EMF varies linearly with pH.
• Calibration:
• pH meter must be calibrated using standard buffer solutions
(commonly pH 4.0, 7.0, and 9.0).
• Ensures accuracy in readings.
• Precautions:
• Measure immediately after sampling, as pH is unstable and may change
during storage.
• Avoid contamination of electrodes; rinse with distilled water between
measurements.
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Conductivity & Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
Definition: Conductivity Definition: TDS
• Ability of water to conduct electric • Total dissolved solids = sum of all
current minerals, salts, and metals dissolved
• Directly proportional to in water
concentration of dissolved ions • Measured in mg/L (ppm)
• Measured in microsiemens per
centimeter (µS/cm)
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Conductivity – Testing Method
• Principle
• Conductivity measures the ability of water to conduct an electric current, proportional to the concentration of
dissolved ions.
1
• Based on Ohm’s Law: 𝐶 = , where C = Conductance, R = Resistance.
𝑅
• Apparatus & Equipment
• Conductivity meter with temperature compensation
• Standard conductivity cell (platinum electrodes)
• Reagents
• Standard potassium chloride (KCl) solution for calibration (0.01 M → 1412 µS/cm at 25°C)
• Procedure
• Rinse the conductivity cell with distilled water, then with the sample.
• Fill the cell with the test sample.
• Measure at 25°C (if instrument lacks ATC, adjust manually).
• Record the reading in µS/cm or mS/cm.
• Interpretation
• Low conductivity (<50 µS/cm): Very pure water (e.g., distilled).
• Medium (200–800 µS/cm): Acceptable drinking water.
• High (>2000 µS/cm): Unsuitable for drinking; possible salinity or pollution.
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Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) – Testing Methods
Gravimetric Method (Standard Reference) Estimation via Conductivity
Principle
Direct measurement by evaporating water and • Principle
weighing residue. • Empirical correlation:
𝑚𝑔 𝜇𝑆
• Apparatus 𝑇𝐷𝑆 = 𝑘 × 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑐𝑚)
𝐿
Evaporating dish, oven (103–105°C), desiccator,
analytical balance • Advantages
• Gravimetric: Accurate, standard
• Procedure
method but time-consuming.
• Take a known volume of well-mixed sample (e.g., 100 mL).
• Evaporate in a pre-weighed dish to dryness at 180°C. • Conductivity method: Quick, suitable
• Cool in desiccator and weigh. for field use but approximate.
Calculate TDS in mg/L:
• Standards
•
𝑚𝑔 (𝑊2 − 𝑊1 ) × 1000
𝑇𝐷𝑆 =
𝐿 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 (𝑚𝐿) • WHO: ≤ 500 mg/L desirable; up to
1000 mg/L permissible in absence of
alternatives.
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Turbidity
• Definition
• Optical property: cloudiness or haziness of water
caused by suspended particles
• Expressed in NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units)
• Causes of Turbidity
• Clay, silt, organic matter, plankton,
microorganisms
• Significance
• High turbidity interferes with disinfection and
treatment
• May indicate microbial contamination
• Affects aquatic life by reducing light penetration
• Standards
• WHO guideline: Drinking water ≤ 5 NTU
(preferably <1 NTU for effective disinfection)
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Temperature
•Significance
•Affects solubility of gases (e.g., dissolved oxygen)
•Influences microbial activity & chemical reaction rates
•Critical for aquatic life and treatment plant efficiency
•Measurement Methods
•Mercury/Alcohol Thermometers: Simple field use
•Thermistor/Resistance Thermometer: High sensitivity, electronic
meters
•Digital Temperature Probes: Often combined with pH/conductivity
meters
•Precautions
•Measure immediately at sampling site to avoid change
•Avoid direct sunlight & ensure proper immersion depth
•Calibrate digital instruments regularly
•Standards
•Natural water bodies: typically 0–30 °C
•Sudden changes >2 °C may stress aquatic ecosystems
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Residual Chlorine
Definition
•`The amount of chlorine remaining in water after disinfection
•Ensures continued protection against microbial contamination
•Significance
•Key indicator of effective disinfection in water supply
•Protects against regrowth of pathogens during distribution
