Jai ho study By Utkarsh Sir 🕿 7905901018 Page 1

PHYSICS
Major branches of science

⚫ Anthropology- In this we study subjects related

to human development, customs, history,
traditions etc.
⚫ Acoustics- This is the science related to sound.
⚫ Astrology- In this the effects of various
constellations on human life are studied.
⚫ Aeronautics - is a science that studies all the
facts related to aircraft.
⚫ Aesthetics – Studying aesthetics.
⚫ Ceramics – Under this, porcelain utensils are
prepared.
⚫ Chemotherapy- Under this, diseases like cancer
are treated with chemical compounds.
⚫ Cryogenics – It is a science that studies the
properties and other phenomena of objects at low
temperatures.
⚫ ExoBiology - Studying the possibilities of life on
planets and satellites other than Earth.
⚫ Ethology – Science of studying the behavior of
animals i.e. ethology
⚫ Epigraphy – Studying knowledge related to
inscriptions.

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 ⚫ Genetics - The inheritance of organisms is
studied, it is called genetics.
⚫ Hydropathy- Diseases are cured by water.
⚫ Hygiene – It is the science of health that takes
care of health.
⚫ Holography – A method of making three-
dimensional images with the help of laser beam.
⚫ Horology – This is the science related to
measuring time.
⚫ Histology- This science provides knowledge
about tissues.
⚫ Heliotherapy – treating diseases with sun rays
⚫ Mycology- Science studying fungi.
⚫ Metrology – is called measurement science.
⚫ Numismatics – Studying old coins.
⚫ Odontography- In this, teeth are studied.
⚫ Orthopedics – studies disability.
⚫ Pomology- Fruits are studied.
⚫ Pedagogy – The art of teaching is studied.
⚫ Philately – studies the art and practice of stamp
collecting. Phonetics – Study of vowel sounds.
⚫ Phycology – Algae are studied.
⚫ Telepathy – The process of mental telepathy is
studied.
⚫ Urology – It is called urology.
⚫ Virology- Viruses are studied.

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 Scientific instruments and equipment

● Altimeter -This is an altitude measuring

instrument which is used in planes.
● Audiometer -Measures the intensity of sound.
● Anemometer -It is an instrument for measuring
air force and speed.
● Ammete, with this the electric current is
measured.
● Barometer -It is an instrument for measuring
atmospheric pressure.
● Bolometer -It is an instrument to measure
thermal radiation.
● Chronometer, This device is installed on ships,
which detects the correct time.
● Crescograph - is an instrument for measuring
the growth of plants.
● Cyclotron -With the help of this device, charged
particles are accelerated.
● Cytotron -artificial weatherIt is a device used in
production.
● Fathometer -depth gauge
● Gravimeter –WaterIt is used to detect the
presence of oil on the surface.
● Geiger Mueller counter - The radiation
emitted from a radioactive source is calculated.
● Gyroscope -It is an instrument to measure the
speed of rotating objects.

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 ● Hydrometer It is an instrument to determine
the relative density of liquids.
● Hygrometer -It is an instrument that measures
the humidity of the atmosphere.
● Hypsometer -This is done using the boiling
[Link] height byIt is a device.

Equipment, change in form of energy

● Electric light bulb ,heat from electrical energy

and Light energy
● Electric cell, chemical energy to electrical
energy
● Photo Electric Cell -light energy to electrical
energy
● dynamos, mechanical energy to electrical energy
● Electricity Motor ,electrical energy to
mechanical energy
● Microphone ,sound energy to electrical energy
● Sitar, mechanical energy to sound energy
● Engine ,heat to mechanical energy
● loud speaker ,electrical energy to sound energy
● Llactometer ,Measurement of purity of milk
● Manometer, from this the pressure of gases is
determined.

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 ● Machmeter This instrument measures the
speed of air in terms of speed of sound (in terms
of) Measures.
● Periscope -Mainly used in submarines. With its
help the sea surface is assessed.
● Pyrometer – Measures high temperatures.
● rain gauge -rain measuring instrument
● Seismograph -A graph of earthquake tremors is
automatically drawn.
● sphygmomanometer,measurement of blood
pressure
● Telescope – Distant objects can be seen.
● Transformer -The voltage of AC electric current
is increased or decreased.

Major medical instruments and methods

● Pacemaker Brings the heart rate back to
normal when it slows down. With the help of the
equipment, the heart beats regularly and blood
flows in the arteries.
● Electrocardiograph (ECG)-Heart related
diseases are detected.
● Electroencephalograph (EEG) -Brain related
diseases are described.
● Auto analyzer- glucose, urea, Cholesterol etc.
are checked.

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 ● CT scan, through this, abnormalities is detected
in any part of the entire body.
● Biopsy Method of screening for cancer.
● Elisa test For AIDS testing.
● Tubectomy Sterilization of a woman is called
tubectomy. Egg is not produced in this.
● Vasectomy It is called sterilization of a man.
Cutting or tying off the tube that carries
spermgoes.
● Autopsy The examination of the dead body is
called post-mortem.

Scientific word abbreviations

● LASER -Light Amplification by Stimulated

Emission of Radiation
● Microwave Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.
● LPG -Liquefied Petroleum Gas (flowing
petroleum gas)
● CNG -Compressed Natural Gas(compressed
natural gas)
● BMI - Body Mass Index (body mass index)
● AIDS - Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
● SIM –Subscribers Identity Model
● MNR -Magnetic Nuclear Resonance
● RADAR -Radio Detection and Ranging

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 ● SONAR -Sound Navigation and Ranging
● AC - alternating current
● CFC – Chloro fluoro carbon
● LSD -Lysergic Acid Diethyamide
● DDT - Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloro Ethene
● ATM - Automated Teller Machine
● MRI - Magnetic Resonance Imaging
● CFL -Compact Fluorescent Lamp
● LED -Light Emitting Diode

Major inventors and inventors of science

Invention/Discovery Inventor/Discoverer

Insulin Banting

Cholera vaccine Robert Koch

Arthur Kornberg &

RNA
James Watson

DNA James Watson & Crick

Penicillin Sir Alexander Fleming

Blood circulation William Harvey

Homeopathic medicine Hahnemann

Smallpox vaccine Edward Jenner

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Invention/Discovery Inventor/Discoverer

Tuberculosis treatment Robert Koch

Rabies (Hydrophobia) Louis Pasteur

Vitamin Funk

Vitamin A McCollum

Vitamin B McCollum

Vitamin C Szent-Györgyi

Vitamin D F.G. Hopkins

Bacteria Leeuwenhoek

Virus Ivanovsky

Polio vaccine Jonas Salk

Polio drops Albert Sabin

Contraceptive pills Pincus

BCG vaccine Calmette and Guérin

Beri-Beri treatment Eijkman

Malaria treatment Dr. Ronald Ross

Genetic code Har Gobind Khorana

DDT Dr. Paul Müller

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Invention/Discovery Inventor/Discoverer

Aspirin Dreser

Nuclear reactor Enrico Fermi

Airplane Wright Brothers

Bicycle K. Macmillan

Computer Charles Babbage

Barometer Torricelli

John Mauchly & J.

Electronic Computer
Presper Eckert)

Printing press Johannes Gutenberg

Radar Taylor & Young

Safety lamp Sir Humphry Davy

Television John Logie Baird

Elevator Elisha Graves Otis

Geometry (Founder of) Euclid

Telescope Galileo

Revolver Colt

Theory of Relativity Einstein

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Invention/Discovery Inventor/Discoverer

Braille script (for the

Louis Braille
blind)

Law of Gravitation,
Newton
Laws of Motion

Logarithms John Napier

Crescograph J.C. Bose

Sewing machine Elias Howe

Law of Pressure Pascal

Theory of Relativity
Einstein
(again)

Law of Buoyancy
Archimedes
(Archimedes’ Principle)

Corpuscular theory of
Newton
light

Laws of Motion Newton

Law of Gravitation Newton

Wave theory of light Huygens

Superconductivity Kamerlingh Onnes

Neutrino Pauli

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Invention/Discovery Inventor/Discoverer

Photon Einstein

Law of Cooling Newton

Photoelectric effect Einstein

Research Institute – Location

⚫ All India Institute of Medical Sciences-New Delhi

⚫ Tata Institute of Fundamental Research-Mumbai
⚫ Central Food Technological Research Institute-
Mysore
⚫ Central Glass and Ceramics Research Institute -
Kolkata
⚫ Central Drug Research Institute-Lucknow
⚫ Central Botanical Research Institute-Lucknow
⚫ Industrial Toxicology Research Centre-Lucknow
⚫ Indian Meteorological Institute-New Delhi
⚫ National Institute of Immunology-New Delhi
⚫ Bhabha Atomic Research Centre-Trombay
⚫ Indian Institute of Petroleum-Dehradun
⚫ Indian Institute of Chemical Biology-Kolkata
⚫ Central Environmental Engineering Research
Institute -Nagpur
⚫ Center for DNAFinger Printing and Diagnostics -
Hyderabad

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 ⚫ Institute of Bacterial Technology-Chandigarh
⚫ Plasma Research Institute-Gandhinagar
⚫ Indian Astronomical Institute-Bangalore
⚫ National Institute of Oceanography-Panaji
⚫ National Geophysical Research Institute-
Hyderabad

Science Technology

⚫ In India, Science and Technology Day is celebrated

on 11 May and Science Day is celebrated on 28
February.
⚫ India's first satellite - Aryabhatta (19 April 1975)
was launched from Baikanur, Russia.
⚫ The country's first nuclear submarine is INS
Arihant.
⚫ India's first research center in the Arctic region -
It is Himadri.
⚫ The headquarters of Center for DNA Finger Print
is in Hyderabad.
⚫ Silicon Valley and Science City- Bangalore
⚫ Sriharikota Range - (Andhra Pradesh) is the
satellite launch center of India.
⚫ Thumba Rocket Launch Center in Kerala.
⚫ The first Indian astronaut is Rakesh Sharma (in
1984).
⚫ Missile Man of India- [Link] Kalam

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⚫ Kudankulam Atomic Power Station -Tamil Nadu.

Measurement

⚫ Those physical quantities which have only

magnitude and no direction are called scalar
quantities.
⚫ Scalar quantities are mass, distance,
temperature, electric current, time, speed, work,
volume etc.
⚫ Those physical quantities which have direction
along with magnitude are called vector
quantities.
⚫ Vector quantities are velocity, displacement,
acceleration, force etc.
⚫ Those units which remain completely
independent are called basic units.

BASIC UNIT

Physical quantities-si units

*length-meter
*Mass- Kilogram
*time-seconds
*electric current-amperes
*Temperature-Kelvin
*luminance intensity-candela
*quantity-moles of substance

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*Radioactivity-Becquerel

supplementary unit
Plane angle-radian
Solid angle-stay radian

Popular units
Light year distance
Parsec distance
Decibel intensity of sound
Knot sea speed
Diopter power of lens
Hertz frequency
Bar atmospheric pressure
Mach ultrasonic speed
Coulomb electric charge
Carat purity of gold
Joule work
Astronomical unit distance
Angstrom wavelength of light
Nautical Mile Nautical Distance

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Fathom sea depth
Pascal pressure
Newman flame flux
Ohm electrical resistance
Calorie amount of heat
Electron Volt Energy
watt power
Newton Force

⚫ The distance traveled by light in one year in

vacuum is called one light year.
⚫ What part of a meter is a nanometer? -Billionth
⚫ One nanometer is centimeters to the power of 10
minus 7.
⚫ Richter scale is used to measure the intensity of
earthquakes.
⚫ How many light years are there in one parsec
3.26 light years
⚫ In which unit is the energy of food measured - in
calories
⚫ Acre, hectare are units of area
⚫ Litre, Gallon are units of volume

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 ⚫ The unit of digital information is – byte.
⚫ Dimensions - The powers that are applied on the
basic units to get the derived unit of any physical
quantity are called the dimensions of the physical
quantity. The expression that tells the relation of
any physical quantity with the basic units is
called dimensional formula, such as the
dimensional formula of speed M. (0) is LT(-1)

Name for various powers of 10

10-1 Deci 1015 Peta
10-2 Centi 1012 Tera
10-3 Mili 109 Giga
10-6 Micro 106 Mega
10-9 Nano 103 Kilo
10-12 Pico 102 Hecto
10-15 Femto 101 Deca

Electromagnetic waves

⚫ There is no need of medium for their

transmission. These waves can travel in vacuum.
They travel at the speed of light and are of
transverse type. Light is transmitted in the form
of electromagnetic waves.

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 ⚫ Infrared waves are used in night vision
equipment.
⚫ X ray is used in the diagnosis of intestinal
diseases.
⚫ X rays are used in CT scanning
⚫ X rays are used to know the structure of crystals.

Electromagnetic Wavelength Use

waves range
Gamma rays 10-4A0 – 1A0 It has very high
absorption capacity
and is usd in nuclear
reactions and
artificial radioactivity
X rays 1A0 – 100A0 In medical and
industrial sector
Ultraviolet rays 100A0 – In seeing invisible
4000A0 handwriting ,
detecting fingerprint,
fake currency,
producing
photoelectric
current , destroying
bacteria

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Visibke 4000A0 - This allows us to see
radiation 7800A0 object
Infrared rays 7800A0 – These rays are
107A0 thermal radiation.
the temperature of
object on which it
falls increases, it is
used for photography
in fog
Short radio 107A0 – It si used in radio ,
waves 1010A0 television , and
telephone
Long radio 1010A0 – Used in radio and
waves 1014A0 television

Wave Motion
Mechanical Waves
• Types of mechanical waves: Transverse
waves and Longitudinal waves.
• When the direction of wave propagation is
parallel to the direction of vibration of
particles in the medium, the waves are
called Longitudinal waves.
Examples: Waves in air, waves in a spring.

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 • In gases, only longitudinal waves can be
produced.
• Sound waves are longitudinal.
• When the direction of wave propagation is
perpendicular to the direction of vibration
of particles in the medium, the waves are
called Transverse waves.
• Transverse waves can be produced in solids
and on the surface of liquids.
• The waves in the strings of a sitar (musical
instrument) are transverse waves.

Sound
• The audible range (limit of hearing) is from
20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
• Waves between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz are called
audible waves.
• Sound waves with frequencies below 20 Hz
are called infrasonic waves.
• Sound waves with frequencies above 20,000
Hz are called ultrasonic waves.

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 • Uses of ultrasonic waves: for sending
signals, measuring depth of seas, treating
arthritis, and detecting brain tumors.
• What kind of waves do bats produce while
flying? – Ultrasonic waves.
• Ultrasonic waves were first produced using
a whistle by Galton.
• SONAR uses – Ultrasonic waves.
• When sound moves from one medium to
another, speed and wavelength change, but
the frequency remains the same.
• The speed of sound varies in different
media.
• The speed of sound in a medium depends on
its elasticity and density.
• Sound travels fastest in solids.
• When temperature increases, the speed of
sound also increases.
• In air, with each 1°C increase in
temperature, speed of sound increases by
0.61 m/s.
• When pressure changes in a gas, the speed
of sound remains unchanged.

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 • The speed of sound is inversely
proportional to the square root of the
density or molecular weight of the gas.
• When humidity increases, the speed of
sound increases due to lower density.
• Sound does not propagate in vacuum.
• Supersonic planes fly at speeds greater than
that of sound.
• Sound travels faster in light gases than in
heavier gases.

Characteristics of Sound
• Characteristics of sound are: Intensity,
Pitch (Tāratva), and Quality (Timbre).
• The reason we hear a sound as loud or soft
is due to its Intensity.
• The reason a sound is called grave (low) or
shrill (high-pitched) is due to its Pitch.
• The Quality of sound allows us to
differentiate between two sounds having
the same pitch and intensity.
• Pitch of sound depends on its frequency.
• Grave sounds have lower pitch.

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 • Sharp or shrill sounds have higher pitch.

Phenomena Related to Sound

• When the source of sound is suddenly
stopped in a hall but we still hear it for a
short time, it's called Reverberation.
• Thermocol is used on the walls of cinema
halls to reduce reverberation.
• Breaking of glass due to loud music or
collapsing of a bridge due to marching
soldiers is caused by resonance.
• Working principle of radio is based on
electromagnetic resonance.
• Sound travels farther at night than during
the day due to refraction of sound.
• Sound is heard even in closed rooms due to
diffraction.
• Sometimes, nearby radio stations are not
heard clearly due to destructive
interference.
• The "Silence Zones" in the sea are caused by
destructive interference.

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Explanation of Sound Interference
When two sound waves of the same frequency
or amplitude reach a point in a medium,
redistribution of sound energy occurs. This is
called Interference of Sound.
• If both waves meet in the same phase, the
sound intensity becomes maximum – this is
called constructive interference.
• If both waves meet in opposite phases, the
intensity becomes minimum – this is called
destructive interference.
In the sea, lighthouses produce sound using
sirens to guide ships. If a ship enters a region
where destructive interference occurs, it
cannot hear the siren. Such zones are called
Silence Zones.
This also affects radio signals – sometimes
distant stations are clearer than nearby ones
due to interference.

Echo
• The minimum distance between the listener
and the reflecting surface required to hear
an echo is approximately 16.6 meters.

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 • Echo is caused due to the reflection of
sound.
• Any sound remains in our ears for about
1/10 second.

