MODULE 3 : POST WORLD WAR ORGANISATIONS
Towards World Cooperation – SAARC
Introduction
In the aftermath of the Second World War, as countries across Asia, Africa, and
Latin America gained independence, there emerged a global push towards regional
cooperation and collective development. One such initiative was the formation of
the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1985. SAARC
was a regional organization aimed at promoting economic growth, social progress,
and cultural development among the countries of South Asia. The creation of
SAARC was rooted in the belief that regional cooperation could accelerate national
development, reduce tensions, and ensure peace in one of the most populous and
complex regions of the world.
Background of SAARC’s Formation
The idea of regional cooperation in South Asia was proposed by Zia-ur-Rahman,
the then President of Bangladesh, in 1980.After years of consultations and
negotiations, SAARC was officially established on December 8, 1985, in Dhaka,
Bangladesh.
The founding member countries were:
India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, and the Maldives.
(Afghanistan joined as the eighth member in 2007.)
The region shared historical, cultural, linguistic, and economic linkages, but also
faced challenges like poverty, political conflicts, border disputes, and
underdevelopment. SAARC was envisioned as a platform to overcome these
challenges through mutual cooperation.
Objectives of SAARC
The objectives of SAARC were defined in its Charter, and include:
Promote the welfare of the peoples of South Asia and improve their quality of life.
Accelerate economic growth, social progress, and cultural development through
mutual assistance.
Strengthen collective self-reliance among member countries.
Contribute to mutual trust, understanding, and appreciation of one another’s
problems.
Promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in economic, technical, and
scientific fields.Cooperate with international and regional organizations.
Respect for sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and non-interference in
internal affairs.
Major Achievements of SAARC
Institutional Development:
SAARC established various bodies such as the SAARC Secretariat (Kathmandu),
SAARC Development Fund (Bhutan), and technical committees for areas like
agriculture, health, and education.
SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area):
Launched in 2006 to promote intra-regional trade by reducing tariffs. While its
success has been limited, it represents a key step toward economic integration.
SAARC Summits and Dialogue:
Regular summits have provided a platform for bilateral talks, conflict resolution
efforts, and diplomatic engagement — especially between India and Pakistan.
Regional Cooperation in Disaster Management and Health:
SAARC has coordinated responses to natural disasters and pandemics (like the
COVID-19 response fund initiated by India in 2020).
People-to-People Connectivity:
Initiatives like SAARC Cultural Festivals, Scholarship Programs, and SAARC
University have helped build a sense of regional identity and fostered collaboration
in education and research.
SAARC Regional Centres:
These centres focus on diverse areas like agriculture, meteorology, energy, and
tuberculosis control — reflecting the organization's commitment to multi-sectoral
cooperation.
Challenges Faced by SAARC
Political Tensions:
The long-standing rivalry between India and Pakistan has frequently paralyzed
SAARC’s progress. Bilateral disputes often spill into regional forums, delaying
decisions and implementation.
Lack of Enforcement Mechanisms:
SAARC resolutions are non-binding, which means they depend on voluntary
implementation. This weakens their effectiveness.
Economic Disparities:
The economic dominance of India creates an imbalance, and smaller nations
sometimes view Indian leadership with suspicion.
Low Intra-Regional Trade:
Compared to other regional blocs like ASEAN or the EU, trade among SAARC
countries remains low — less than 5% of their global trade.
Infrequent Meetings and Delays:
Political crises and mutual distrust often lead to the postponement of summits. For
example, the 19th SAARC Summit (2016) was cancelled due to tensions between
India and Pakistan.
Significance of SAARC in World Cooperation
SAARC reflects the global trend of regionalism in the post-war world, similar to
the EU, ASEAN, and AU.
It provides a platform for countries with shared histories and challenges to work
together for collective growth.
Despite its weaknesses, SAARC symbolizes the aspiration for peace, stability, and
cooperation in a region often marred by conflict.
In an increasingly interconnected world, regional groupings like SAARC can
amplify the voice of smaller nations, help negotiate with global powers, and serve
as stepping stones to global governance.
Conclusion
SAARC stands as a significant step towards regional cooperation in South Asia.