•Measurement Methods
•Iodometric Titration: Accurate for concentrations >1 mg/L
•DPD Colorimetric Method: Widely used; color change proportional to chlorine level
•Amperometric Titration: Precise but requires skilled operation
•Standards
•WHO guideline: 0.2 – 0.5 mg/L residual chlorine at point of use
•Key Takeaway
•Adequate residual chlorine ensures safe, pathogen-free drinking water
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Intermediate Tests
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Hardness of Water
• EDTA Titration Method (Standard)
Definition
• Indicator: Eriochrome Black T (wine-red → blue)
•Hardness = Sum of Calcium (Ca²⁺) and Magnesium (Mg²⁺),
• pH 10 buffer to maintain conditions
expressed as mg/L CaCO₃
• Calculates total hardness as mg/L CaCO₃
• Separate Calcium & Magnesium
•Types of Hardness • Calcium: murexide indicator (EDTA titration at pH ~12)
•Temporary Hardness • Magnesium: Calculated by subtracting calcium hardness from
•Ca & Mg carbonates total hardness
•Removed by boiling → CaCO₃ precipitate • Alternative Methods
•Permanent Hardness • Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS)
•Ca & Mg as sulfates/chlorides • Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) for precise ion analysis
•Not removed by boiling • Interpretation (mg/L as CaCO₃)
• Soft: 0–75
•Significance • Moderately hard: 76–150
•Forms insoluble residue with soap (soap consumption ↑) • Hard: 151–300
•Boiler scaling: CaCO₃ precipitation reduces heat conduction • Very hard: >300
•Seasonal variation: Groundwater usually harder than surface water
•Other Contributors
•Strontium, barium, some heavy metals (minor contributors)
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Alkalinity
• Definition
• Capacity of water to neutralize acids
• Caused by hydroxides, carbonates, and bicarbonates
• Significance
• Indicates buffering capacity → resistance to pH changes
• Important for aquatic life, corrosion control, and water treatment
• Measurement Method
• Titration with Standard H₂SO₄
▪ Phenolphthalein indicator → pH 8.3 endpoint
▪ Methyl Orange indicator → pH 4.5 endpoint
• Determines hydroxide, carbonate, and bicarbonate alkalinity
• Interpretation
• High alkalinity → good buffering but may cause scaling
• Low alkalinity → poor buffering, water prone to pH swings
• Units
• Reported as mg/L of CaCO₃
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Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
• Definition
• Amount of oxygen dissolved in water, essential for
aquatic life and treatment processes
• Significance
• Indicator of water quality and self-purification capacity
• Low DO → organic pollution, risk to fish and aquatic
organisms
• High DO → supports aerobic processes, prevents odor
• Measurement Methods
• Winkler Titration Method
▪ Fixation with MnSO₄ and alkali-iodide-azide
▪ Titrated with sodium thiosulfate
• Membrane Electrode Method
▪ DO probe with oxygen-permeable membrane
▪ Provides continuous field/online monitoring
• Standards
• Drinking water: ≥5 mg/L desirable
• Aquatic life: ≥4–5 mg/L needed for fish survival
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Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
• Definition
• Amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms to decompose
organic matter in water
• Standard test: 5 days at 20 °C (BOD₅)
• Significance
• Key indicator of organic pollution load
• Used to assess treatment plant efficiency & regulatory
compliance
• Measurement Methods
• Dilution Method (Standard)
• Diluted sample incubated in sealed bottles at 20 °C
• DO measured initially and after 5 days → BOD = DO₀ – DO₅
• Respirometric Method
• Measures oxygen uptake continuously during incubation
• Interpretation (mg/L)
• <3: Clean water
• 3–5: Moderately polluted
• 5: Poor quality, wastewater contamination likely
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Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
• Definition
• Oxygen equivalent of the organic and inorganic matter in
water that can be oxidized chemically
• Provides a rapid estimate of pollution potential
• Significance
• Faster than BOD (3–4 hrs vs 5 days)
• Indicates total oxidizable matter (biodegradable + non-
biodegradable)
• Measurement Methods
• Open Reflux Method (Titrimetric)
▪ Sample refluxed with potassium dichromate + H₂SO₄
▪ Back-titration with ferrous ammonium sulfate