Speed of sound in some media

Medium Velocity(m / s)(on 0 cel)
● CO2 - 260
● Air 332
● Steam (100°C) 405
● alcohol, 1213
● hydrogen, 1269
● Mercury, 1450
● Water, 1493
● sea water, 1533
● Iron, 5130
● aluminium, 6420

Light
⚫ The speed of light was first measured by the
Romans. The speed of light varies in different
mediums. The speed of light depends on the
refractive index of the medium. The speed of light
is highest in vacuum. The speed of light in
vacuum is 3 lakh kilometers per second.

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 ⚫ Nature of light radiations is similar to both wave
and particle.
⚫ Light wave is – Transverse waves
visual impairments
● Myopia, Myopia or Short Sightedness) in this
defect, a person can see nearby objects but is not
able to see distant objects clearly. Its solution is to
use a concave lens of appropriate focal length
(Concave lens) used.
● Farsightedness, Hypermetropia or long
sightedness) in this defect, a person can see distant
objects but is not able to see nearby objects clearly.
itsfor preventionsubcontainingfocus
distanceेconvex lens (Convex Lens)Let's use.
● Slight visual impairment, PresbyopiaIn this
vision defect, the person cannot see both distant
and near objects clearly. To overcome this, bifocal
lenses are used. In this, the upper lens is concave
and the lower lens is convex which are connected to
each other.
● Astigmatism In this defect the person is not able
to differentiate between vertical and horizontal
lines. Its solution is cylindrical lens .

Power of Lens
Formula for Power of a Lens:
\boxed{P = \frac{100}{f}}

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Where:
= Power of the lens (in diopters, denoted as D)
= Focal length of the lens (in centimeters)
👉 Note: If the focal length is given in meters,
then use:
P = \frac{1}{f \text{ (in meters)}}
🔍 Sign Convention:
If the lens is convex (converging), focal length is
positive, so power is positive.
If the lens is concave (diverging), focal length is
negative, so power is negative.
✅ Example 1: Convex Lens
Question:
A convex lens has a focal length of 25 cm. What
is its power?
Solution:
P = \frac{100}{f} = \frac{100}{25} = 4\,D
✅ Example 2: Concave Lens
Question:
A concave lens has a focal length of -50 cm. Find
its power.
Solution:
P = \frac{100}{f} = \frac{100}{-50} = -2\,D
📌 Important Points:
Power indicates the degree to which a lens can
converge or diverge light.

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Higher power = shorter focal length = stronger
lens.
Power is used in eyeglasses prescriptions and
optical instruments.
● The reciprocal of the focal length of a lens is called
the power of the lens. Its unit is diopter.
● The power of sunglasses is zero diopters.
● The power of a convex lens is positive while the
power of a concave lens is negative.

Mirror
● Use of convex mirror next to the driver,It is
done in reflective lamps installed on the road.
● ConcaveMirror, Use of solar cooker, car
headlights, searchlight, Used in shaving. A concave
mirror with large focal length is used in shaving.
Doctor ear,A concave mirror is used to examine the
nose and throat.
● Parabolic mirrors are used in headlights of vehicles.

Plane mirror
If two plane mirrors are parallel, then the number of
images of the object placed between them will be
infinite. If two plane mirrors are perpendicular,So the
number of images of the object placed between them
will be three.

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● 1.5What is the requirement of a plane mirror for a
meter tall person to see his entire image?Minimum
length will be-0.75 meter
● There is a relationship between the angle between
two plane mirrors and the number of images
formed by them.
If the angle between two plane mirrors is θ, then
the number of images (n) can be calculated using
the formula:
n = (360/θ) - 1
● Examples:
● If the two mirrors are at an angle of 90 degrees,
the number of images formed will be:
(360/90) - 1 = 3
● If the two mirrors are at an angle of 60 degrees,
the number of images formed will be:
(360/60) - 1 = 5
● If the two mirrors are at an angle of 45 degrees,
the number of images formed will be:
(360/45) - 1 = 7
● Note:
● If 360/θ is a whole number (integer), then the
number of images will be (360/θ) - 1.

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● If 360/θ is not a whole number, then the number of
images n will be the nearest smaller integer less
than 360/θ.
● If the mirrors are parallel (angle is 0 degrees), the
number of images will be infinite.
Note: To see a complete image in a plane mirror,
the length of the mirror should be at least half the
length of the object.
Colour
• Primary colours are: Red, Green, and Blue
• The colour of light depends on its wavelength.
• The longest wavelength is of the red colour.
• When red, green, and blue lights are mixed in
equal proportions, the resulting colour is white.
• When passing through a prism, the colour that
shows the maximum deviation is violet.
• The colour of an opaque object is due to the
colour it reflects.
• A green-leafed plant appears black under red
light.
• If a yellow object is seen under red light, it
appears black.
• The number of colours in a rainbow is seven.

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 • The edge colours of the rainbow are: Violet and
Red.

Image Formation by Mirrors and Lenses

• The image formed by a convex mirror is always
smaller than the object, virtual, and
upright.
• The image formed by a plane mirror is equal
in size to the object, virtual, and laterally
inverted.
• Which mirror is used to obtain a magnified,
virtual, and upright image of an object? –
Concave mirror.
• The image formed by a concave lens is always
virtual.
• A convex lens forms a virtual image when the
object is placed between the optical center
and the focus of the lens.

Speed of light in different media

Medium
Speed of light (in m/s)

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● Vacuum
3x10,8
● Water
2.25x10,8
● Turpentine oil
2.04x10,8
● Glass
2x10,8

Exam Points
● Examples of total internal reflection are- shining of
diamond,Mirage in the desert (Mirage)Mirage in
cold countries (looming)
● Optical fiber works on total internal reflection of
light.
● Endoscopy is used to obtain information about
abdominal organs.,Which is based on total internal
reflection
● The sky appears blue and appears red around the
Sun at sunrise and sunset - due to scattering of
light.
● The color of the sky visible from space is black
● The color of the sky visible from the moon is black.
● If,there is no atmosphere on earth,So what would
the color of the sky look like instead of blue – black.
● When light passes from one medium to
anotherintensity, velocity, wavelength changeWhile
the frequency remains unchanged.

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● The phenomena related to refraction of light are –
Twinkling of stars,by waterraised glance of a coin
lying in a filled containercome,The crooked
appearance of a rod lying in a vessel filled with
water.
● Water pond less The reason for appearing darker is
refraction of light.
● Different colors of light in a prismis divided
into,Due to refraction.
● Image is formed on the retina of the human eye,
real and inverted.
● Iris controls the light coming into the eyes from
outside.
● The part on which the image of an object is formed
in the human eye,That is- vision board (retina)
● polarization in light (PolarizationThis phenomenon
proves that light waves are- transverse
● Headlight bulb in motor carsdazzled,glare)What is
used to remove, ,Polaroids are used.
● 3DThe glasses used for watching movies include-
Polaroid
● The instrument used to view distant objects on
Earth is – Terrestrial telescope (Terrestrial
Telescope)
● The phenomenon of light bending at the edges of an
obstacle is called diffraction of light.
● Periscope is used to see outside objects from inside
the submarine.

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Heat
Heat is an energy that passes from one object to
another due to the difference in temperature between
two objects kept in contact, that is, the energy at the
time of transfer is called heat. The heat contained in
an object depends on the mass and temperature of
that object. Heat flows from an object of higher
temperature to an object of lower temperature until
their temperatures become the same. The SI unit of
heat is joule and the CGS unit is calorie.

heat or temperature
The measurement of hotness and coldness of an object
is called temperature. At -40 degrees Celsius and
Fahrenheit scales have the same temperature. The SI
unit of temperature is Kelvin. Zero Kelvin or minus
273.15 degrees Celsius is called absolute zero
temperature. At this temperature the speed of
molecules of the substance becomes almost zero.
⚫ The temperature expressed in Kelvin is called
absolute temperature.
⚫ The temperature of a healthy human body is 37
on the Celsius scale, 310 on the Kelvin scale and
98.6 on the Fahrenheit scale.
⚫ Human body temperature is measured with a
medical thermometer.
⚫ High temperature is measured with a pyrometer

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Specific heat
It is the amount of heat that produces a unit
temperature increase in a unit mass of a substance.
Its SI unit is joule per kilogram Kelvin
⚫ The value of specific heat of water is the highest
among all solids and liquids. The value of specific
heat of water is one calorie per gram degree
Celsius.
Melting point
The certain temperature at which a solid changes into
liquid is called its melting point.
Effect of pressure on melting point -
⚫ On increasing the pressure of a substance which
gets compressed when melted (like ice, cast iron,
bismuth etc.), the melting point decreases.
⚫ By increasing the pressure on substances that
expand when they melt, their melting point
increases.
Effect of Impurities on Melting Point
• Generally, adding impurities decreases the
melting point.
• When a small amount of salt or nitrate is
added to melting ice at 0°C, its melting
point drops to as low as -22°C.

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 Such ice mixtures are used for making kulfi,
ice cream, etc.

Freezing Point
• The fixed temperature at which a liquid
turns into a solid is called the freezing
point.
Usually, melting point and freezing point
are equal.

Boiling Point
• The conversion of a liquid into vapour or
gas at a fixed temperature is called
vaporization, and that temperature is the
boiling point.
• Boiling point increases with pressure (and
decreases with reduced pressure).
• Adding impurities to a liquid also raises its
boiling point.

Condensation Point
• The conversion of vapour into liquid at a
fixed temperature is called condensation,

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 and that temperature is the condensation
point.
Generally, boiling point and condensation
point are the same.

Vaporization
• The slow conversion of liquid into vapour
from its surface at any temperature is
called vaporization.
• Vaporization rate increases with:
o Rise in temperature
o Increase in surface area
o Strong wind flow
• Examples of vaporization:
o Water in an earthen pot stays cool due
to vaporization.
o Sweating cools the body as sweat
evaporates.

Thermometer
• Mercury is used in clinical thermometers
because:

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 o It is opaque and shiny
o Easy to read
o Does not stick to glass
o Does not evaporate, hence gives
accurate readings
• In cold regions (where temperatures fall
below -40°C), alcohol thermometers are
used instead of mercury ones, because:
o Mercury freezes at -39°C
o Alcohol freezes at -115°C

Exam Points / General Facts

• Dark-colored clothes absorb more heat.
• Steam causes more severe burns than
boiling water (even though both are at
100°C) because steam has more latent heat.
• White clothes absorb least heat.
• A body absorbs least heat when it is white
and smooth.
• A white, smooth surface is a poor absorber
and good reflector of heat.

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 • A body absorbs most heat when it is black
and rough.
• The best umbrella color combination for
sun protection: white on top, black
underneath.
• Black objects have high absorption and
emission capacity.
• A black and rough surface is a good
absorber and poor reflector of thermal
radiation.
• "Good emitters are good absorbers" – This is
Kirchhoff’s Law.
• The First Law of Thermodynamics confirms
the principle of Conservation of Energy.
• Cloudy nights are warmer than clear nights
because clouds, being poor absorbers,
reflect Earth's radiated heat back.
• Woolen clothes keep us warm in winter as
they trap body heat and prevent it from
escaping.
• Modes of heat transfer: Conduction,
Convection, and Radiation.
• In solids, heat is transferred via conduction.

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 • In liquids and gases, heat is transferred via
convection.
• Heat transfer from the Sun to Earth occurs
through radiation.
• In a closed room, turning on a fan makes
the air warmer (as it doesn't cool the air but
only circulates it).
• The color of a star depends on its surface
temperature.
• Cryogenics is related to low temperatures.
• Water has maximum density at 4°C.
• Bad conductors of heat include: wood, glass,
air, wool, etc.
• In mercury, heat is transferred through
conduction.
• Superconductors are materials that, under
special conditions, offer zero electrical
resistance and become perfect conductors.
• When heating water from 0°C to 10°C, its
volume first decreases, then increases.

Mechanics
Motion (Moion)

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 ✓ In a lift falling with uniform acceleration, a
person feels light.
✓ The acceleration of an object moving at the same
speed will be zero.
✓ The instrument that measures wind speed is -
Anemometer.
✓ The point at which the satellite is closest to the
Earth during its orbit is called perigee.
✓ The distance covered in unit time in a certain
direction is called velocity.
✓ According to which law, every planet revolves
around the Sun in an elliptical orbit and the Sun
is located at a focal point of the planet's orbit? -
Kepler's first law.
✓ The velocity of a planet is maximum when it
revolves around the Sun – when it is closest to
the Sun.
✓ The period of rotation of a planet located at a
greater distance from the Sun is longer.
✓ The rotation period of a planet located near the
Sun is short.
✓ What type of motion is the rotation of the Earth
on its axis?-Rotatory Motion
✓ Kepler gave the laws of planetary motion.
✓ The rate of change of velocity is called
acceleration
✓ The speed of ships is measured in knots.
✓ The path of a shell fired from a cannon is
parabolic.
✓ The name of Newton's book is-Principia
✓ When the planet is away from the Sun, the
velocity of the planet will be less.

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 ✓ According to which Newton's law of motion, "For
every action there is an equal but opposite
reaction" - Newton's third law.
✓ Examples of Newton's third law of motion are the
backward jerk while firing a bullet from a gun.
The boat receding when jumping from the edge of
the boat to the ground. A person falling
backwards when the rope breaks while drawing
water from a well. Injuries when jumping from a
height, rocket moving forward, etc.
✓ The value of escape velocity on Earth is – 11.2
km/second.
✓ The escape velocity from the Earth for a 25 gram
body is 11.2 km/second. For a body of 40 grams,
the escape velocity from the earth will be – 11.2
km/s.
✓ Examples of Newton's first law of motion (inertia)
are - When a moving vehicle stops suddenly, the
passengers sitting in it lean forward. When a
stopped vehicle suddenly starts moving, the
passengers sitting in it lean backward. When the
blanket is held by hand and beaten with a stick,
the dust particles fall off. When a bullet is fired, a
round hole is formed in the glass, but when a
stone is thrown, the glass breaks into pieces.
When we shake the branch of a mango tree, the
mangoes fall down.
✓ Without which force the movement of an object or
particle on a circular path is not possible -
Centripetal force.
✓ Examples of centripetal force are - Earth's
rotation around the Sun, electron's rotation

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 around the nucleus, cyclist leaning while turning
at an intersection, etc.
✓ Examples of centrifugal force are- clothes drying
machine, machine for extracting butter from
milk, dry cleaner, well of death in circus etc.
✓ Examples of projectile motion are - motion of a
shell fired from a cannon, motion of a rocket after
its fuel is exhausted, motion of a bomb dropped
from an aeroplane, motion of a ball thrown
horizontally while standing on the roof, motion of
a bat. Speed of the ball hit by etc.
✓ Examples of rotational motion are Earth's
rotation on its axis, dancing of the top, movement
of fan blades, etc.
✓ If we drop a ball from the ceiling and at the same
time throw another ball horizontally, both the
balls will reach different places on the earth but
simultaneously.
✓ The path of a shell fired from a cannon will be
parabolic, but the path of missiles that hit very
far will not be parabolic.
✓ To get maximum range of the body, the body
should be projected at 45°.
✓ If a body is thrown from a place slightly above
the ground instead of exactly on the ground, then
to achieve maximum range on the ground, it
should be thrown at an angle less than 45°, such
as in javelin throw and discus throw. Players
throw the projectile at an angle slightly less than
45 degrees to the horizontal for maximum range.

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 ✓ Whether the object is projected at an angle “A” or
at an angle (90-”A”), the horizontal range
remains the same in both the cases.
✓ Uniform circular motion is-accelerated.
✓ In any uniform circular motion, both acceleration
and velocity keep changing.
✓ What remains constant for an object rotating at a
constant speed in a horizontal circle?- Kinetic
energy.
✓ The kinetic energy of an object moving in a
horizontal circle remains the same at every place.
Is this statement true in vertical circle also? No.
✓ A particle rotates in a circular path with uniform
speed. The acceleration of the particle is with
radius.
✓ A particle rotates in a circular path with uniform
speed. The direction of acceleration of the particle
will always be towards the center of that circle.
✓ A particle rotates in a circular path with uniform
speed. The direction of velocity of the particle at
every point of the path will be tangential.
✓ When a body is immersed in a liquid, which force
acts on it? Upthrust and weight

Gravitational acceleration
⚫ The standard value of gravitational acceleration
(g) at 45 degree latitude and sea level is – 9.4
meter/second.
⚫ The value of gravitational acceleration is highest
on Earth. - at the poles

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 ⚫ Where is the value of gravitational acceleration
lowest on Earth? - At the Equator.
⚫ Moving up or down from the earth's surface
affects the value of gravitational acceleration - it
decreases.
⚫ The value of gravitational acceleration changes
when moving from one place to another on the
earth's surface.
⚫ What is the unit of gravitational acceleration?-
Newton/kg or meter/square second
⚫ Gravitational acceleration does not depend on the
size, shape, mass etc. of the object.
Force
⚫ The definition of force is given by Newton's first
law of motion.
⚫ The expression for force is obtained from
Newton's second law of motion. (F=ma)
⚫ Types of forces: Following are the types of forces:
(1) Gravitational Force (2) Electromagnetic Force
(3) Nuclear Force or Strong Force and (4) Weak
Force.
⚫ Gravitational force is the weakest while nuclear
force is the strongest force.
⚫ Gravitational Force: According to Newton, the
force of attraction between two objects is called
gravitational force. If two bodies of one kilogram
each are kept at a distance of 1 meter, then a
force of 6.67x(10 to the power of minus 11)
Newton will be applied between them. Because
this force is very small, it is not felt.