While it has not achieved all its ambitious goals, it has encouraged dialogue, built
regional institutions, and fostered cultural and economic collaboration. The future
of SAARC depends on the political will of its member states to transcend bilateral
conflicts and focus on shared challenges like poverty, climate change, terrorism,
and public health. In the broader context of world cooperation, SAARC’s journey
reflects both the potential and the limitations of regionalism in a deeply divided yet
interdependent world.
Towards World Cooperation – ASEAN
Introduction
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is one of the most
successful regional organizations in the developing world. Formed during the Cold
War period, ASEAN represents the collective efforts of Southeast Asian countries
to promote peace, economic growth, political stability, and regional cooperation. In
a world divided by ideological rivalries, ASEAN emerged as a neutral, pragmatic,
and economically driven bloc, showcasing how regional cooperation among
developing nations can bring lasting benefits.
Formation and Background of ASEAN
ASEAN was founded on August 8, 1967, in Bangkok, Thailand, with the signing
of the Bangkok Declaration.
The five founding members were:
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.
The organization gradually expanded to include Brunei (1984), Vietnam (1995),
Laos and Myanmar (1997), and Cambodia (1999) — making it a 10-member
regional body.
The founding of ASEAN occurred during a time of political instability, communist
insurgency, and superpower rivalry in Southeast Asia. Its early goals focused on
regional security, anti-communist solidarity, and economic collaboration.
Objectives of ASEAN
ASEAN’s objectives, outlined in the Bangkok Declaration and subsequent charters,
include:
Accelerating economic growth, social progress, and cultural development in the
region.
Promoting regional peace and stability through the rule of law and diplomacy.
Promoting collaborative programs in education, agriculture, industry, and trade.
Upholding non-interference in internal affairs and respect for sovereignty.
Enhancing regional identity and mutual understanding among member nations.
Creating a single market and production base (ASEAN Economic Community).
Major Achievements of ASEAN
Peace and Political Stability:
ASEAN has played a crucial role in preventing interstate wars among its members,
despite historical tensions and border disputes. Its policy of dialogue and non-
interference has preserved peace in a diverse and volatile region.
ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA):
Launched in 1992, AFTA reduced tariffs and trade barriers among members,
encouraging intra-regional trade and investment.
ASEAN Economic Community (AEC):
Formed in 2015, the AEC aims to create a single regional market with free
movement of goods, services, labor, and capital — boosting economic
competitiveness and integration.
Cultural and Educational Cooperation:
ASEAN promotes cultural exchange, tourism, student exchange programs, and
joint research initiatives. This fosters a sense of regional identity and solidarity.
Disaster Management and Health Initiatives:
The ASEAN Humanitarian Assistance Centre and ASEAN Health Ministers
Meeting coordinate disaster response, pandemic preparedness, and public health
strategies.
Strategic Diplomacy:
Through forums like the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) and East Asia Summit,
ASEAN engages with major global powers (China, US, Japan, India, EU) — often
acting as a bridge between East and West.
Principles of ASEAN: The ASEAN Way
The ASEAN Way is the unique approach that governs the association’s
functioning, based on:
Consensus-based decision-making
Non-interference in domestic affairs
Informality and flexibility
Mutual respect and peaceful resolution of disputes
While these principles promote unity and harmony, they also slow decision-making
and limit action on controversial issues like human rights violations or
authoritarianism.
Challenges Faced by ASEAN
Political and Economic Diversity:
Member states vary widely — from developed economies like Singapore to less-
developed ones like Laos and Myanmar. This makes policy alignment difficult.
Authoritarianism and Human Rights Issues:
ASEAN has been criticized for remaining silent on serious issues like the military
coup in Myanmar (2021), undermining its credibility.
China’s Growing Influence and South China Sea Disputes:
Disagreements over how to handle China’s aggressive claims in the South China
Sea have created internal divisions. Countries like Vietnam and the Philippines
seek a tougher stance, while others prioritize economic ties with China.
Slow Integration:
Despite agreements, intra-ASEAN trade remains relatively low, and progress
toward full integration is slow due to national interests and lack of enforcement
mechanisms.
ASEAN's Global Role and Significance
Model of Regionalism in the Global South:
ASEAN proves that regional cooperation among developing nations can lead to
peace, stability, and economic growth.