• Closed Reflux Method (Colorimetric/Titrimetric)
▪ Performed in sealed tubes → faster, less reagent use
• Interpretation
• High COD → High organic/inorganic load, poor water
quality
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Indicator Organisms
• Purpose
o Non-pathogenic organisms used to signal faecal
contamination
o Suggest possible presence of pathogens (bacteria, viruses,
protozoa)
• Criteria for Ideal Indicators
o Present when pathogens are present
o Survive longer than pathogens in water
o Do not multiply in natural waters
o Easy to isolate, identify, and quantify
• Common Indicators
o Total Coliforms: General indicator, lactose fermentation
with gas
o Escherichia coli (E. coli): Strong evidence of faecal
contamination
o Faecal Streptococci: More resistant, persist longer than
coliforms
o Clostridium perfringens: Spore-forming, indicates past
contamination
o Coliphages (bacteriophages): Viral indicators 18
Colony count
• Definition
o Enumeration of viable bacteria capable of forming
colonies under defined conditions
o Expressed as Colony Forming Units (CFU) per mL
• Significance
o Indicates general microbial load in water
o Not a direct indicator of faecal contamination
o Useful for monitoring treatment efficiency and system
hygiene
• Methods
o Pour Plate Method: Sample mixed with nutrient agar,
incubated; colonies counted
o Spread Plate Method: Sample spread on agar surface;
colonies counted
o Membrane Filtration: Sample filtered, filter placed on
agar; colonies counted
• Standards
o WHO: Drinking water should ideally have HPC < 500
CFU/mL
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Advanced Tests
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AAS methods
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ICP-OES
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Nitrate (UV spectrophotometry, PDA method)
• Significance
• Nitrate (NO₃⁻) = highly oxidized nitrogen form
• Common from fertilizers, sewage, and industrial effluents
• Excess → methemoglobinemia (“blue baby syndrome”) in
infants
• Measurement Methods
• UV Spectrophotometry
▪ Absorbance at 220 nm
▪ Interference from organic matter → correction using absorbance
at 275 nm
▪ Rapid and simple, suitable for clear water samples
• Phenol Disulphonic Acid (PDA) Method
▪ Nitrate reacts with PDA to form a yellow complex
▪ Absorbance measured at 410 nm
▪ More specific; useful when organic interferences are present
• Standards
• WHO guideline: ≤ 50 mg/L as NO₃⁻
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Ammonia (Nesslerization)
• Significance
o Ammonia (NH₃/NH₄⁺) arises from organic matter decomposition & sewage
o Toxic to aquatic life at elevated levels
o Indicator of recent pollution & incomplete treatment
• Principle (Nesslerization)
o Ammonia reacts with Nessler’s reagent (alkaline solution of potassium
tetraiodomercurate)
o Forms a yellow to brown color proportional to ammonia concentration
• Procedure
o Add Nessler’s reagent to water sample
o Allow color to develop
o Measure absorbance at 410 nm with a spectrophotometer
• Interferences
o Turbidity & color may affect results
o Organic amines can produce similar coloration
o Pretreatment may be required (e.g., distillation)
• Standards
o WHO guideline: ≤ 0.5 mg/L (aesthetic limit in drinking water) 24
Phosphate (Stannous Chloride method)
• Significance
o Phosphates enter water from fertilizers, detergents, sewage
o Excess → eutrophication (algal blooms, oxygen depletion)
o Important for monitoring wastewater treatment efficiency
• Principle (Stannous Chloride Method)
o Orthophosphate reacts with ammonium molybdate in acidic medium →
phosphomolybdic acid
o Reduced by stannous chloride → forms blue complex (molybdenum
blue)
o Intensity proportional to phosphate concentration
• Procedure
o Mix sample with ammonium molybdate + H₂SO₄
o Add stannous chloride; allow blue color to develop
o Measure absorbance at 690–880 nm
• Forms of Phosphates Measured
o Orthophosphate (direct)
o Condensed phosphates → converted by acid hydrolysis
o Total phosphate → includes organic phosphates after digestion
• Standards
o WHO guideline: ≤ 0.5 mg/L PO₄³⁻ in drinking water
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TOC analysis
• Combustion of organic matter to carbon dioxide and water
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