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 ⚫ Gravitational force – The force with which the
Earth attracts every object towards itself is called
the gravitational force of the Earth.
⚫ Electromagnetic Force – This force is the force of
attraction or repulsion and the range is more.
⚫ Strong forces are nuclear and attractive forces.
This is called strong force.
⚫ Weak force – is a force with very short range.
Frictional Force
⚫ The force opposing the relative motion between
the contact planes of any two surfaces is called
friction force.
⚫ Its direction is always opposite to the direction of
motion of the object.
⚫ The force of friction depends on the nature of the
surfaces in contact but does not depend on their
area.
⚫ Benefits of friction force: It is because of friction
force that we are able to walk, run and stand
straight on the earth's surface. When a
matchstick is rubbed on the surface of the
matchstick, it burns due to the force of friction.
Brakes of vehicles work only due to friction force.
⚫ Loss due to friction force: Tires of vehicles wear
out due to friction force. Shoes wear out due to
friction force.
⚫ Note: Friction is reduced by using lubricants like
oil, grease etc. and ball bearings. Small grooves
are made in the tires of the wheels, these

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 increase the friction force due to which the
vehicle does not slip.
Work
The process of displacing an object in the direction of
the force by applying force is called work.
(Work=force*displacement in the direction of force)
⚫ Work is a scalar quantity.
⚫ Its SI unit is joule and in CGS system it is erg. (1
joule = 7 ergs to the power of 10)
⚫ Work can be positive, negative or zero
⚫ The value of work is zero in case of work in
circular motion, a person standing while lifting a
load, rotation of planets and satellites, no
displacement etc.
⚫ When is the most work done by a force - When
the displacement is in the direction of the force
⚫ When force and displacement are in the same
direction then the work done by the force is
positive.
⚫ When force and displacement are in opposite
directions then the work done by the force is
negative.
⚫ In lifting an object from the earth, the work done
by man will be positive while the work done by
the force of gravity will be negative.
Lever

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 • A lever is a simple machine that operates on the
principle of torque or moments, used to amplify
force.
• A lever has three main components:
1. Fulcrum (pivot point)
2. Effort (applied force)
3. Load (resistance to be moved)
Depending on the relative position of these three
components, levers are classified into three types:

First Class Lever

• The fulcrum is located between the effort and the
load.
• It may or may not provide mechanical advantage.
• Examples:
o Scissors
o Seesaw
o Pliers
o Crowbar
o Balance scale
o Hand pump handle

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 Second Class Lever
• The load is located between the effort and the
fulcrum.
• Always provides mechanical advantage.
• Examples:
o Wheelbarrow
o Nutcracker
o Lemon squeezer
o Garbage bin with wheels
o Bottle opener
o Door (when force is applied away from the
hinge)

Third Class Lever

• The effort is applied between the load and the
fulcrum.
• Always requires more force, but gives greater
speed or range of motion.
• Examples:
o Tongs

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 o Human arm (lifting a weight)
o Fishing rod
o Broom
o Shovel
o Farmer’s plow

A lever is a simple machine that works on the

principle of torque or moment of force, examples
include tongs, pliers, etc.
Scissors, pliers, bicycle brake, hand pump, scale,
crowbar are examples of first-class levers.
Lemon squeezer, wheelbarrow, nutcracker,
garbage bin with wheels, bottle opener, door (opened
by handle away from hinge) are examples of second-
class levers.
Tongs, human hand (lifting), fishing rod, farmer’s
plow, broom are examples of third-class levers.

Weight
● The relationship between weight and gravitational
acceleration is-weight =
massxgravitationalacceleration (W=mg)
● The heaviest weight of objects on Earth is,poles
● The weight of objects on Earth is least - Equator

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● The object placed in an artificial satellite will be –
in a state of weightlessness
● The weight of the object on the Moon will be one-
sixth that of the Earth.
● If the Earth stops rotating around its axis, the
weight of objects will be affected.,There will be
growth everywhere except the poles.
● If the Earth's rotation speed increases, the weight
of objects will be affected - the weight of objects will
decrease at every place except the poles.
● If the Earth's rotation speed decreases, the weight
of objects will be affected - the weight of objects will
increase at every place except the poles.
● The value of weight on Earth varies with
latitude.,converted
● As the lift goes up, the apparent weight of the
object on it will increase.
● of the object on the lift as it goes downVirtual load
will reduce.
● If the lift breaks accidentally, the object on it will
become weightless.
● When moving up or down with the same speed as
an elevator, the virtual weight of the object placed
on it will be equal to the real weight.
● What will be the change in the weight of iron when
it rusts?, ,The weight of iron will increase.

simple pendulum

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 ⚫ By increasing the length of the pendulum, the
value of the time period increases (when the
gravitational acceleration is constant), whereas
when the gravitational acceleration increases, the
time period decreases (if the length is constant).
⚫ The value of the period does not depend on the
mass of the pendulum.
⚫ When a pendulum clock is moved to the Moon,
the value of its period increases.
⚫ The period of the pendulum clock in an artificial
satellite will become -infinite.
⚫ The time period increases when the pendulum
clock is moved above or below the earth's surface.
⚫ If a boy stands while swinging, the time period of
the swing decreases.
⚫ Pendulum clocks become dull in summer
⚫ Folk clocks become louder in winter
⚫ In winter the period of the pendulum clock
decreases and in summer the period of the folk
clock increases.

properties of matter
⚫ Mass per unit volume is called density. Its SI
unit is kg per cubic meter.
⚫ Relative density has no unit. It is a ratio.
⚫ Relative density is measured with a hydrometer.

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 ⚫ The purity of milk is measured with an
instrument called lactometer.
⚫ The density of iron is greater than the density of
water while it is less than the density of mercury,
hence a piece of iron sinks in water but remains
floating in mercury.
⚫ At four degrees Celsius the density of water is
highest while its volume is lowest.
⚫ A vessel is filled with water and ice is floating on
it. When the ice melts completely, the level of
water in the vessel remains unchanged, that is, it
remains the same as before.
⚫ The density of ice is less than the density of
water, hence ice floats in water. When ice floats
in water, 1/10 of its volume remains above water.
⚫ The density of sea water is higher than ordinary
water, hence it is easy to swim in sea water.
⚫ Gold sinks in mercury because the density of gold
is greater than the density of mercury.
⚫ Osmium has the highest density of the metal,
hence it is the heaviest.
⚫ When a boat goes from a river to the sea, it rises
a little. On the contrary, when a boat goes from a
sea to a river, it sinks a little. In the sea, more
load can be placed on the boat than in the river.

deforming force

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The external force applied on an object, due to which
the object
Both its size and shape change.
The external force is called deforming force. When
this force is removed from the object, the object
returns to its initial state.

elasticity

The quality of an object due to which

The shape produced by the applied deforming force or
Resists change of shape. And as soon as this
deforming force is removed from the object. object
This property of an object which returns to its initial
state is called elasticity.
examples of elasticity

1. When we pull a string made of rubber Its size or

shape changes. That is, its length increases and
thickness decreases but as soon as the object is left It
is given that it comes back to its original state. She
goes.

2. Similarly, when a spring is subjected to an external

force If it is pulled by then its length increases But as
soon as that external force is removed from the spring
If the spring is in its initial state then He comes. This
quality is called elasticity.

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elastic objects

Those objects which completely (completely) regain

their old state when the external force (deforming
force) is removed. They are called elastic objects.

plastic items

Those objects which retain their shape when the

deforming force is removed those which are not fully
formed in the initial stage are called plastic objects.

Solid objects
Those objects which change their shape when the
deforming force is removed .There is no change in
sizes and shapes Called solid objects. Like soil, stone,
wall etc.

elastic limit
As soon as the deforming force on elastic objects is
removed, they completely regain their previous state.
But the property of elasticity is limited to a certain
value of deforming force. If more than that deforming
force is applied on the object,
If given, the object may break. Or that thing may
grow forever. It will not return to its initial state.
That is, the limit of deforming force applied on an

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object within which the property of elasticity remains
present is called limit of elasticity.

most elastic material

The material with highest elasticity is steel..Rubber
is behind steel in its elastic properties.
Because the elastic limit of steel is higher than that of
rubber, hence steel is the most elastic material.

pressure
The force applied per unit area is called pressure. Its
SI unit is Newton per square meter, which you call
Pascal. Pressure is a scalar quantity.
⚫ Railway tracks are laid on wide sleepers so that
the pressure due to the weight of the train is
reduced.
⚫ Fluid operated presses, hydraulically operated
brakes, hydraulically operated doors etc. are
based on Pascal's principle.

Atmospheric pressure
⚫ If the mercury reading in the barometer falls
suddenly or suddenly, it means there is a
possibility of a storm or storm. But if the mercury
rises slowly, it means the weather will be clear.
⚫ If the mercury in the barometer falls slowly, it
means there is a possibility of rain.

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 ⚫ The pressure inside a soap bubble is greater than
atmospheric pressure
⚫ Atmospheric pressure decreases as we go higher
above the earth's surface, due to which cooking
becomes difficult in the mountains and ink starts
flowing from the fountain pen of a passenger
sitting in an aeroplane.
⚫ effect of pressure-The melting point of a
substance whose volume increases when melted
increases due to increase in pressure - like wax,
ghee etc.
⚫ The melting point of substances which are
compressed when melted decreases due to
increase in pressure - like ice etc.
⚫ Boiling point-Generally, the boiling point of all
liquids increases as the value of pressure
increases.

Surface tension
Surface tension of a liquid is the force that acts on one
side of an imaginary line drawn on the free surface of
the liquid, perpendicular to its unit length and in the
plane of the surface.
⚫ The SI unit of surface tension is Newton per
meter.
⚫ Rain drops are spherical - due to surface tension
of water

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 ⚫ Iron needle floats on the surface of water - due to
surface tension
⚫ The surface tension of water can be reduced by
heating it, adding oil or soap or detergent.
⚫ When electric current is passed through a liquid,
what effect does it have on the surface tension of
the liquid? - Decreases
⚫ Surface tension increases when salt is added to
water
⚫ Surface tension decreases as the temperature of
the liquid increases.
⚫ By sprinkling kerosene oil in water, the surface
tension reduces due to which mosquito larvae
drown in water and die.

Viscosity
⚫ What effect does increasing the temperature have
on the viscosity of liquids? Viscosity decreases.
⚫ What effect does increasing the temperature have
on the viscosity of gases? It increases.
⚫ What causes viscosity in liquids? Due to the
cohesive force between molecules.
⚫ Which of the following has greater viscosity
between water and air?
⚫ Which of the following has greater viscosity
between honey and water?

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 ⚫ Which of the thick and thin liquids has greater
viscosity?
⚫ Viscosity generally means thickness.
⚫ Oil rises in the wick of a lantern or lamp due to
capillarity.
⚫ Blotting paper absorbs ink quickly due to
capillarity

cohesive force and adhesive force

⚫ Cohesive force means the force of attraction
between molecules of the same substance - for
example, between water molecules.
⚫ Cohesive force is maximum in solid matter.
⚫ Surface tension is due to cohesive forces
⚫ Adhesive force means the force of attraction
between molecules of two different substances -
like paper and glue.
⚫ In liquids which do not wet the solid, the value of
adhesive force is less than the cohesive force -
like mercury does not wet the wall of glass.
⚫ In liquids that wet the wall of a solid, the value of
adhesive force is greater than the cohesive force -
like water wets the bottom of a glass.
⚫ Writing on the blackboard with chalk is possible
only because of adhesive force.

diffusion(Diffusion)

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 ⚫ The movement of molecules of a substance from
their higher concentration to lower concentration
is called diffusion.
⚫ The spread of perfume fragrance occurs due to
the diffusion of perfume molecules in the air
molecules.
⚫ Diffusion occurs at a slower rate in liquids than
in gases and at a very slow rate in solids.

Archimedes' principle
⚫ When an object is completely or partially
immersed in a liquid, a buoyant force acts on it
which is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced by the object.
⚫ This rule has many uses - it is used in designing
of ships and submarines, life saving belt,
lactometer and hydrometer are based on this
rule.
⚫ There are two forces acting on an object
immersed in liquid, first is the weight of the
object downwards and second is the buoyancy
force upward.
⚫ If the weight of the object exceeds the buoyancy
force, then the object will sink. If the weight of
the object is equal to the buoyancy force, then the
object will float in the submerged state inside the
liquid. If the weight of the object is less than the

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 buoyancy force, then some part of it will come out
of the liquid and the object will remain floating.
⚫ If a piece of wood is held under water, what will
be the buoyant force on it - equal to the weight of
the wood.

Magnetism

● Paramagnetic substance are substances which

When placed in a magnetic field, they become
slightly magnetized in the direction of the field and
are attracted when brought near the end of a
powerful magnet. Its example is-
Platinum,sodium,potassium,oxygen,aluminum,man
ganese,Chromium etc.
● Ferromagnetic substance are examples
of,Iron,steel ,cobalt,Nickel etc. They attract
strongly (fast).
● Counter magnetic material (Diamagnetic
Substance)They are substances which, when placed
in a magnetic field, are slightly magnetized in the
opposite direction of the field and are repelled when
brought near a strong magnet. Example-
silver,Gold,zinc,Water,hydrogen,copper,Diamond,Ai
r,Salt etc.
● When electric current flows through a conducting
wire, a magnetic field is generated around it.

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● The area around a magnet in which the magnetic
effect is experienced,Is called magnetic field.

Electricity
• The rate of flow of charge in a circuit is called
electric current, and its unit is ampere (A).
• Current is of two types:
1. Direct Current (DC) – flows in a single,
constant direction.
2. Alternating Current (AC) – changes its
magnitude and direction with time.
• The unit of electric charge is the coulomb.
The presence of charge can be detected using an
electroscope.
Electric charge is a scalar quantity.
• In conductors, the flow of charge occurs easily.
Examples of conductors include:
o Almost all metals (such as silver, copper,
iron, mercury, aluminum, etc.),
o Alloys,
o Aqueous solutions of acids, bases, and salts,
o The human body, animal bodies, earth,
water, etc.

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 • In insulators (non-conductors), charge does not
flow easily.
Examples include:
o Distilled water,
o Dry wood, wax, silk, china clay, lac, rubber,
ebonite,
o Most non-metals are electrical insulators.
• Semiconductors are substances that behave as
conductors under special conditions, such as at
high temperature or when impurities are added.
Their conductivity lies between conductors and
insulators.
Examples: Germanium, Silicon, Selenium, etc.
• Superconductors are materials whose electrical
conductivity becomes extremely high (almost
infinite) at very low temperatures. These are
called superconducting materials.
• When an electron enters a uniform electric field
perpendicularly, its path becomes parabolic.

Resistance
Resistance of a conductor opposes the flow of
electric current. Its unit is ohm.

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 Increasing the length of the conductor increases
the resistance. Increasing the cross-sectional area of
the conductor decreases the resistance.
The resistance of metals and alloys increases with
an increase in temperature.
The resistance of semiconductors decreases with
an increase in temperature.
The resistance of electrolytes decreases with an
increase in temperature.
When conductors are connected in series, the total
resistance increases.
When conductors are connected in parallel, the
total resistance decreases.
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistance. Its unit
is mho (also called Siemens).
Resistivity is a constant. Its unit is ohm meter. Its
value depends on the nature of the conductor
material and its physical conditions.
The reciprocal of resistivity is called specific
conductivity. Its unit is per ohm per meter (Ω⁻¹·m⁻¹).
Electroplating: The metal on which the coating is
to be deposited is made the cathode, and the metal to
be deposited as the coating is made the anode. This
process is commonly done using metals like gold,
silver, and copper.

Exam Point's

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Electric current is a scalar quantity.
● Which electrical device converts high AC voltage to
low AC voltage and low AC voltage to high AC
voltage? — Transformer
● Electric current is measured by a galvanometer.
● Converts sound energy into electrical energy —
Microphone
● The wire of a heater is made of — Nichrome
● Which current is used in a transformer? — Only
alternating current (AC)
● In a dry cell, the anode is made of — Carbon rod
● Dry cell is a — Primary cell
● Bulbs, tube lights, fans in houses are connected in
— Parallel circuit
● The function of a transformer is — To increase or
decrease voltage
● Characteristics of fuse wire — Low melting point
and high resistance
● AC current is converted into DC current by —
Rectifier
● Ideal voltmeter has — Infinite resistance
● Frequency of electric current supplied to homes is
— 50 Hz
● Wire used in electric press is — Nichrome
● Dynamo works on the principle of —
Electromagnetic induction
● If a 1000-watt electric bulb is lit for 1 hour, how
many units of electricity are consumed? — 1 unit

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● Cathode of dry cell is made of — Zinc
● Lightning conductor is made of — Copper
● Fuse wire is made of — Alloy of copper, tin, and
lead
● How many joules are there in 1 kilowatt-hour? —
3.6 × 10^6 joules (Note: Your text says 3.6×10^8, but
correct value is 3.6×10^6)
● The best conductor of electricity is — Silver
● Which non-metal is a conductor of electricity? —
Graphite
● Filament of an electric bulb is made of — Tungsten
● What type of force acts between opposite charges?
— Attractive force
● What type of force acts between like charges? —
Repulsive force
● Resistance of a higher wattage bulb is — Low
● Which current is used for electroplating? — Direct
current (DC)
● Fuse is connected in the circuit in — Series
● Galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by —
Connecting a high resistance wire in series with the
galvanometer
● Galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by —
Connecting a low resistance wire in parallel with the
galvanometer
● When the temperature of conductors decreases,
their conductivity becomes — More
● Tube light contains — Mercury vapor and argon gas

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Electronics
⚫ Diode valve-It was created by a scientist named
Fleming from England. It is a vacuum tube,
which has only two electrodes, a filament and a
plate. Diode valve is used as a rectifier. That is, it
converts alternating current (AC current) into
direct current (DC current).
⚫ Triode Valve- It was created by American
scientist Dr. Lee De Forest. It is a vacuum tube
made of three electrodes (plate, fiber and grid).
Triode valve is used as amplifier, oscillator,
transmitter and detector.