Balancing Global Powers:
ASEAN plays a balancing role between major global powers like the US, China,
India, and the EU, offering a neutral platform for dialogue and diplomacy.
Promoting Multilateralism:
ASEAN supports a rules-based international order and promotes dialogue over
confrontation — making it a voice of moderation in global affairs.
Economic Hub:
ASEAN is one of the fastest-growing economic regions in the world, attracting
global investment and becoming a critical player in global supply chains.
Conclusion
ASEAN stands as a successful example of regional cooperation in the post-World
War world. With its focus on peace, prosperity, and partnership, ASEAN has
helped transform a once conflict-prone region into one of relative stability and
economic dynamism. Despite facing internal and external challenges, ASEAN’s
commitment to unity, dialogue, and mutual respect has earned it a significant place
in international relations. As the world becomes more multipolar, organizations
like ASEAN offer a model for collective development and diplomacy in the Global
South.
Organisation of African Unity (OAU)
Introduction
The Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was a landmark development in post-
colonial Africa’s political history. Formed in 1963, the OAU represented the
collective ambition of newly independent African nations to unite, resist neo-
colonialism, and promote political and economic cooperation. Amidst the backdrop
of decolonization and Cold War rivalries, the OAU symbolized African solidarity,
self-determination, and regional diplomacy. Though it had limitations, the OAU
laid the foundation for the African Union (AU), which replaced it in 2002.
Background and Formation
The OAU was officially established on May 25, 1963, in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
32 African countries signed the OAU Charter at the time of its formation.
(Eventually, membership expanded to 53 nations.)
The formation was strongly inspired by Pan-Africanism — the idea of unity and
cooperation among all African people.
It aimed to end colonial rule, eliminate apartheid, and promote continental unity.
Objectives of the OAU
Promote unity and solidarity among African states.
Safeguard the sovereignty, territorial integrity, and independence of member states.
Eradicate colonialism and neo-colonialism from Africa.
Promote international cooperation based on United Nations Charter and Universal
Declaration of Human Rights.
Improve the living standards of African people.
Settle disputes among African states through peaceful negotiation.
Major Contributions and Achievements of the OAU
Anti-Colonial and Anti-Apartheid Role:
Supported liberation movements in Angola, Mozambique, Namibia, and South
Africa.
Provided moral and political backing to anti-apartheid efforts and isolated South
Africa diplomatically.
Preserving Sovereignty:
Helped maintain political independence and territorial integrity of member states.
Opposed external interference in African affairs.
Pan-African Diplomacy:
Established a platform for African countries to speak in a united voice in
international forums like the UN.
Promoted African solutions to African problems.
Peacekeeping Efforts:
Although limited by resources, OAU initiated early peace negotiations in conflicts
like the Rwanda Civil War and the Ethiopia-Eritrea border dispute.
Criticisms and Challenges
Weak Conflict Resolution Mechanism:
OAU followed a strict non-interference policy, even in cases of civil war or human
rights violations.
Failed to prevent or stop major conflicts like the Rwandan Genocide (1994).
Lack of Economic Integration:
Unlike ASEAN or EU, OAU made little progress in economic cooperation or
building a common market.
Authoritarian Protection:
Often seen as a “dictators’ club”, it protected corrupt and authoritarian regimes
under the pretext of sovereignty.
Limited Financial and Institutional Capacity:
Relied heavily on donor aid, lacked the institutional strength to implement
ambitious goals.
Transition to African Union (AU)
By the late 1990s, it was widely agreed that the OAU needed reform.
The Sirte Declaration (1999) led to the creation of the African Union (AU) in 2002,
with a stronger focus on human rights, economic integration, and peacekeeping.
The AU built upon OAU’s legacy, but with better mechanisms and political will.
Conclusion
The Organisation of African Unity was a pioneering institution in the history of
post-colonial Africa. While its achievements in promoting decolonization, unity,
and diplomacy were historic, its structural weaknesses and conservative principles
limited its impact in areas like peacekeeping and governance. Still, the OAU was a
crucial stepping stone toward greater regional cooperation, and its spirit of Pan-
Africanism continues to shape the policies of the African Union today. It remains a
proud symbol of Africa’s long journey toward unity and dignity.