Nuclear Energy
● The name of India's first nuclear research reactor
is- Apsara (Maharashtra).
● Heavy water is used in thermal reactor as a
moderator.
● Bhabha NuclearResearch Center (BARC)Located in
Trombay
● India's first nuclear power plant is- Tarapur Atomic
Power Station(MHP).Rashtra)
● India carried out its first nuclear explosion18 May,
1974In
● The source of energy of stars and sun is nuclear
fusion (Nuclear Fusion)

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● On what principle are atomic bombs based?,nuclear
fission (Nuclear Fission)
● On what principle is the hydrogen bomb
based?,nuclear fusion
● Atomic bomb is an example of which
reaction,uncontrolled chain reaction
● Controlled chain reaction is used in nuclear reactor
or nuclear reactor.
● The source of renewable energy in stars is due to
the conversion of hydrogen into [Link]
● Cadmium or boron rods are used to control the
chain reaction in a thermal reactor.
● coolant in thermal reactor (coolant)Used as- of
water
● Liquid sodium is used as coolant in fast breeder
reactor.

Radioisotope - Use
● Carbon14 - To determine the age of fossils
● Cobalt60 - In cancer treatment.
● Uranium238- in determining the age of the earth
and ancient rocks
● Iodine131 - in detecting thyroid gland disorder
and in treatment of brain tumors
● Iron59 -- to diagnose anemia
● Sodium24 – in detecting blood clots in circulatory
system

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● Nuclear power plants-Tarapur (Maharashtra),
Rawatbhata (Rajasthan), Kakrapara (Gujarat),
Narora (UP), Kaiga (Karnataka), Kalpakkam
(Tamil Nadu) etc.

because of
⚫ Danger signs are made in red color - due to the
longer wavelength of red color.
⚫ Yellow light is used in fog - due to yellow color
being more visible
⚫ The speed of light is greater in a rare medium
than in a dense medium - due to the lower
refractive index of the rare medium.
⚫ Light persists in the atmosphere for some time
before sunrise and some time after sunset - due
to refraction of light.
⚫ Solar eclipse occurs when the Moon comes
between the Earth and the Sun.
⚫ Nearsightedness (myopia) occurs due to increased
roundness of the lens.
⚫ Objects lying in water appear slightly raised
above their actual position - due to refraction of
light.

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 ⚫ Different colors of light are divided in prism due
to refraction of light.
⚫ We see the sun only a few minutes before the
actual sunrise - due to refraction of light.
⚫ A straight rod partially immersed in a liquid
appears bent - due to refraction of light
⚫ We can see the Sun even when it is below the
horizon for some time before sunrise and some
time after sunset - due to refraction of light.
⚫ The speed of light varies in different mediums
due to refractive index.
⚫ A coin lying in a vessel filled with water appears
raised - due to refraction of light
⚫ Diamond appears shiny due to total internal
reflection
⚫ Two people cannot hear each other on the surface
of the moon - due to lack of atmosphere
⚫ Sea shells appear golden - due to polarization
⚫ Red color is present around the Sun at the time of
sunrise and sunset - due to scattering of light.
⚫ The sky appears blue from Earth because of the
scattering of light.
⚫ The layer of kerosene oil lying on the surface of
water appears colored in sunlight. - Due to
interference
⚫ Bubbles of colorless soap solution appear in
different colors. Due to interference of light.

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 ⚫ As the humidity value increases, the speed of
sound increases - due to the density of humid air
being less than the density of dry air.
⚫ The speed of sound is highest during rainy days -
due to high humidity value
⚫ The voice of children and women is thin - due to
high pitch.
⚫ Men's voices are heavier than women's - due to
lower pitch
⚫ Sound can be heard over greater distances at
night and on cold days - due to refraction of
sound.
⚫ Bats move in the dark - due to ultrasonic waves
⚫ When soldiers parade in a pond, the bridge
breaks - due to resonance.
⚫ Sound is heard farther at night than during the
day - due to refraction of sound
⚫ Sound is heard more easily in water than on land
- because the velocity of sound waves in water is
greater than that in air.
⚫ Cloudy nights are warmer than nights with clear
sky - because the heat radiated by the Earth
remains between the Earth and the clouds.
⚫ Water in an earthen pot remains cold due to
evaporation.
⚫ During hot days, dogs keep panting with their
tongue out - due to evaporation of water on the
tongue to keep the body cool.

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 ⚫ On a windy night, dew does not flow - due to the
faster rate of evaporation.
⚫ It is more comfortable to wear white clothes in
summer – because white clothes reflect most of
the heat falling on it.
⚫ Running a fan in hot weather feels relaxing –
because our sweat evaporates faster.
⚫ Refrigerators protect foods from spoilage because
bacteria and molds are inactivated at their low
temperatures.
⚫ The tube of a bicycle bursts during the summer
season - due to the expansion of air present due
to heat.
⚫ Space is left between the railway tracks - due to
expansion of the tracks due to heat.
⚫ There is more sweating in coastal cities - due to
higher relative humidity.
⚫ The bottom of cooking utensils is blackened
because the black surface is a good absorber of
heat.
⚫ Vacuum is kept inside the electric bulb - to keep
the filament safe.
⚫ The sound that occurs when an electric bulb
breaks is due to the vacuum inside the electric
bulb.
⚫ An object immersed in water appears light - due
to buoyancy force.

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 ⚫ Heat and light are obtained from the Sun - due to
nuclear fusion
⚫ A piece of ice sinks in alcohol because the density
of ice is greater than the density of alcohol.
⚫ In severe winter, water pipes in cold countries
burst - when frozen. due to water spillage
⚫ Water drops do not stick to the oily surface -
because the value of the adhesive force between
the water droplets and the molecules of the oily
surface is less than the cohesive force between
the water molecules.
⚫ When milk is churned, cream separates due to
centrifugal force.
⚫ Floating of a small needle on the bottom of a still
liquid - due to surface tension
⚫ Working of blotting paper – due to capillarity
⚫ Hot vegetable tastes more delicious than cold
vegetable - due to less surface tension.
⚫ Soap, detergent etc. penetrate deep into the dirt
and clean it - due to surface tension
⚫ Hot soup tastes delicious by spreading it evenly
across the tongue - due to surface tension.
⚫ A postage stamp applied with glue sticks to the
envelop – due to adhesive force
⚫ Ink blotting paper absorbs ink – due to the
presence of small capillaries in the blotting
paper.

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 ⚫ Viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in
temperature – due to reduction in cohesive force.
⚫ The parachute comes down slowly, whereas a
stone thrown from the same height falls rapidly -
due to the parachute's greater surface area and
greater air resistance.
⚫ If an object is thrown from the Earth's surface in
any direction with a velocity of 11.2 Km/s or
more, the object will not return to the Earth's
surface due to escape velocity.
⚫ The pendulum clock becomes slow as it moves
above or below the earth's surface - due to the
decrease in the value of g.
⚫ As the pendulum clock moves above or below the
earth's surface, its period increases - due to the
value of gravitational acceleration decreasing.
⚫ In summer, the pendulum clock becomes slow -
due to increase in the period of the pendulum due
to increase in its length.
⚫ When the car stops suddenly, the person leans
forward - due to inertia.
⚫ Day and night and change of seasons occur on
Earth due to the Earth's rotation and revolution
respectively.
⚫ There is increase in atmospheric warming and
climate change - due to increase in greenhouse
gases.

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 ⚫ Soles are placed on the soles of shoes to increase
friction.
⚫ There is a fear of bursting of blood vessels by
going too high in the atmosphere - due to low air
pressure.
⚫ Clouds float in the atmosphere - due to their low
density.
⚫ A stoppered glass bottle filled with water breaks
due to the increase in volume when water
freezes.
⚫ On high mountains, ink starts leaking from
fountain pens - due to low air pressure.
⚫ In the Earth, the weight of objects is highest at
the poles - due to the higher value of
gravitational acceleration.
⚫ Ice lying in water does not sink completely in
water - because the density of ice is less than the
density of water.

Exam Points
⚫ Horology is related to time measurement
⚫ The first information about black hole was given
by S. Chandrashekhar.
⚫ The group of different colors of light divided by a
prism is called spectrum.
⚫ The cathode of a dry cell is made of zinc.
⚫ The maximum density of water is at -4 degrees
Celsius.

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 ⚫ Which noble gas is not present in air? -radon
⚫ India has received Falcon radar and Barak anti-
missile system from Israel.
⚫ National Invention Campaign is related to
promotion of science and mathematics.
⚫ Kalinga Award is given by UNESCO for the
promotion of science.
⚫ Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics
for his discovery of the photoelectric effect.
⚫ Freezing point of fresh water is -0°C
⚫ When ice melts, volume decreases and density
increases.
⚫ What is the hottest part of a gas flame called? -
Non luminous zone
⚫ The process of photosynthesis involves the
transformation of solar energy into chemical
energy.
⚫ What is the purpose of the extremely bright light
in the lighthouse?- To guide and warn the ships
coming from different directions in the sea.

Chemistry
Elements

• A substance made up of only one type of atom is called an element.

• Elements are mainly of two types: metals and non-metals.

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 • Currently, 118 elements have been discovered. Out of these, 92
elements are found in nature, while the rest have been artificially
synthesized by scientists in laboratories.
• The second most abundant element in the human body is carbon (18%)
(the most abundant is oxygen).
• The most abundant metallic element in the human body is calcium (2%).
• The element found in human hemoglobin is iron (Fe).
• The element found in the chlorophyll of plants is magnesium.
• The heaviest metallic element is osmium.
• The heaviest solid non-metal is astatine.
• The lightest gaseous non-metal is hydrogen.
• The heaviest gaseous non-metal is radon.
• The element with the highest electronegativity is fluorine.
• The most electropositive element is cesium.
• The most abundant element in the universe is hydrogen.
• The most abundant element in the Sun is hydrogen.
• The most abundant element in stars is hydrogen.
• The most lustrous metallic element is platinum.
• The most lustrous and hard non-metal is diamond.
• The element stored in water is yellow phosphorus.
• Iodine is found in sea grass.
• Red phosphorus is used in safety matches.
• Silicon is used in solar cells.
• The element with the most isotopes is polonium, which has 27 isotopes.
• The element with the highest electron affinity is chlorine.
• The element that sublimes when heated is iodine.

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 • The total number of gaseous elements in the modern periodic table is
11.
• A mixture of helium and oxygen is used by divers.
• Metalloids show properties of both metals and non-metals.
• Examples of metalloids are silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, and
tellurium.
• The group with the most gaseous elements is the noble gas group
(Group 18 or 0).
• Monatomic elements are the noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn).
• The best metallic conductor of electricity is silver.
• The non-metal that is a good conductor of electricity is graphite (an
exception).
• The element with the highest ionization potential is helium.
• The element with the lowest ionization potential is cesium.
• The most reactive non-metallic element is fluorine.
• The most abundant element found in milk is calcium.
• The least abundant element in a living human body is manganese.
• The main component of air is nitrogen.
• The decreasing order of elements by percentage found in the Earth's
crust is: oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium,
magnesium, and other elements.
• The decreasing order of elements by percentage in the human body is:
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, potassium,
sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, and iron.

Compounds and Mixtures

• A substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more

elements in a fixed ratio is called a compound. Examples of compounds
are water, sugar, salt, ammonia, methane, alcohol, chloroform, etc.

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 • A mixed substance formed by combining two or more substances,
elements, or compounds in any ratio is called a mixture.
• Air is a mixture of many gases. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
• The method used to obtain various components from petroleum is
fractional distillation.
• Out of petroleum, kerosene, milk, and glucose, glucose is a compound.
• Methods for separating mixtures include crystallization, distillation,
sublimation, fractional distillation, and steam distillation.
• The process used to make distilled water from ordinary water is
distillation.
• When the difference in boiling points of two liquids is large, their
mixture is separated by the distillation method.
• A mixture of ammonium chloride (nausadar) and salt is separated by
sublimation.
• The process of a substance turning directly into vapor without becoming
a liquid upon heating is called sublimation.

Radioactivity

• The discoverer of radioactivity is Henri Becquerel.

• The name of uranium ore is pitchblende.
• The invisible rays emitted from radioactive substances are called
radioactive rays.
• Among alpha, beta, and gamma rays, the one with the lowest
penetrating power is alpha rays.
• The one with the highest penetrating power is gamma rays.
• Alpha rays are positively charged.
• Beta rays are negatively charged.
• Gamma rays are electrically neutral.

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 • Among alpha, beta, and gamma rays, the one with the highest velocity is
gamma rays.
• Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves with short wavelengths.
• The time it takes for half the amount of a radioactive substance to decay
is called its half-life.
• The SI unit of radioactivity is the becquerel.
• Other units of radioactivity are rutherford and curie.
• Cobalt-60 is used in radiation therapy due to the emission of gamma
rays.
• Marie Curie was awarded the Nobel Prize twice.

Colloidal Solutions

• A gas-in-gas solution is air, a mixture of gases.

• A liquid-in-gas solution is fog and clouds.
• A solid-in-gas solution is smoke.
• A gas-in-liquid solution is carbon dioxide dissolved in water.
• A solid-in-solid solution is alloys like bronze (copper and tin).
• Colloids are heterogeneous solutions. They are of eight types:

Dispersing Medium Dispersed Phase Example

Solid Gas Foam, rubber, sponge

Solid Liquid Jelly, cheese, butter

Solid Solid Colored glass, gemstone

Liquid Solid Mud, milk of magnesia

Liquid Liquid Milk, face cream (emulsion)

Liquid Gas Shaving cream, soap foam

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Dispersing Medium Dispersed Phase Example

Gas Liquid Fog, cloud, insecticide spray

Gas Solid Smoke

Export to Sheets

• The size of solute particles in a colloid is between 10−9 meters and 10−7
meters. Examples include milk, cheese, butter, fog, mist, and clouds.
• When the dispersing medium is water, alcohol, and benzene, the
colloidal solutions are called hydrosol, alcosol, and benzosol,
respectively.
• A colloid formed by the dispersion of liquid or solid particles in a gas is
called an aerosol.
• In a solid aerosol, the dispersed phase (solute) is a solid, and the
dispersing medium (solvent) is a gas. An example is smoke (carbon
particles are in a colloidal state in the air).
• In a liquid aerosol, the dispersed phase (solute) is a liquid, and the
dispersing medium (solvent) is a gas. Examples are fog, mist, and clouds.

Physical and Chemical Changes

• Rusting of iron is a chemical change.

• Water turning into ice is a physical change.
• Milk turning into curd is a chemical change.
• Changes in which the shape and physical state of a substance change,
but no new substance is formed, are called physical changes.
• Examples of physical changes are the formation of clouds, dissolving
sugar in water, water freezing into ice, water changing into vapor, and
an electric bulb glowing.
• Changes in which a new substance is formed with properties completely
different from the original substance are called chemical changes. For
example, milk turning into curd.

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Acids and Bases

• Acetic acid is found in vinegar.

• Citric acid is found in lemons.
• The combination of an acid and a base forms a salt.
• Lactic acid is found in sour milk.
• Formic acid is used to preserve fruit juices.
• Citric acid is found in citrus fruits.
• The natural source of glutamic acid is wheat.
• Benzoic acid is used for the preservation of food products.
• Concentrated sulfuric acid and concentrated nitric acid are used to
make explosives.
• Sulfuric acid is used in storage batteries.
• The pH value of an acid is less than 7.
• A base feels soapy to the touch.
• Uses of formic acid include preserving fruits, in the leather industry, and
in rubber.
• The pH value of vinegar is (2.4-3.4).
• Acids taste sour.
• Acids turn blue litmus paper red.
• Bases turn red litmus paper blue.
• When ants bite, they inject formic acid.
• Oxalic acid is used to remove rust stains from clothes.
• Carbonic acid is found in soda water and cold drinks.
• Malic acid is found in apples.
• Tartaric acid is found in grapes.

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 • Aqua regia is a mixture of 3 parts concentrated hydrochloric acid and 1
part concentrated nitric acid.
• Milk of magnesia is used to neutralize stomach acidity.
• Acids that ionize completely in water are called strong acids.
• Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric acid (HCl) and nitric acid
(HNO3).
• Acids that ionize only partially in water are called weak acids.
• Examples of weak acids are most organic acids like acetic acid and
benzoic acid.
• Acids that contain both hydrogen and oxygen are called oxyacids.
• Examples of oxyacids are sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, and nitric acid.
• Acids that contain only hydrogen are called hydra acids.
• Examples of hydra acids are hydrochloric acid and hydrobromic acid.
• pH values:
o Pure water: 7
o Seawater: 8.4
o Human blood: 7.4
o Human saliva: 6.5
o Human urine: 6
o Milk: 6.4
o Wine: 2.8
o Lemon: 2.2

Fuels

• Substances that produce heat and light upon burning are called fuels.
• Gaseous fuels are better than solid or liquid fuels.
• Types of coal are anthracite, lignite, bituminous, and peat.

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 • The best quality of coal is anthracite.
• The process of heating (burning) coal in the absence of air is called
destructive distillation of coal.
• The amount of heat generated by the complete combustion of one gram
of a fuel in air or oxygen is called its calorific value.
• Coke is obtained by heating coal in the absence of air.
• Rocket fuels are called propellants.
• Petroleum gas or LPG is a mixture of butane, propane, and ethane.
• Hydrogen is called the fuel of the future.
• The components of natural gas are methane (main component) and
ethane.
• Examples of fossil fuels are coal, petrol, diesel, kerosene, and natural
gas.
• Biogas is a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and
hydrogen sulfide.
• Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
• A mixture of N2 and CO2 is called producer gas.
• The gaseous fuel made from kerosene oil is called oil gas.
• The anti-knock compound is tetraethyl lead.
• Colonel Drake first discovered petroleum.
• Gasohol is a mixture of petrol and alcohol.

Metals, Non-metals, and Alloys

• The decreasing order of electrical conductivity of metals is silver >

copper > aluminum > tungsten.
• Metals react with acids to displace hydrogen gas.
• Metal oxides are generally basic.
• Palladium is used in the construction of aircraft.

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 • Selenium is used in photo-electric cells.
• The strategic metal is titanium.
• The radioactive liquid metal is francium.
• Mercury is stored in an iron container.
• One should not eat eggs with a silver spoon.
• The metallic element present in chlorophyll is magnesium.
Metals and their Ores

Metal Ore

Aluminum Bauxite, cryolite, corundum

Iron Hematite, magnetite, siderite

Copper Copper pyrite, copper glance, cuprite

Silver Silver glance (argentite), horn silver

Lead Galena

Mercury Cinnabar

Magnesium Dolomite, carnallite, magnesite

Export to Sheets

• Gold dissolves in aqua regia.

• The green color during fireworks is due to the presence of barium.
• The bright red color during fireworks is due to the presence of
strontium.
• Nickel is used as a catalyst in the production of artificial ghee from
vegetable oils.
• Zirconium is used in nuclear reactors.
• Silver (Ag), gold, copper, platinum, and bismuth are found in a free
state due to their low reactivity.

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 • Non-metals exist in all three states: solid, liquid, and gas.
• Carbon, sulfur, etc., are solid non-metals, while bromine is a liquid, and
oxygen, nitrogen, etc., are gases.
• The crystalline allotropes of carbon are diamond and graphite.
• Diamond is hard and a poor conductor of electricity. It is used in jewelry
and as an abrasive for cutting glass.
• A homogeneous mixture of two or more metals, or a metal and a non-
metal, is called an alloy.
• When mercury forms an alloy with another metal, it is called an
amalgam.
• An alloy must contain at least one metallic element.
• The hardness of an alloy is greater than that of its constituent metals.
• The composition of rolled gold is copper and aluminum.
• Brass is made of copper and zinc.
• Bronze is made of copper and tin.
• The composition of solder is lead and tin.
• Nichrome is used for electrical heating elements.
• Aluminum oxide is an amphoteric oxide.
• Oxides of metals are generally basic.
• Oxides of non-metals are generally acidic and neutral.
• CO2 and SO2 are acidic oxides.
• Solid non-metals are carbon, sulfur, phosphorus, iodine, etc.
• The liquid non-metal is bromine.
• Gaseous non-metals are hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, oxygen, etc.
• CO,N2O,NO are neutral oxides.
• The alloy used to make the heating element for electrical heating
appliances is nichrome.

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Halogens

• Fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At) are
collectively called halogens. These elements are placed in Group 17
(VIIA) of the periodic table.
• The word halogen comes from a Greek word meaning "salt-producer."
These elements react with metals to form salts. All these elements are
non-metals. They are very reactive, so they are not found in a free state.
• Fluorine and chlorine are in a gaseous state, bromine is a liquid, and
iodine is a solid. Astatine is a radioactive element.
• Fluorine is the most electronegative element in the periodic table.
• Chlorine is a pungent, suffocating, and poisonous gas.
• Chlorine gas reacts with lime to form bleaching powder. This gas
bleaches flowers. Chlorine is used to disinfect and destroy pathogens in
drinking water.
• Iodine has a metallic luster. Its deficiency in humans causes goiter. A
mixture of iodine and ethyl alcohol is called tincture of iodine. Seaweeds
of the Laminaria species are rich in iodine.
• Iodine is used in making tincture of iodine, iodex, and pain-relieving
medicines.
• Astatine is the heaviest solid non-metal. It is the least abundant element
in the Earth's crust.

Carbon

• Carbon is found in both free and combined states in nature. In its free
state, it is found as coal, graphite, and diamond. In a combined state,
carbon is found in carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, proteins,
carbohydrates, etc.
• The highest number of compounds in nature are those of carbon.
• Crystalline allotropes of carbon are graphite, diamond, and fullerene.

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 • Amorphous allotropes of carbon are wood charcoal, animal charcoal,
sugar charcoal, lamp black (soot), and coal.
• Allotropes have similar chemical properties but different physical
properties.
Diamond

• Its natural source is kimberlite rock.

• It is the hardest substance found in nature.
• It appears shiny due to total internal reflection.
• It is used in making jewelry, cutting glass, drilling rocks, and as an
abrasive for polishing hard materials.
• The structure of a diamond is tetrahedral.
• The unit of hardness of a diamond is Mho, while the unit for measuring
its weight is a carat.
• Diamond is a poor conductor of electricity.
• One carat of diamond is equal to 205.3 milligrams.
• A black-colored diamond is called a bort.
• Diamond is chemically inert. It is not corroded by any acid or base.
Graphite

• It is also called black lead. It is a good conductor of electricity. Due to

weak van der Waals forces, graphite is soft and acts as a lubricant.
• Artificial graphite is prepared by the Acheson process.
• Its uses include pencils, electrodes, lubricants, and as a moderator in
thermal reactors.
• The structure of graphite is a hexagonal lattice.
Fullerene

• The scientists who discovered the third allotrope of carbon

(Buckminsterfullerene)—H. W. Kroto (UK), R. F. Curl (USA), and R. E.
Smalley—were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1996.

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Graphene

• It is a microscopic, two-dimensional, electrically conductive, thin, and

strong material.
• Its discoverers are Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov.
• It is used in the manufacturing of computer chips, touch screens,
electrodes, LCDs, communication devices, etc.
Exam Points

• One carbon credit is equivalent to 1000 kg of CO2.

• The increasing amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is gradually increasing
the temperature because CO2 absorbs the infrared portion of solar
radiation.
• Cast iron has the highest carbon content.
• The best quality of coal is anthracite, which has the highest carbon
content.
• Sumio Iijima created carbon nanotubes.
• People working in coal mines get black lung disease.
• The principle used to remove carbon particles from the air is
electrophoresis.
• The total carbon emissions from a single number, person, or product are
called the carbon footprint.
• The gas used to extinguish fire is carbon dioxide.
• Plants release carbon dioxide at night.
• The gas involved in photosynthesis is CO2.
• The gas involved in fermentation is CO2.
• The percentage of CO2 in the air is 0.03%.
• The main gas responsible for the greenhouse effect is CO2.
• Dry ice is the name for CO2.
• Carbon monoxide (CO) is called the "suffocating gas."

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 • The poisonous gas emitted from motor vehicle exhaust is CO.

Water

• The type of water that does not produce lather easily with soap is hard
water.
• The causes of permanent hardness of water are the chlorides and
sulfates of calcium and magnesium.
• The causes of temporary hardness of water are the bicarbonates of
calcium and magnesium.
• The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen by weight in water is 1:8.
• The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen by volume in water is 2:1.
• Water has its highest density at 4°C.
• The most abundant salt in seawater is sodium chloride.
• The molecular weight of water is 18.
• The molecular weight of heavy water is 20.
• The chemical formula of water is H2O.
• The type of water that produces lather easily with soap is soft water.
• The physical method to remove temporary hardness of water is by
boiling.
• Pure water is neutral.
• The gas used for the purification of water is chlorine.
• Chemical methods to remove temporary hardness of water are using
slaked lime/lime water and the Clarke's process (using calcium
hydroxide).
• Methods to remove permanent hardness of water are the Permutit
process (using zeolite/sodium aluminum orthosilicate), the Calgon
process (using sodium hexametaphosphate), and the ion-exchange resin
process.

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 • Both temporary and permanent hardness of water can be removed by
adding and boiling with sodium carbonate (washing soda).

Glass

• The best quality of glass is Jena glass.

• Flint glass is used in the manufacture of electric bulbs.
• Crookes glass is used in the manufacture of sunglass lenses.
• Generally, lenses of spectacles are made of crown glass.
• Cobalt oxide gives a deep blue color to glass.
• Silver chloride makes photochromic glass turn black automatically in
sunlight.
• Flint glass is used in the lenses of cameras and binoculars.
• Glass is a type of mixture.
• In its amorphous solid form, glass is a supercooled liquid.
• Potassium chloride is used to make glass hard.
Types and Uses of Glass

• Soda glass: Tubelights, bottles, laboratory equipment.

• Flint glass: Electric bulbs, camera, and binoculars lenses.
• Crookes glass: Lenses of sunglasses.
• Pyrex glass: Laboratory equipment and pharmaceutical containers.
• Crown glass: Spectacle lenses.
• Lead crystal glass: Expensive glass containers.
• Potash glass: Glassware and laboratory equipment for high-
temperature use.

Cement

• The discoverer of Portland cement is Joseph Aspdin.

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 • Gypsum is used to slow down the setting process of cement.
• The formula for gypsum is CaSO4.2H2O.
• Limestone and clay are used as raw materials in the production of
cement.
• The chemical name of limestone is calcium carbonate.
• Calcium oxide is obtained from limestone.
• The composition of cement is CaO (67-70%), SiO2 (20-25%), Al2O3 (5-
10%), Fe2O3 (2-3%).
• If the amount of alumina in cement is high, it sets quickly.
• If the amount of lime in cement is high, cracks appear during setting.
• The chemical name of gypsum is calcium sulfate dihydrate.

Explosives

• Some major explosives are dynamite, T.N.T., T.N.G., T.N.P., and RDX.
• The full name of RDX is Research and Developed Explosive.
• The discoverer of RDX is Henning.
• The most dangerous explosive is RDX.
• The discoverer of dynamite is Alfred Nobel.
• Substances that produce a lot of heat and a loud sound when detonated
are called explosives.
• RDX is also known as 'cyclonite' in America, 'hexogen' in Germany, and
'T-4' in Italy.
• T.N.P. is also called picric acid.
• The full name of T.N.T. is Trinitrotoluene.
• The full name of T.N.P. is Trinitrophenol.
• The full name of T.N.G. is Trinitroglycerin.

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 • TNG is prepared by mixing glycerin with sulfuric acid and nitric acid. It is
a colorless, oily liquid. TNG is used in making dynamite, so it is also called
Nobel's oil.

Fertilizers

• Manure prepared from decomposed organic matter is called compost.

• The percentage of nitrogen in urea is 46%.
• Urea is a nitrogenous fertilizer.
• Nitrolim is a fertilizer.
• The three elements most needed in common fertilizers are nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium (N, P, K).
• Nitrogenous fertilizers: These replenish the nitrogen deficiency in the
soil. Examples: urea, ammonium nitrate, calcium cyanamide, etc.
• Phosphatic fertilizers: These replenish the phosphorus deficiency in the
soil. Examples: superphosphate of lime, triple superphosphate, etc.
• Potash fertilizers: These replenish the potassium deficiency in the soil.
Examples: potassium chloride, potassium nitrate, potassium sulfate,
etc.

Gases

• The gas used to extinguish fire is carbon dioxide (CO2).

• The main component of biogas is methane.
• The gas that helps in combustion is oxygen.
• Plants release carbon dioxide at night.
• Examples of diatomic gases are oxygen, nitrogen, etc.
• An example of a monatomic gas is helium.
• The cylinders used for artificial respiration in hospitals are filled with a
mixture of oxygen and helium.

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 • Xenon is called stranger gas.
• Sulfur dioxide is called cracking gas.
• Carbon monoxide is called the "suffocating gas."
• The Bhopal gas tragedy (1984) was caused by the leakage of methyl
isocyanate gas.
• The gas used for the artificial ripening of raw fruits is ethylene.
• The gas filled in balloons to make them fly is helium.
• Helium is filled in the tires of airplanes.
• The gas used in discharge tubes for lighting and advertisements is neon.
• The elements of the zero group of the periodic table are called inert
gases or noble gases. They are helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon,
and radon.
• The noble gas radon is not found in the atmosphere. It is used in the
treatment of cancer.
• The poisonous gas emitted from motor vehicle exhaust is carbon
monoxide.
• The gas used to cool water in refrigerators is ammonia.
• Sources of methane gas are cud chewing animals, excreta, marshy land,
paddy fields, etc.
• Explosions in coal mines are often caused by methane.
• Methane is also called marsh gas.
• The gases responsible for acid rain are sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2).

Poisonous Gases

• Mustard gas is a poisonous gas used as a chemical weapon in World

War I. This gas causes blisters on the skin upon contact.
• Lewisite: A poisonous gas used as a chemical weapon in World War II.

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 • Methyl isocyanate (MIC): A poisonous gas. The Bhopal gas tragedy in
1984 was caused by the leakage of this gas.
• Phosgene: Carbonyl chloride is called phosgene.
• Phosphine: Phosphorus hydride is called phosphine.

Soaps and Detergents

• The process involved in making soap is saponification.

• A detergent is a cleansing agent.
• Detergents clean surfaces based on the principle of surface tension.
• The alkaline substances used in soap making are caustic soda (NaOH)
and caustic potash (KOH).
• Sodium and potassium salts of higher fatty acids are called soaps.
• Vegetable oil is the substance used to make soap.
• Soaps made from caustic soda (sodium salts of higher fatty acids) are
called hard soaps.
• Potassium salts of higher fatty acids are called soft soaps.

Oils and Fats

• Oils and fats are found in plants and animals.

• The main fats obtained from animals are lard, tallow, ghee, and butter.
• Oils obtained from plants are olive oil, linseed oil, mustard oil, and
groundnut oil.
• Oils obtained from animals are whale oil and cod liver oil.
• Oils are liquid at normal temperature.
• Fats remain solid at normal temperature.
• Glycerides of unsaturated fatty acids that are liquid at normal
temperature are called oils.

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 • Hydrogen gas is used in the manufacture of vegetable ghee.
• Nickel is the catalyst used to make artificial ghee from vegetable oils.
• Sunflower oil is suitable for heart patients.
• Vegetable oil is used for cooking and soap making.
• Oils and fats are colorless in their pure state.
• Oils and fats are soluble in organic solvents like ether, benzene, and
chloroform.
• The melting point of vegetable ghee should be lower than the body
temperature.

Petroleum

• Examples of mineral oils are petrol, diesel, kerosene, etc.

• Mineral oils are found inside the Earth and are a mixture of various
hydrocarbons. They are obtained from petroleum.
• Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons.
• Mineral oils are used as fuels and solvents.
• Characteristics of mineral oils are being volatile, highly flammable, and
having a specific odor.
• Sodium is stored in kerosene oil.
• The natural source of hydrocarbons is biomass.
• The quality of petroleum is indicated by the octane number.
• Tetraethyl lead is used to prevent knocking in car engines.
• Commercial Vaseline is extracted from petroleum.
• Paraffin is a product of petroleum refining.
• Gasohol is a mixture of petroleum and alcohol.
• The method used to separate the various components of petroleum is
fractional distillation.
• The quality of a gasoline sample is determined by its octane number.

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 • Jatropha (ratanjot) is a plant used to make biodiesel.
• A natural fuel is petroleum.
• Kitchen gas is a mixture of butane and propane.
• The fuel used in a diesel engine is a mixture of diesel vapor and air.
• Petrol is called liquid gold.
• A carburetor is used only in petrol engines.
• The octane number is related to petrol engines, while the cetane
number is related to diesel engines.

Wax

• It is an ester similar to naturally occurring oils and fats.

• Some important types of wax are beeswax, carnauba wax, spermaceti
wax, and paraffin wax.
• Paraffin wax is a petroleum wax.
• The wax used to make candles is a chemical mixture of aliphatic
hydrocarbons.
• Carnauba wax is also called vegetable wax, and it is obtained from palm
leaves.
• Carnauba wax is used in polishes, carbon paper, and inks.
• Beeswax is used in shoe polish, candles, ointments, and furniture
polish.
• Spermaceti wax is obtained from whales.

Plastics, Rubber, and Fibers

• Polythene is made from ethylene.

• Rayon is made from cellulose.
• The polymer of natural rubber is isoprene.

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 • Sulfur is used in the commercial vulcanization of rubber.
• Wool, cellulose, leather, and silk are natural polymers.
• The polymer used as a non-stick coating on cookware is Teflon.
• Teflon is used in making non-stick cooking utensils.
• Rayon, nylon, and polyester are synthetic fibers.
• Based on heat resistance, plastics are divided into two types:
1. Thermoplastics
2. Thermosetting plastics
• Thermoplastics can be repeatedly melted and reshaped, while
thermosetting plastics can be shaped only once upon heating and
cannot be reshaped again.
• Examples of thermoplastics are polythene and polyvinyl chloride.
• An example of a thermosetting plastic is Bakelite.
• Sulfur is added to rubber to increase its elasticity.
• PVC (polyvinyl chloride) is used to make seat covers, purses, rain
sheets, and electrical wires.
• Examples of synthetic rubber are neoprene and thiokol.
• The polymer used in the manufacturing of bulletproof materials is
polycarbonates.
Medicines

• A substance used for the treatment of diseases is called a medicine.

• The branch of medicine that involves synthetic chemical compounds is
allopathy.