The European Union (EU)
Introduction
The European Union (EU) is one of the world’s most successful examples of
regional integration. Born from the ashes of World War II, the EU represents the
vision of a peaceful, united, and economically interdependent Europe. What began
as a simple coal and steel community has grown into a 27-member political and
economic union, influencing global trade, diplomacy, and human rights. Its
structured institutions and legal framework have transformed Europe from a
battleground into a zone of stability and shared prosperity.
Historical Background and Formation
The idea of a united Europe was proposed after World War II to prevent future
conflicts.
The first step was the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951,
involving six countries: Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, and
West Germany.
This was followed by the Treaty of Rome (1957) which created the European
Economic Community (EEC).
The Maastricht Treaty (1993) officially established the European Union, with
broader political, monetary, and foreign policy goals.
The EU now includes 27 member countries, following the UK's exit in Brexit
(2020).
Objectives of the European Union
Ensure peace and stability in Europe.
Promote economic integration and a single market.
Strengthen political cooperation among member states.
Encourage social progress, environmental protection, and technological
advancement.
Uphold human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.
Develop a common foreign and security policy.
Main Organs of the European Union
The EU’s complex governance structure is based on supranational and
intergovernmental principles. Key organs include:
1. European Council
Composed of Heads of State or Government of member countries.
Defines the overall political direction and priorities of the EU.
Chaired by a President of the European Council (not the same as European
Commission).
Does not pass laws, but influences major decisions like treaties, enlargement, and
foreign policy.
2. European Commission
Executive body responsible for implementing EU policies and laws.
Proposes legislation, enforces EU treaties, and manages the budget.
Led by a President of the Commission, with 27 Commissioners (one from each
country).
Acts independently of national governments.
3. European Parliament
Represents the citizens of the EU.
Members (MEPs) are directly elected every 5 years.
Shares legislative power with the Council of the EU.
Can approve or reject legislation, supervise the Commission, and adopt the EU
budget.
4. Council of the European Union (Council of Ministers)
Represents governments of the member states.
Shares legislative and budgetary powers with the Parliament.
Presidency rotates every 6 months among member states.
5. Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)
Ensures uniform interpretation and application of EU law.
Settles legal disputes between member states, institutions, and individuals.
Based in Luxembourg.
6. European Central Bank (ECB)
Manages the euro currency and defines monetary policy for the Eurozone.
Ensures price stability and supervises banks.
Based in Frankfurt, Germany.
7. European Court of Auditors
Checks the financial management of EU funds and institutions.
Ensures transparency and accountability.
Major Achievements of the EU
Single Market and Eurozone
Facilitates free movement of goods, services, people, and capital.
Euro is the common currency for 20 member states.
Peace and Stability
Transformed Europe from centuries of warfare to a zone of peace.
Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2012.
Schengen Agreement
Allows passport-free travel across most EU countries.
Environmental and Social Legislation
Leads in climate policies, labor rights, and gender equality.
Global Influence
A powerful diplomatic and trade bloc, influencing world affairs.
Enlargement and Integration
Expanded from 6 to 27 members, including post-communist nations in Eastern
Europe.
Challenges Faced by the EU
Brexit
The UK’s departure in 2020 raised questions about unity and sovereignty.
Economic Inequality
Disparities between rich and poor nations (e.g., Germany vs. Bulgaria).
Migration Crisis
Influx of refugees strained border policies and unity.
Rise of Nationalism and Populism
Some member states challenge liberal democratic norms and EU laws.
Bureaucratic Complexity
Decision-making is often slow and complicated, especially with many veto
powers.
Conclusion
The European Union remains a bold and ambitious experiment in regional
integration. Despite its challenges, it has created an unprecedented model of
peaceful cooperation, shared governance, and economic partnership among diverse
nations. By promoting unity in diversity, the EU has not only stabilized Europe but
also offered a framework that inspires other regional bodies like ASEAN, AU, and
Mercosur. As the world faces new crises — climate change, cyber threats, and
geopolitical tensions — the EU’s ability to act collectively will define its relevance
in the 21st century.