Classification of Medicines

(i) Antibiotics

• These medicines are derived from microorganisms, fungi, etc. They are
used to kill bacteria and stop their growth.

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 • The discoverer of the first antibiotic, penicillin, was Alexander Fleming.
• Major antibiotic medicines are penicillin, tetracycline, streptomycin,
chloromycetin, etc.
(ii) Antipyretics or Fever Reducers

• They are used to relieve body pain and reduce fever.

• Examples are aspirin, crocin, paracetamol, etc.
(iii) Antiseptics or Germicides

• These are used to kill microorganisms and prevent their growth.

• They are applied to cuts and wounds on the body.
• Some major antiseptic medicines are hydrogen peroxide, tincture of
iodine, potassium permanganate, ethyl alcohol, phenol, etc.
(iv) Anesthetics

• They are used to reduce sensation. They are used during surgical
procedures.
• Examples are chloroform, diethyl ether, nitrous oxide, etc.
(v) Sulfa Drugs

• These medicines are made from sulfur and nitrogen elements.

• Examples are sulfanilamide, sulfadiazine, sulfathiazole, etc.
• The first sulfa drug was sulfanilamide.
(vi) Tranquilizers

• These medicines provide relief from mental stress, anxiety, irritability,

etc.
• Examples are veronal, seconal, luminal, etc.

Some Natural Acids

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Natural Source Acid

Vinegar Acetic acid

Orange Citric acid

Tamarind Tartaric acid

Tomato Oxalic acid

Curd (Sour Milk) Lactic acid

Lemon Citric acid

Ant Sting Methanoic acid

Scorpion Sting Methanoic acid

Here are the chemical names and formulas for various substances:

1. Water: Dihydrogen Monoxide (H2O)

2. Common Salt: Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
3. Baking Soda: Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
4. Washing Soda: Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3⋅10H2O)
5. Bleaching Powder: Calcium Hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2)
6. Quicklime: Calcium Oxide (CaO)
7. Slaked Lime: Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
8. Marble / Chalk: Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
9. Gypsum: Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate (CaSO4⋅2H2O)
[Link]: Acetic Acid (CH3COOH)
[Link]: Dextrose (C6H12O6)
[Link]: Ethanol (C2H5OH)
[Link]: Ammonia (NH3)
[Link] Acid: Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)

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 [Link] Acid: Nitric Acid (HNO3)
[Link] Acid: Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)
[Link] Peroxide: Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)
[Link] Vitriol: Copper Sulphate (CuSO4⋅5H2O)
[Link] Sulphate: Iron(II) Sulphate (FeSO4⋅7H2O)
[Link]: Potassium Aluminium Sulphate (KAl(SO4)2⋅12H2O)
[Link] Soda: Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
[Link] Potash: Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)
[Link]: Iodine (I2)
[Link]: Chlorine Gas (Cl2)
[Link]: Hydrogen Gas (H2)
[Link]: Oxygen Gas (O2)
[Link]: Nitrogen Gas (N2)
[Link] Dioxide: Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
[Link]: Methane (CH4)
[Link]: Propane + Butane (C3H8+C4H10)
[Link]: Compressed Natural Gas (mainly Methane) (CH4)
[Link]: Potassium Nitrate + Sulfur + Charcoal (mixture)
[Link]: Propane-1,2,3-triol (C3H5(OH)3)
[Link]: Diethyl Ether ((C2H5)2O)
[Link]: Formaldehyde + Water (HCHO+H2O)

Here is a simple, clear, and exam-oriented explanation of solutions, solutes,

and solvents:

1. Solution

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A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances where the
solute is completely dissolved in the solvent.

Characteristics:

• It is homogeneous, meaning it has a uniform composition throughout.

• Light can pass through it without scattering (in a true solution).
• No sediment or particles settle at the bottom.
Examples:

• Salt + Water = Saltwater solution

• Sugar + Water = Sugar solution
• Air (a solution of gases like oxygen, nitrogen, etc.)

2. Solute

The solute is the substance that gets dissolved in the solvent.

Characteristics:

• It is the component present in the smaller amount.

• It dissolves to form the solution.
Examples:

• Salt (NaCl) in water

• Sugar in water
• CO2 in soft drinks

3. Solvent

The solvent is the substance in which the solute dissolves.

Characteristics:

• It is the component present in the larger amount.

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 • It dissolves the solute to form a homogeneous solution.
Examples:

• Water (the universal solvent)

• Alcohol
• Nitrogen (the solvent in air)

Biology
Biology is the branch of science that studies living organisms. The
term "biology" was first used in 1801 by scientists Lamarck and
Treviranus.

Branches of Biology

The two main branches of biology are:

1. Zoology: The study of animals.

2. Botany: The study of plants.
Aristotle is considered the Father of Zoology, Theophrastus the
Father of Botany, and Hippocrates the Father of Medicine.

Founders of Various Branches of Biology

• Biology: Aristotle
• Botany: Theophrastus
• Paleontology: Leonardo da Vinci
• Eugenics: Francis Galton
• Modern Botany: Linnaeus
• Immunology: Edward Jenner

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 • Genetics: Gregor Johann Mendel
• Modern Genetics: T. H. Morgan
• Cytology: Robert Hooke
• Zoology: Aristotle
• Taxonomy: Linnaeus
• Medical Science: Hippocrates
• Mutation Theory: Hugo de Vries
• Mycology: Micheli
• Plant Physiology: Stephen Hales
• Bacteriology: Leeuwenhoek
• Microbiology: Louis Pasteur

What is Reproduction?

Reproduction is the biological process by which living organisms

produce offspring to ensure the continuity of their species.

Human Reproduction

1. Types of Reproduction

• Asexual Reproduction – Involves a single parent (e.g., binary

fission in amoeba, budding in yeast).
• Sexual Reproduction – Involves fusion of male and female
gametes.
2. Male Reproductive System

• Testes – Produce sperm and testosterone.

• Scrotum – Regulates the temperature of the testes.

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 • Vas deferens – Transports sperm.
• Seminal vesicles, Prostate gland – Secrete fluids that nourish
and protect sperm.
• Penis – Delivers sperm to the female body.
3. Female Reproductive System

• Ovaries – Produce eggs (ova) and female hormones (estrogen,

progesterone).
• Fallopian Tubes (Oviducts) – Site of fertilization.
• Uterus – Implantation and development of embryo.
• Vagina – Receives sperm and acts as the birth canal.
4. Menstrual Cycle

• Duration: ~28 days

• Ovulation: Release of egg from ovary (~14th day)
• If fertilization doesn't occur → menstruation
5. Fertilization

• Fusion of sperm and ovum (egg)

• Occurs in the fallopian tube
• Zygote → Embryo → Fetus
Plant Reproduction

1. Types

• Asexual Reproduction – No gametes; offspring are clones.

o Examples: Vegetative propagation (potato, onion),
Budding (yeast), Fragmentation (spirogyra)
• Sexual Reproduction – Involves male and female gametes.

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2. Parts of a Flower (Reproductive organ of plant)

• Stamen (male): Anther + Filament → Produces pollen

• Carpel (female): Stigma + Style + Ovary → Produces ovules
3. Pollination

• Self-pollination – Pollen from same flower

• Cross-pollination – Pollen from different flower
• Agents: Wind, Water, Insects
4. Fertilization in Plants

• Pollen reaches stigma → Travels to ovary → Fertilizes ovule

• Ovule → Seed, Ovary → Fruit
Imp

• Test tube baby – Fertilization outside the body (IVF)

• Zygote – First cell formed after fertilization
• Placenta – Connects mother and fetus; supplies
oxygen/nutrients
• Menarche – First menstrual cycle
• Menopause – Permanent stoppage of menstruation
• Ovulation – Release of egg
• Vegetative propagation – Asexual reproduction in plants (e.g.,
potato eye, rose cutting)
• Sex-determining chromosome in humans – Male: XY, Female:
XX
The Cell

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.

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 • Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke.
• The smallest cell is that of the bacterium Mycoplasma
gallisepticum, while the largest is the egg of an ostrich.
• The longest cells are nerve cells.
Parts of a Cell:

1. Cell Wall: Present only in plant cells, not in animal cells. It is

mainly composed of cellulose and provides protection to the
cell.
2. Ribosome: Its primary function is protein synthesis, which is
why it is called the "protein factory" of the cell.
3. Mitochondria: This is where cellular oxidation occurs. It
contains DNA, RNA, and ribosomes. Known as the "Power
House of the cell," it produces energy in the form of ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate) molecules.
4. Golgi Apparatus: Known as the "Traffic Manager of the
Molecules of the Cell," it manages the transport of molecules.
5. Lysosome: Also called the "Suicide Bag" of the cell.
6. Protoplasm: A semi-transparent, sticky, and fluid substance
found inside the cell membrane. It contains both organic and
inorganic substances.
7. Cell Membrane: A semi-permeable membrane that regulates
the transport of molecules into and out of the cell. It is made of
lipids and proteins.

Branches of Biology and Their Studies

• Zoology: The study of both living and dead animals.

• Apiculture: The study of beekeeping.

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 • Sericulture: The study of silkworm rearing.
• Pisciculture: The study of fish farming.
• Anthology: The study of flowers.
• Entomology: The study of insects.
• Ornithology: The study of birds.
• Paleontology: The study of fossils.
• Ecology: The study of the relationship between organisms and
their environment.
• Osteology: The study of bones.
• Poultry: The study of poultry farming.
• Piggery: The study of pig farming.
• Toxicology: The study of poisons.
• Pathology: The study of the nature, symptoms, and causes of
diseases.
• Gerontology: The study of the effects of aging on the body.
• Paleobotany: The study of plant fossils.
• Cardiology: The study of the heart and its diseases.
• Viticulture: The production and study of grapes.
• Serpentology: The study of snakes.
• Demography: The study of significant data related to
population and human populations.
• Ethnology: The comparative study of the scientific descriptions
of different cultures.
• Pedology: The study of soil.

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 • Bionics: The application of biological functions, properties, and
methods to the world of machines.
• Lexicography: The compilation of dictionaries.
• Hydroponics: Soilless plant cultivation.
• Lithotripsy: The process of breaking kidney stones using rays.
• Vermiculture: The term used for an earthworm.
• Myrmecology: The scientific study of ants.
• Eugenics: The improvement of the human race by applying the
principles of heredity before birth (through genes).
• Euthenics: The improvement of the human race after birth by
providing good nutrition, education, and environment.
• Euphenics: The treatment of faulty heredity through genetic
engineering to improve the human race.
• Arachnology: The study of spiders.
• Biometry: The study of biology using mathematical and
statistical techniques.

Nutrients

Based on their chemical composition, there are six types of nutrients:

1. Carbohydrates
2. Proteins
3. Fats
4. Water
5. Minerals
6. Vitamins

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Water and minerals are inorganic, while the others are organic.

• Energy-producing substances: Carbohydrates and fats.

• Body repair and building substances: Proteins.
• Protective substances against diseases: Vitamins and minerals.

Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates are compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and

oxygen in a ratio of [Link]. They are the primary source of
energy, fulfilling 50-75% of the body's energy requirements.
• Major sources: Wheat, rice, potatoes, sweet potatoes, millet,
fruits, milk, etc.
• 1 gram of carbohydrate provides 4.1 calories of energy.
• Carbohydrates make up about 1% of our body weight.
• They provide energy, form the exoskeleton in arthropods, build
plant cell walls, and are components of genetic material.
Types of Carbohydrates:

1. Monosaccharides: Sweet and soluble in water.

o Examples: Glucose, Fructose, Galactose.
o The formula for glucose is C₆H₁₂O₆. It is found in ripe
grapes. Fructose is found in sweet fruits and honey and is
the sweetest sugar.
2. Disaccharides: Sweet and soluble in water.
o Examples: Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose.
o Sucrose is mainly obtained from sugarcane and beets.
Maltose is found in germinating seeds, and lactose is the

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 milk sugar. Human mother's milk has the highest amount
of lactose.
3. Polysaccharides: Tasteless and insoluble in water.
o Examples: Glycogen, Starch, and Cellulose.
o Glycogen is the sugar stored in the human liver. Starch is
found in potatoes and grains
Protein

• The term "protein" was coined by Berzelius.

• Proteins are very complex, nitrogen-containing substances.
• Sources: Soybeans, pulses, fish, eggs, peas, beans, cheese, etc.
• Proteins are essential for body growth and the repair of tissues.
• Protein deficiency in children can lead to Kwashiorkor, while a
deficiency of both protein and calories can cause Marasmus.
• Proteins make up about 15% of the human body.
• Casein is the protein found in milk.
• Keratin is the protein that helps form skin and nails.
• All enzymes, antibodies, antigens, and the Rh factor are
proteins.
Fat

• Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

• Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like
chloroform, benzene, and petroleum.
• One gram of fat produces 9.3 calories of energy.
• Fats are responsible for energy production and maintaining
body temperature.

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 Vitamins

• They protect the body from diseases.

• The term "vitamin" was coined by Funk.
• Vitamins do not provide energy.
• Sunlight (ultraviolet rays) converts ergosterol in the skin into
Vitamin D.
• Our body can synthesize some vitamins, such as Vitamin D and
Vitamin K.
• Cobalt is found in Vitamin B12.
• Vitamins B and C are water-soluble.
• Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat-soluble.

Minerals

• The body needs large quantities of minerals like calcium,

phosphorus, potassium, and sodium.
• The body needs very small quantities of minerals like iodine,
iron, copper, and cobalt.
• Anemia is caused by iron deficiency.
• Goiter is caused by iodine deficiency.
Components of the Human Body

Substance Percentage

Water 65-75%

Protein 15%

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 Substance Percentage

Fat 12%

Carbohydrates 1%

Minerals & Vitamins 7%

Water

• Water is an inorganic compound made of hydrogen and

oxygen.
• It makes up 65-75% of the human body.
• Water regulates body temperature through sweating and
evaporation.
• Lack of water leads to dehydration.
• Water helps in the excretion of waste products from the body.
• The amount of dissolved oxygen decreases in polluted water,
meaning the BOD (Bio-Oxygen Demand) increases.

Blood

• Blood is a liquid connective tissue.

• The amount of blood in the human body is about 7-8% of the
total body weight.
• Blood is an alkaline solution with a pH of 7.4.
• A healthy person has 5-6 liters of blood.

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 • Women have less blood than men.
• Blood originates from the mesoderm of the embryo.
• Blood has two main components:
1. Plasma
2. Blood Corpuscles
Blood Corpuscles

• RBCs (Red Blood Corpuscles or Erythrocytes)

• WBCs (White Blood Corpuscles or Leukocytes)
• Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes)
Plasma

• It is a light yellow liquid and makes up 55-60% of the blood.

• It consists of 90% water, 7% protein, 0.9% salt, and 0.1%
glucose.
• Plasma contains antibodies.
• Its main function is to transport digested food and hormones in
the body.
• Major proteins found in plasma include fibrinogen,
prothrombin, globulin, and albumin.
Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs)

• Red blood cells make up 99% of all blood corpuscles.

• They are formed in the bone marrow.
• Their main function is to transport oxygen to every cell and
bring carbon dioxide back.
• The lifespan of RBCs is approximately 120 days.

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 • RBCs do not have a nucleus, but the RBCs of camels are an
exception.
• The number of RBCs is measured with a hemocytometer.
• Hemoglobin is found in RBCs.
• The spleen is called the graveyard of RBCs.
White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs)

• Their main function is to protect the body from infections.

• Their number is less compared to RBCs, about 6000-9000 per
cubic mm in the human body.
• Their count increases during illness.
• The ratio of RBCs to WBCs is 600:1.
• They have a nucleus, unlike RBCs.
Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes)

• They are formed in the bone marrow and die in the spleen.
• Their lifespan is 3 to 5 days.
• Their main function is to help in blood clotting.
• They do not have a nucleus.
• They are found only in the blood of humans and other
mammals.

Functions of Blood

• Regulates body temperature.

• Forms blood clots.

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 • Transports O₂, CO₂, digested food, waste products, and
hormones.

Blood Groups

• Blood groups were discovered by Karl Landsteiner.

• Antigens are found on RBCs, while antibodies are found in
plasma.
• Humans have four types of blood groups based on antigens:
Blood Group Antigen Antibody

A A b

B B a

AB A and B None

O None a and b

• Blood group O is the universal donor because it has no

antigens.
• Blood group AB is the universal recipient because it has no
antibodies.
• During a blood transfusion, the Rh factor is also checked. Rh+
blood is given to Rh+ individuals, and Rh- blood is given to Rh-
individuals.
• If the father has Rh+ blood and the mother has Rh- blood, there
is a possibility that the baby may die during pregnancy or
immediately after birth. This condition usually occurs after the
birth of the first child.
Potential and Impossible Blood Groups in Children

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 Parents' Blood Possible in Impossible in
Groups Children Children

AxB A, B, AB, O None

AxA A, O B, AB

BxB B, O A, AB

OxO O A, B, AB

AB x AB A, B, AB O

OxA O, A B, AB

OxB O, B A, AB

O x AB A, B O, AB

A x AB A, B, AB O

B x AB A, B, AB O

• If either or both parents have blood group O, their children

cannot have blood group AB.
• If either or both parents have blood group AB, their children
cannot have blood group O.

Blood Donation Possibilities

Blood
Donation and Reception
Group

Can donate to A and AB; can receive from A

A
and O.

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 Blood
Donation and Reception
Group

Can donate to B and AB; can receive from B

B
and O.

Can donate only to AB; can receive from A, B,

AB
AB, and O.

Can donate to A, B, AB, and O; can receive

O
only from O.

Human Diseases

• A disease is an abnormality in any organ or system of the body.

• The organisms that cause diseases are called pathogens.
Types and Causes of Diseases

• Infectious diseases: Caused by living pathogens like bacteria,

fungi, viruses, and protozoa. Examples: TB, typhoid, cholera.
They spread through contaminated food, water, air, flies, and
mosquitoes.
• Degenerative diseases: Caused by a decrease in the
functionality of various body parts with age, such as heart
disease.
• Deficiency diseases: Caused by a lack of essential nutrients.
Examples: rickets, night blindness, beriberi, anemia.
• Allergies: Caused by hypersensitivity to a particular substance.
• Cancer: Caused by uncontrolled tissue growth.

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 • Genetic diseases: Caused by genetic factors. Examples:
hemophilia, color blindness.
• Social diseases: Related to social habits like alcoholism and
substance abuse.

Human Diseases

Bacterial Diseases

Affected
Disease Name of Bacteria
Organ

Cholera Vibrio cholerae Intestine

Corynebacterium
Diphtheria Trachea
diphtheriae

Tuberculosis Mycobacterium
Lungs
(TB) tuberculosis

Mycobacterium Nervous
Leprosy
leprae system, skin

Nervous
Tetanus Clostridium tetani
system

Typhoid Salmonella typhi Intestine

Lungs, lymph
Plague Pasteurella pestis
nodes

Whooping Respiratory
Bordetella pertussis
Cough system

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 Affected
Disease Name of Bacteria
Organ

Diplococcus
Pneumonia Lungs
pneumoniae

Neisseria
Gonorrhea Urinary tract
gonorrhoeae

Syphilis Treponema pallidum Penis

Viral Diseases

Disease Affected Organ

AIDS Immune system

Polio Central nervous system

Rabies Central nervous system

Hepatitis Liver

Jaundice Liver

Meningitis Brain

Smallpox Skin

Protozoan Diseases

Affected
Disease Parasite Vector
Organ

Bone Leishmania
Kala-azar Sandfly
marrow donovani

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 Affected
Disease Parasite Vector
Organ

Entamoeba
Pyria Gums --
gingivalis

Spleen Female
Malaria and Plasmodium Anopheles
RBCs mosquito

Entamoeba
Dysentery Intestine --
histolytica

Sleeping
Brain Trypanosoma Tsetse fly
Sickness

Fungal Diseases

• Baldness is caused by the fungus Taenia capitis.

• Ringworm is caused by the fungus Trichophyton.
• Scabies is caused by the fungus Acarus scabies.
• Asthma is caused by the fungus Aspergillus fumigatus.
• Common fungal diseases include baldness, ringworm, asthma,
athlete's foot, and scabies.
Genetic Diseases

• Color Blindness: Patients with this disease cannot differentiate

between red and green colors. It is carried on the 'X'
chromosome. If a colorblind man marries a normal woman,
their daughters will be carriers of the gene, and their sons will
be normal.

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 • Hemophilia: This disease is found only in males. Females are
the carriers of the gene. It is characterized by the inability of
blood to clot.

Key Facts About Human Diseases

• DPT vaccine (Triple Antigen) is given to prevent Diphtheria,

Pertussis (whooping cough), and Tetanus.
• MMR vaccine is given for Measles, Mumps, and Rubella.
• Hemophilia is a genetic disease where blood does not clot.
• Epidermic diseases are related to the skin.
• Astigmatism is an eye disease.
• Oncology is the study of cancer.
• Psychosis is a mental disorder often referred to as madness.
• A false belief in one's own greatness is Paranoia.
• Hysteria, Schizophrenia, Psychoneurosis, Psychosis, Paranoia,
Pedophilia are all mental illnesses.
• Pollution-related diseases include Minamata disease, Itai-itai
disease, Blue Baby Syndrome, and Black Foot disease.
o Minamata disease is due to mercury excess.
o Itai-itai disease is due to cadmium.
o Blue Baby Syndrome is due to excess nitrates in water.
o Black Foot disease is due to arsenic.
• Meningitis affects the brain.
• SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) is related to the
respiratory system.

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 • Erythroblastosis fetalis is a condition that can occur in
marriages between an Rh+ male and an Rh- female.
• BMD test is performed to diagnose Osteoporosis.
• Anosmia is the lack of the sense of smell.
• Bacterial diseases in humans include cholera, diphtheria,
leprosy, tetanus, typhoid, plague, whooping cough, pneumonia,
gonorrhea, syphilis, and TB.
• Viral diseases in humans include AIDS, rabies, jaundice, polio,
hepatitis, meningitis, and smallpox.
• Protozoan diseases in humans include kala-azar, pyria, malaria,
dysentery, and sleeping sickness.
• Fungal diseases in humans include ringworm, scabies,
baldness, and asthma.
Common Diseases and Affected Organs

Disease Affected Organ

Polio Central Nervous System

Epilepsy Nervous System

Rabies Central Nervous System

Cataract Eyes

Conjunctivitis Eyes

Colitis Small and large intestines

Goiter Throat

Bronchitis Respiratory System

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 Disease Affected Organ

Eczema Skin

Filariasis Lymph Glands

Cholera Small Intestine

Typhoid Large Intestine

Pneumonia Lungs

Jaundice Liver

AIDS Immune System

Hepatitis Liver

Pyorrhea Gums

Dysentery Intestine

Main Parts of the Brain:

1. Cerebrum (Forebrain)

• Largest part of the brain (about 80% of total mass).

• Divided into right and left hemispheres.
• Controls:
o Voluntary actions (walking, writing, etc.)
o Intelligence, memory, learning, thinking, reasoning
o Sensory perception (touch, vision, sound, etc.)

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 2. Cerebellum (Hindbrain)

• Located below the cerebrum and at the back of the brain.

• Controls:
o Balance and posture
o Coordination of muscles
o Smooth and precise movements

3. Medulla Oblongata (Part of Brainstem)

• Connects the brain to the spinal cord.

• Controls involuntary actions, such as:
o Breathing
o Heartbeat
o Blood pressure
o Swallowing
o Vomiting

4. Pons (Part of Brainstem)

• Lies above the medulla.

• Works as a relay station between different parts of the brain.
• Helps in regulating respiration and facial sensations.
5. Midbrain

• Located between the forebrain and hindbrain.

• Controls:

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 o Reflexes related to vision and hearing
o Eye movement

6. Hypothalamus

• Part of the forebrain, below the thalamus.

• Functions:
o Regulates body temperature
o Controls hunger, thirst
o Regulates sleep-wake cycle
o Links nervous system with endocrine system (via
pituitary)

7. Thalamus

• Acts as a relay center for transmitting messages between the

brain and the body.
• Involved in sensory and motor signal relay.

Important
• Brain weight: ~1.4 kg in adults
• Protected by: Skull + Meninges + Cerebrospinal fluid
• Controls both voluntary and involuntary activities
• Pituitary gland, the master gland, is attached to the brain

Human Heart

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 What is the Heart?

The heart is a muscular organ that circulates blood

throughout the body. It continuously contracts and relaxes,
allowing blood to reach every part of the body.

Location and Size

• The heart is located in the thoracic cavity, slightly tilted

towards the left lung.
• Its size is approximately equal to that of a human fist.
• It is enclosed in a membranous sac called the pericardium,
which provides protection.

Structure of the Heart

Four Chambers:

The human heart has four chambers:

• Right Atrium
• Right Ventricle
• Left Atrium
• Left Ventricle
The atria (upper chambers) receive blood, while the ventricles
(lower chambers) pump blood out of the heart.

Valves in the Heart

• Tricuspid Valve – Between the right atrium and right ventricle

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 • Bicuspid/Mitral Valve – Between the left atrium and left
ventricle
• Semilunar Valves – In the aorta and pulmonary artery to
ensure one-way flow of blood
These valves allow blood to flow in one direction and prevent
backflow.

Blood Circulation

The human heart exhibits double circulation, meaning blood

passes through the heart twice in one complete cycle.

1. Pulmonary Circulation

• The right ventricle sends deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

• In the lungs, blood releases carbon dioxide and absorbs
oxygen.
• This oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium.
2. Systemic Circulation

• The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the entire body

via the aorta.
• Body cells use the oxygen and send back carbon dioxide-rich
blood to the right atrium.

Heartbeat

• Normal heart rate: ~72 beats per minute

• The SA node (Sinoatrial Node) is known as the "natural
pacemaker" of the heart.

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 • The SA node generates electrical signals that trigger heart
contractions.
Conduction Pathway:

SA Node → AV Node → Bundle of His → Purkinje Fibers

Blood Supply to the Heart

The heart receives its own oxygenated blood through the

coronary arteries.

A blockage in these arteries can cause a heart attack.

Protection of the Heart

The heart is protected by:

• Ribs, not the skull

• Pericardium (protective membrane)
• Pericardial fluid around the heart (not cerebrospinal fluid)

Digestive System

The entire process of food digestion occurs in five stages:

1. Ingestion: The process of taking food into the mouth.

2. Digestion: The breakdown of food.
3. Absorption: The transfer of digested food into the
bloodstream.
4. Assimilation: The utilization of absorbed food by the body.

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 5. Defecation: The elimination of undigested food as feces.
Digestion in humans takes place through the following organs:

1. Buccal Cavity (Mouth)

2. Esophagus (Food Pipe)
3. Stomach
4. Small Intestine
5. Large Intestine
6. Rectum and Anus
• The absorption of food occurs in the small intestine.
• Undigested food reaches the large intestine, where bacteria
convert it into feces, which are then expelled from the body
through the anus.
Body Enzymes

• Ptyalin: Found in saliva. It converts starch in food into maltose.

• Pepsin: Secreted by gastric glands in the stomach. It converts
proteins into peptones.
• Rennin: Secreted by gastric glands in the stomach. It converts
the milk protein casein into calcium paracaseinate.
• Trypsin: Found in pancreatic juice. It converts proteins into
polypeptides.
• Lipase: Converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

Liver

• The liver is the largest gland in the human body, with a weight
between 1.5 kg to 2 kg.

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 • Excess sugar/carbohydrates in the liver are stored as glycogen.
When needed, it is converted back into glucose.
• The liver plays an active role in protein metabolism. It converts
the poisonous ammonia produced from protein decomposition
into urea.
• It synthesizes and stores proteins like fibrinogen and
prothrombin, which help in blood clotting.
• The liver produces a substance called heparin that prevents
blood from clotting inside blood vessels.
• Bile juice is secreted by the liver. It is an alkaline fluid that is
stored in the gallbladder.
• Vitamins A and D are stored in the liver.
• The process where excess glucose in the blood is converted to
glycogen in the liver is called glycogenesis.
• When blood glucose levels are low, glycogen is converted back
to glucose. This process is called glycogenolysis.
• In cases of suspected poisoning, the liver is examined during a
post-mortem.
• The liver is the affected organ in diseases like jaundice and
hepatitis.

Tongue

• The tongue has approximately 10,000 taste buds. These are

located on small bumps on the surface and sides of the tongue.
• Different parts of the tongue are sensitive to different tastes:
o The sides of the tongue are sensitive to sour tastes.
o The back of the tongue is sensitive to bitter tastes.

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 o The front of the tongue is sensitive to salty and sweet
tastes.
• The middle part of the tongue does not experience any taste.
• Girls have more taste buds than boys.

Skeleton System

• The body's framework is made of bones. An adult human body

has 206 bones. A newborn baby has about 300 bones.
• The face has 14 bones, while the skull has 8 bones.
• The skeleton provides a definite shape and structure to the
body.
• The longest bone in the body is the femur (thigh bone), and the
smallest is the stapes (in the ear).
• The connection between a muscle and a bone is called a
tendon.
• The connection between a bone and another bone is called a
ligament.
• The elbow joint in humans is a hinge joint.

Excretory System

• The excretory organs of the human body are the kidneys, skin,
liver, lungs, nose, and large intestine.
• The functional unit of a kidney is a nephron.
• Urine is slightly acidic (pH=6) and yellow in color. The yellow
color is due to the pigment urochrome, which is formed from
the breakdown of hemoglobin.

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 • Urine is composed of approximately 95% water, 2% salts, 2.7%
urea, and 0.3% uric acid.
• Kidney stones are made of calcium oxalate.
• If the kidneys fail to function, a person has to undergo dialysis.
• The liver plays a key role in excretion by converting blood
ammonia into urea.
• The lungs expel carbon dioxide and water in the form of water
vapor.
• The intestines expel undigested food and other waste products
as feces.
• The sweat glands in the skin secrete sweat.

Nervous System

• The parts of the nervous system are the brain, spinal cord, and
nerves.
• The most important part of the nervous system for
coordination and control is the brain.
• The brain is divided into three parts:
o Cerebrum: The largest and most important part of the
brain. It controls all mental activities such as willpower,
memory, experience, hearing, sight, smell, speech, and
consciousness.
o Cerebellum: It maintains body balance and controls the
contraction of voluntary muscles.
o Medulla Oblongata: The posterior-most part of the brain.
It controls involuntary actions like heartbeat, digestion,
and respiration.

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 • The human brain weighs about 1400 grams. The unit of
nervous tissue is a neuron.
• A crucial function of the spinal cord is to control reflex actions.

• Glands in the Human Body and Their Functions

• 1. Endocrine Glands
• These glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
and do not have ducts.
• Pituitary Gland
Known as the "master gland" because it controls other
endocrine glands. It secretes Growth Hormone (GH), TSH, FSH,
LH, etc.
• Thyroid Gland
Located in the front of the neck, it produces thyroxine hormone
which regulates metabolism in the body.
• Parathyroid Gland
Located behind the thyroid gland, it secretes parathormone
which maintains calcium and phosphate levels in the body.
• Adrenal Gland
Located above the kidneys, it produces adrenaline and cortisol
hormones. These control stress response, blood pressure, and
energy levels.
• Pancreas
It is a mixed gland, having both endocrine and exocrine
functions. As an endocrine gland, it secretes insulin which
regulates blood glucose levels.

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 • Thymus
Active in children, it helps in the development of the immune
system. It secretes the hormone thymosin.
• Pineal Gland
Located in the brain, it produces melatonin which regulates the
sleep-wake cycle.
• Gonads (Sex Glands)
In females: Ovaries, which produce estrogen and progesterone
that regulate reproduction and the menstrual cycle.
In males: Testes, which produce testosterone that affects
secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., beard, deep voice).

• 2. Exocrine Glands
• These glands have ducts and release their secretions onto body
surfaces or into body cavities.
• Salivary Glands
Located in the mouth; they produce saliva which begins the
digestion of food.
• Sweat Glands
Found in the skin; they produce sweat, which helps regulate
body temperature.
• Sebaceous Glands
Present in the skin; they secrete an oily substance (sebum) that
lubricates the skin and hair.
• Pancreas
As an exocrine gland, it secretes enzymes like trypsin and lipase
into the small intestine, which help in digestion.
• Mammary Glands
Located in the breasts; they produce milk for infants.

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 • Exocrine Glands: These are glands with ducts. They secrete
enzymes. Examples: mammary glands, sweat glands, tear
glands, salivary glands, etc.
• Mixed Glands: These glands have both exocrine and endocrine
functions. Example: Pancreas.
• Endocrine Glands: These are ductless glands. They secrete
hormones, which travel through the blood plasma to different
parts of the body. Examples: Pituitary gland, Thyroid gland,
Adrenal gland.
Major Endocrine Glands

1. Pituitary Gland: Located in the brain. It is also known as the

"Master Gland."
2. Thyroid Gland: Located in the throat.
3. Pineal Gland: Located in the brain.
4. Parathyroid Gland: Embedded in the thyroid and located in the
throat.
5. Thymus Gland: Located in the chest.
6. Adrenal Gland: Located in the abdomen.

Blood Pressure

• The normal blood pressure of a healthy person is 120/80 mm

Hg.
• "mm" stands for millimeters, and "Hg" stands for mercury.
High Blood Pressure

1. It occurs when the diameter of the arteries decreases due to

stress, anxiety, or excessive physical work.

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 2. The heart has to exert more force to pump blood to the organs.
3. If a person consistently has a high blood pressure of 150/90
mm Hg, the condition is called hypertension.
Low Blood Pressure

1. It is caused by malnutrition, fatigue, or low blood volume.

2. The heart pumps blood with less pressure, so all organs do not
receive enough blood.
3. If a person consistently has a low blood pressure of 100/50 mm
Hg, the condition is called hypotension.

Parts of a Plant

• The root develops from the radicle, while the stem develops
from the plumule.
• The functions of the root are to anchor the plant, and to absorb
water and minerals.
• There are two types of roots:
1. Tap root
2. Adventitious root
Modifications of Tap Roots

• Conical: Carrot
• Napiform: Turnip, Beetroot
• Fusiform: Radish
Modifications of Underground Stems

• Rhizome: Turmeric, Ginger

• Tuber: Potato

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 • Corm: Yam, Elephant foot yam
• Bulb: Onion, Garlic
• The function of a leaf is to perform photosynthesis for food
production, gas exchange, transpiration, and storage.
• The flower is the reproductive organ of the plant.
• A flower consists of the calyx, corolla, androecium, and
gynoecium. The androecium is the male reproductive organ,
while the gynoecium is the female reproductive organ.
• Fruit: A mature ovary is called a fruit.
Types of Fruits

• True Fruits: These fruits develop only from the ovary.

Examples: Mango, Pea.
• False Fruits: In the formation of these fruits, other parts of the
flower like the thalamus and sepals also participate along with
the ovary. Examples: Apple, Pear, Jackfruit, Cashew.
• A pregnant woman should get approximately 40 mg of iron
daily from her diet.