ASIA-PACIFIC ECONOMIC COOPERATION
Introduction
The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is a premier regional economic
forum that aims to promote free trade, economic cooperation, and sustainable
development across the Asia-Pacific region. Founded in the post-Cold War era,
APEC emerged as a response to the growing interdependence among Pacific Rim
economies. It is a unique multilateral platform that encourages voluntary
cooperation rather than binding commitments, making it flexible and inclusive.
Formation and Historical Background
APEC was established in 1989 in response to the increasing economic
interconnection across the Asia-Pacific.
The first ministerial meeting was held in Canberra, Australia, attended by 12
member economies.
It was formed primarily to support economic integration, open trade, and
investment flows in the region.
As of today, APEC has 21 member economies, including USA, China, Japan,
Russia, India (observer), Australia, and Southeast Asian nations.
Objectives of APEC
APEC’s main goals are collectively known as the “Bogor Goals” (1994), aimed at:
Free and open trade and investment in the Asia-Pacific.
Sustainable economic growth and prosperity in the region.
Promoting economic and technical cooperation (ECOTECH).
Enhancing the capacity of developing economies.
Facilitating a secure and seamless business environment.
Reducing tariffs and non-tariff barriers to trade.
Organs and Institutional Structure of APEC
Although APEC is not a treaty-based organization, it has a well-defined structure
to coordinate activities:
1. APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting
The highest-level forum of APEC, held annually.
Attended by Heads of Government or State of member economies.
Sets the strategic vision and key priorities for the region.
Example: Decisions on digital economy, pandemic recovery, and climate action are
taken here.
2. Ministerial Meetings
Ministers from various sectors (Trade, Foreign Affairs, Finance, etc.) meet to set
detailed agendas.
Includes Annual APEC Ministerial Meeting (AMM) and sector-specific meetings.
3. Senior Officials’ Meeting (SOM)
Senior government officials meet multiple times a year to coordinate and
implement policies.
They act as a bridge between the ministerial meetings and working groups.
4. APEC Secretariat
Located in Singapore, it serves as the central support unit.
Provides coordination, administrative, and logistical support for APEC’s initiatives.
Headed by an Executive Director.
5. Working Groups and Committees
Focus on specific areas like:
Trade and Investment
SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises)
Tourism
Digital Economy
Women and the Economy
Drive technical cooperation and implement action plans.
Major Achievements of APEC
Trade and Investment Liberalization
Since its formation, APEC has helped reduce average tariffs among members from
17% to less than 5%.
Encourages regional value chains and foreign investment.
Support for SMEs and Digital Economy
Promotes the digitalization of small businesses, e-commerce frameworks, and
innovation hubs.
Disaster Resilience and Pandemic Recovery
APEC played a vital role in coordinating COVID-19 response, vaccine supply
chains, and post-pandemic recovery.
Sustainable Growth and Green Economy
Promotes clean energy, green infrastructure, and climate-friendly policies.
Capacity Building
Helps developing economies by sharing best practices, offering technical
assistance, and conducting training programs.
Women’s Economic Empowerment
Actively promotes the inclusion of women in trade, leadership, and digital sectors.
Challenges Faced by APEC
Lack of Binding Authority
APEC decisions are non-binding and voluntary, limiting enforcement.
Geopolitical Tensions
Conflicts between key members like the U.S. and China often affect consensus.
Economic Disparity
Vast differences between developed and developing members hinder equal
cooperation.
Overlapping Memberships
Many APEC members are also part of other forums like ASEAN, RCEP, or TPP,
causing redundancy.
Limited Public Visibility
Despite its importance, APEC remains relatively unknown among ordinary citizens
in member economies.
Conclusion
The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation has evolved into a powerful economic
platform, driving regional integration and global trade growth. By focusing on
inclusive, sustainable, and digital-led development, APEC continues to play a
critical role in shaping the economic future of the Pacific Rim. While the forum’s
non-binding structure is both a strength and a weakness, APEC’s flexible and
pragmatic approach allows it to adapt to new challenges like climate change, AI,
and post-pandemic recovery. As the global power balance shifts towards Asia,
APEC’s relevance will only grow in the coming decades.
Disarmament and Arms Control
Introduction
Disarmament and arms control are essential components of international peace and
security. While disarmament refers to the elimination or reduction of weapons,
arms control involves the regulation and limitation of their production, stockpiling,
and deployment. These efforts are aimed at preventing wars, reducing the threat of
mass destruction, and promoting trust among nations. The horrors of World War I
and II, and later the Cold War arms race, prompted the global community to
seriously pursue disarmament and arms control through treaties, diplomacy, and
international organizations.
Meaning and Difference
Disarmament: The complete removal or reduction of certain categories of
weapons, especially weapons of mass destruction like nuclear, biological, or
chemical arms.
Example: Total nuclear disarmament proposals by various peace movements.
Arms Control: Refers to restrictions or regulations on the development, testing, or
deployment of weapons, allowing some level of armament but under agreed
limitations.
Example: SALT and START treaties between the US and USSR/Russia.
Thus, disarmament aims at elimination, while arms control allows for management
under agreed terms.
Historical Background
Post-World War I: The Treaty of Versailles imposed disarmament on Germany.
Post-World War II: Introduction of nuclear weapons prompted urgent calls for
disarmament.
Cold War Era: Arms race between USA and USSR led to multiple arms control
agreements to prevent mutual destruction.
Modern Era: Focus has shifted towards non-proliferation, missile defense, and
cyber warfare controls.
Major Disarmament and Arms Control Agreements
1. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) – 1968
Aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons, promote peaceful use of nuclear
energy, and encourage nuclear disarmament.
Divides countries into nuclear-weapon states and non-nuclear states.
Widely accepted but criticized for being discriminatory.
2. Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) – 1996
Bans all nuclear explosions for both civilian and military purposes.
Yet to be fully enforced as some key countries (e.g., USA, China, India, Pakistan)
haven't ratified it.
3. Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT I & II)
Agreements between USA and USSR in the 1970s to limit the number of nuclear
weapons and launch systems.
4. Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I & II, New START)
Further treaties between USA and Russia to reduce deployed nuclear warheads and
missiles.
5. Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) – 1972
Prohibits the development, production, and stockpiling of biological and toxin
weapons.
6. Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) – 1993
Bans the production and use of chemical weapons and requires their destruction.
Role of International Organizations
1. United Nations (UN)
Main platform for global disarmament debates.
UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA) promotes global efforts to eliminate
weapons of mass destruction and excessive conventional arms.
2. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
Monitors and verifies the peaceful use of nuclear energy.
Works to prevent nuclear proliferation under the NPT framework.
3. Conference on Disarmament (CD)
A Geneva-based multilateral forum where treaties like the CTBT were negotiated.
Includes 65 member states and deals with all categories of weapons.
4. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)
Oversees implementation of the Chemical Weapons Convention.
Won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2013 for efforts to eliminate chemical weapons.
Challenges in Disarmament and Arms Control
Political Mistrust and Geopolitical Rivalries
Nations fear losing strategic advantage, e.g., USA-China tensions, India-Pakistan
dynamics.
Discriminatory Treaties
Treaties like the NPT are seen as favoring nuclear-armed nations, making others
reluctant to commit.
Emerging Technologies
New threats like cyber warfare, autonomous weapons, and space-based arms are
hard to regulate.
Lack of Universal Participation
Some nations (e.g., India, Pakistan, Israel) haven’t signed the NPT or CTBT.
Verification and Enforcement Difficulties
Ensuring compliance and detecting secret programs remains a major issue.
Achievements and Progress
Reduction in global nuclear stockpiles since the 1980s.
Chemical weapons successfully eliminated in countries like Syria (under OPCW
supervision).
International norms against biological weapons have largely held.
Increased transparency and confidence-building measures among rival states.
Conclusion
Disarmament and arms control remain cornerstones of global peace and stability,
particularly in a world still plagued by war, terrorism, and nuclear threats. While
the ideal of complete disarmament remains distant, consistent efforts through
dialogue, diplomacy, and international cooperation have made significant strides.
For lasting peace, global powers must rise above political rivalries and work
toward a rule-based, inclusive, and enforceable disarmament regime. The role of
youth, civil society, and diplomacy will be crucial in shaping a safer world…