Fruits and Their Edible Parts

Fruit Edible Part

Apple Thalamus

Pear Thalamus

Mango Mesocarp

Litchi Aril

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 Fruit Edible Part

Guava Pericarp and placenta

Papaya Mesocarp

Coconut Endosperm

Pomegranate Juicy seed coat

Grape Pericarp

Tomato Pericarp and placenta

Plant Hormones

1. Auxin: Helps in the growth of the stem. It controls the falling of

leaves and fruits and also destroys weeds.
2. Gibberellins: Primarily increases the length of plants.
3. Cytokinins: An alkaline hormone that mainly helps in cell
division and growth.
4. Ethylene: This is a ripening hormone that helps fruits ripen.
5. Abscisic Acid: Keeps seeds in a dormant state.
6. Florigens: Produced in leaves. It helps in the blooming of
flowers, which is why it's also called the "flower-blooming
hormone."
Alkaloids

• Alkaloids are nitrogenous organic substances that have a bitter

taste.
• They are found in seeds, bark, and leaves.

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 • Some examples of alkaloids are atropine, nicotine, caffeine,
reserpine, quinine, and morphine.
• The alkaloid used to dilate the human eye pupil is atropine,
which is derived from the root of the Atropa belladonna plant.
• Quinine, used to treat malaria, is obtained from the bark of the
Cinchona plant. The synthetic drug that replaced it is
chloroquine.
• Morphine is obtained from the unripe fruits of the poppy plant.
It is used for pain relief and inducing sleep.
• Nicotine is found in tobacco leaves.
• The stimulating property of tea and coffee is due to caffeine,
which is found in tea leaves and coffee beans.
• The blood pressure medication reserpine is obtained from the
root of the Rauwolfia serpentina plant.
• The color and sharp taste of tea are due to tannin, which is also
found in barks and unripe fruits. It is used in leather tanning,
making ink, and medicines.
• Resin is obtained from some cone-bearing plants. Asafoetida
(heeng) is from the root of Ferula assa-foetida, and turpentine
oil is from the stem of the Pinus tree. Resin is used in leather,
medicine, paint, and varnish.
• Natural rubber is made from the milky fluid called latex, which
is obtained from certain plant species like Hevea brasiliensis
and Ficus elastica. Rubber is a polymer of isoprene.
• Opium is obtained from the flower of the poppy plant.
• Hashish is obtained from the secretions of the stem and male
inflorescence of the plant.

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 • Turpentine oil is extracted from the pine tree. Cedar oil is
obtained from the cedar tree.
• Clove is obtained from a flower bud. Its main component is
eugenol, which is used to relieve toothache.
• Cinnamon is obtained from the bark of the tree.
• Chicory powder, which is mixed with coffee powder, is
obtained from the roots of the Cichorium intybus plant.
Genetic Engineering

• Clone: A clone is a genetically identical organism produced

through asexual reproduction. Cloning is the technique used to
produce them. Identical twins are not clones, but two clones of
one organism are identical. Animal cloning has been successful
worldwide, but human cloning is controversial and banned.
• Test-Tube Baby: This is a baby conceived through in vitro
fertilization (IVF), a process where an egg and sperm are
fertilized outside the body in a petri dish. The resulting embryo
is then implanted into the woman's uterus. The fertilization
happens outside the mother's body, but the embryo develops
inside the uterus.
• Stem Cells: These are highly controversial cells found in
multicellular organisms that can perform the function of any
cell in the body. Most stem cells are obtained from embryos,
which raises ethical concerns because the embryo is destroyed
in the process. Uncontroversial sources include umbilical cord
blood and bone marrow. Stem cells have helped in the
discovery of new drugs, corneal transplantation, and
preventing heart attacks.
• B.T. Varieties: Bacillus thuringiensis (B.T.) is a bacterium that,
when cloned, gives plants resistance to insects, eliminating the

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 need for pesticides. Environmentalists, however, believe that
this could have a negative impact on human health and
biodiversity. A fierce protest in 2010 led to the suspension of
B.T. brinjal cultivation in India.
• Golden Rice: Golden Rice is a significant achievement in rice
research. Created by Prof. Potrykus and Dr. Werner, this
variety of rice contains a gene that produces beta-carotene,
which the body converts into Vitamin A. It is a variety of Oryza
sativa and is also rich in iron and zinc. This rice has helped
address Vitamin A deficiency in millions of children worldwide.
• DNA Fingerprinting: This technique is used to establish a child's
paternity, identify genetic diseases, and analyze the lineage of
animals. It is based on the principle that the DNA pattern of an
individual is unique and can be used for identification. Evidence
such as hair, saliva, semen, and blood can be used. The
technique was developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys in 1985.

Exam Points

Topic Fact

Body Parts The strongest part of the body is tooth enamel.

Sex determination in humans depends on the male's

Genetics
chromosome, not the female's.

The heart rate of a child is faster than that of an

Physiology
adult.

Evolution Oxygen was not present when life originated.

Anatomy The human heart has four chambers.

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Topic Fact

Yeast is used to make bread. Penicillin is an

Microbiology
antibiotic obtained from fungi.

Human blood contains hemoglobin, which has iron.

Blood Heparin prevents blood from clotting inside blood
vessels. The color of blood is red due to hemoglobin.

Ecology Fungi and bacteria act as decomposers.

Saffron spice is made from the stigma of the flower.

Xylem transports water and minerals from the
Botany
roots, while phloem transports food from the leaves
to other parts of the plant.

It is an oxidation-reduction reaction. It occurs most

Photosynthesis effectively in red and blue light. Carbon dioxide is
used, and oxygen is released.

Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between fungi

and algae. They are indicators of air pollution.
Lichens
Litmus paper is obtained from a lichen called
Rocella.

Yam, onion, potato, ginger, and turmeric are all

Plant Parts modified stems. Carrots, turnips, beetroots, and
radishes are roots.

Bacteria were discovered by Leeuwenhoek.

Rhizobium bacteria fix nitrogen in the roots of
Bacteria
leguminous plants. Lactobacillus bacteria convert
milk into yogurt.

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Topic Fact

Viruses consist of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)

Viruses surrounded by a protein coat. Plant viruses mainly
have RNA, while animal viruses mainly have DNA.

The pancreas is the second-largest mixed gland in

Pancreas the body. The islets of Langerhans in the pancreas
secrete hormones like insulin and glucagon.

Insulin regulates blood sugar levels. A deficiency of

insulin causes diabetes, leading to increased blood
Diabetes
glucose. Excess insulin secretion causes
hypoglycemia.

The skin is the largest organ of the body. The

thickness varies; it is thickest on the soles of the feet
Skin
and palms and thinnest on the eyelids. The pigment
that gives color to human skin is melanin.

The tears are secreted by lacrimal glands. The

arteries carry blood away from the heart, while the
veins carry it to the heart. Estrogen and
Miscellaneous
progesterone are female sex hormones. Bird flu is
caused by the H5N1 virus, and swine flu by the
H1N1 virus.

The 'fight or flight' hormone is adrenaline.

Atherosclerosis is caused by the continuous
Diseases consumption of saturated fats. Flourosis causes
mottled teeth. Protein and calorie deficiency causes
marasmus, while protein deficiency causes

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Topic Fact

kwashiorkor. Magnesium prevents the formation of

kidney stones.

Minamata disease is caused by mercury poisoning.

Blackfoot disease is caused by arsenic. Itai-itai
Poisons
disease is caused by cadmium. Blue baby syndrome
is caused by excess nitrates in drinking water.

Mammoths were ancestors of elephants. Dinosaurs

Animals were Mesozoic reptiles. A panda belongs to the
same family as a bear. A sea horse is a fish.

Rennin is the enzyme that digests milk. The principle

of natural selection was proposed by Charles
Darwin. Crop rotation is used to maintain soil
fertility. The River for Life campaign is run by WWF
Other
to save dolphins. The Mission Indradhanush
program aims to eradicate diseases like polio,
tetanus, whooping cough, diphtheria, TB, and
Hepatitis-B by 2020.

Largest and Smallest

Category Largest Smallest

Bird Ostrich Hummingbird

Animal Blue Whale Amoeba

Mammal Giraffe Shrew

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Category Largest Smallest

Land Animal Elephant --

Snake Python --

Flower Rafflesia Wolffia

WBC Monocyte Lymphocyte

Artery Abdominal Aorta --

Vein Inferior Vena Cava --

Endocrine Gland Thyroid Gland --

Gland Liver --

Bacteria (जीवाणु)

• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria. He observed

bacteria in dental scrapings with a microscope and called them
'micro-organisms'.
• Ehrenberg named them bacteria.
• Louis Pasteur showed that fermentation is caused by bacteria.
• Robert Koch demonstrated that bacteria are the cause of
tuberculosis and cholera in humans.
• Leeuwenhoek is known as the "father of bacteriology".
• The study of bacteria is called bacteriology.
• They are found almost everywhere: in water, land, air, food,
soil, and living and dead plants and animals.
• Clostridium is the species whose contamination causes food
poisoning (botulism).

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 • The bacterium found in the human intestine is Escherichia coli.
• Acetobacter aceti is the bacterium useful in the production of
vinegar.
• The shape of the Vibrio bacterium is a comma (,).
• Bacterial diseases in humans include cholera, diphtheria,
leprosy, pneumonia, plague, typhoid, tuberculosis, tetanus,
and whooping cough.
• Bacillus denitrificans is a bacterium that reduces soil fertility.

Fungi (कवक)

• The study of fungi is called mycology.

• Because they lack chlorophyll, fungi cannot produce their own
food.
• Yeast and mushrooms are types of fungi.
• Yeast is used in making alcohol, in the bakery industry, and in
making bread.
• Many types of antibiotic medicines are made from fungi.
• Alexander Fleming obtained the antibiotic penicillin from
Penicillium notatum.
• Some fungi destroy clothes, leather, paper, wood, and rubber.
• Some fungi, such as Rhizopus, Mucor, and Aspergillus, destroy
food items like jam, pickles, bread, and fruits by spreading their
mycelium.

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Virus (ववषाणु)

• The Russian scientist Dmitri Ivanovsky discovered viruses.

• Viruses are considered a link between living and non-living
things. They can only be seen with an electron microscope.
• A virus's structure consists of a nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) core
surrounded by a protein coat.
• Diseases in humans caused by viruses are smallpox, polio,
rabies, measles, influenza, mumps, trachoma, and AIDS.

Algae (शैवाल)

• The study of algae is called phycology.

• Algae are generally chlorophyll-containing, non-vascular,
autotrophic organisms with a cellulose cell wall.
• They are mostly aquatic (found in both marine and freshwater).
• Food is usually stored in them in the form of starch. They
produce food through photosynthesis.
• Blue-green algae are called cyanobacteria. It is believed that
they made the Earth aerobic, and they are credited with the
formation of the atmosphere.
• Nostoc cyanobacteria perform nitrogen fixation in the soil.
Cyanobacteria are generally photosynthetic organisms.
• Algae are found in fresh water, sea water, hot springs, moist
places, wet soil, mud, rivers, ponds, tree trunks, and rocks.
• Algae are used as food, in industry, agriculture, research, and
medicine.

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 • Algae are rich in carbohydrates, inorganic substances, and
vitamins A, C, D, and E, which is why they are used as food.
• Iodine is obtained from the marine algae called Laminaria.
• Algae like Nostoc and Anabaena fix atmospheric nitrogen.
• Astronauts take an algae called Chlorella with them into space.
It provides protein-rich food, water, and other nutrients.

Important Agricultural Research Institutes

Institute Location

Indian Agricultural Research Institute New Delhi

Indian Institute of Pulses Research Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh)

Sugarcane Breeding Institute Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu)

National Botanical Research Institute Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh)

Hyderabad (Andhra
National Institute of Nutrition
Pradesh)

National Institute of Rural Hyderabad (Andhra

Development Pradesh)

Central Arid Zone Research Institute Jodhpur (Rajasthan)

Central Food Technological Research

Mysore (Karnataka)
Institute

Central Institute of Fisheries

Kochi (Kerala)
Technology

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Institute Location

Central Potato Research Institute Shimla (Himachal Pradesh)

Central Rice Research Institute Cuttack (Odisha)

Rajahmundry (Andhra
Central Tobacco Research Institute
Pradesh)

TYPES OF FAT

1. Saturated Fat

• Structure: No double bonds between carbon atoms; fully

"saturated" with hydrogen.
• Sources: Animal fats (ghee, butter, meat), coconut oil, palm oil.
• Effect on Health: Increases LDL (bad cholesterol); linked to
cardiovascular diseases.
• WHO Recommendation: <10% of total energy intake.
2. Unsaturated Fat

These are healthier fats.

a) Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFA)

• Structure: One double bond in the fatty acid chain.

• Sources: Olive oil, groundnut oil, avocado, nuts (almonds,
peanuts).
• Health Benefits: Lowers LDL, increases HDL (good cholesterol).
b) Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA)

• Structure: More than one double bond.

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 • Types:
o Omega-3 (α-linolenic acid): Found in flaxseed, fish,
walnuts.
o Omega-6 (linoleic acid): Found in sunflower oil, safflower
oil.
• Health Benefits: Anti-inflammatory, good for heart and brain
health.
• Excess Omega-6: Can cause inflammation if not balanced with
Omega-3.
3. Trans Fat

• Structure: Unsaturated fats that are hydrogenated (chemically

altered).
• Sources: Vanaspati, margarine, fried fast foods, bakery items.
• Effect on Health: Increases LDL, decreases HDL; very harmful—
linked to heart disease, diabetes, obesity.
• WHO Goal: Eliminate trans fats from the global food supply by
2023 (India has adopted this via FSSAI initiatives).
4. Essential Fatty Acids (EFAs)

• Cannot be synthesized by the body; must be obtained from

the diet.
• Includes:
o Linoleic Acid (Omega-6)
o Alpha-Linolenic Acid (Omega-3)

Biology At a Glance

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1. CELL BIOLOGY

- Cell Types: Prokaryotic (bacteria), Eukaryotic (plants, animals)

- Organelles: Nucleus (DNA), Mitochondria (ATP), Chloroplast

(Photosynthesis), Ribosomes (Protein), Golgi (Packaging)

- Cell Division: Mitosis (2 identical cells), Meiosis (4 gametes)

2. GENETICS

- DNA Structure: Double helix, Watson & Crick

- Mendel’s Laws: Dominance, Segregation, Independent Assortment

- Chromosomes: 46 in humans, 23 pairs (XX/XY)

3. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

- Digestive: Mouth → Esophagus → Stomach → Intestine

- Circulatory: Heart (4 chambers), Blood (RBC, WBC, Platelets)

- Respiratory: Lungs, Alveoli (Gas exchange)

- Excretion: Kidneys (Nephron), Urine formation

- Nervous: Brain (Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Medulla), Neurons

- Endocrine Glands: Pituitary, Thyroid, Adrenal, Pancreas

4. PLANT BIOLOGY

- Photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O + Sunlight → Glucose + O2 (in

chloroplast)

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- Plant Hormones: Auxins (growth), Gibberellins, Cytokinins, ABA,
Ethylene

- Reproduction: Pollination (self, cross), Fertilization

5. ECOLOGY

- Ecosystem: Biotic + Abiotic

- Food Chain/Web, Trophic Levels

- Cycles: Water, Carbon, Nitrogen

- Biodiversity: Hotspots (Himalayas, Ghats), Conservation (Project

Tiger, Biosphere reserves)

- Acts: Wildlife Protection Act (1972), Environment Protection Act

(1986)

6. HEALTH & DISEASE

- Communicable: Malaria (Plasmodium), TB (Bacteria), AIDS (HIV)

- Non-Communicable: Diabetes, Cancer

- Vitamins:

A - Night blindness

B1 - Beriberi

C - Scurvy

D - Rickets

K - Clotting issues

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- Vaccines: BCG, Polio, Hepatitis, COVID-19 (Covaxin, Covishield)

7. BIOTECHNOLOGY

- Genetic Engineering: GM crops (Bt Cotton)

- Cloning: Dolly sheep

- DNA Fingerprinting: Forensics

- Stem Cells, PCR

8. MISC FACTS

- Insulin: Banting & Best

- Penicillin: Alexander Fleming

- Smallest Cell: Mycoplasma

- Largest Cell: Ostrich Egg

- Master Gland: Pituitary

Hormones

Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands.

They travel through the bloodstream to various organs and regulate
physiological processes. Even in small quantities, hormones have
powerful effects on body functions.

Major Hormones and Their Functions:

1. Growth Hormone (GH) – Secreted by the pituitary gland, it

controls overall growth and development of the body.

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 2. Thyroxine – Produced by the thyroid gland, it regulates the
metabolic rate of the body.
3. Insulin – Secreted by the pancreas, it lowers blood sugar levels
by helping cells absorb glucose. Deficiency causes diabetes.
4. Glucagon – Also from the pancreas, it raises blood sugar levels
by stimulating the liver to release stored glucose.
5. Adrenaline – Secreted by the adrenal glands, it prepares the
body for emergencies (fight or flight response) by increasing
heart rate, breathing, etc.
6. Estrogen and Progesterone – Female sex hormones secreted
by the ovaries. They regulate menstrual cycle, female
reproductive system, and pregnancy.
7. Testosterone – Male sex hormone secreted by the testes. It
develops secondary sexual characteristics like facial hair,
deeper voice, etc.
8. Melatonin – Secreted by the pineal gland, it controls the sleep-
wake cycle or biological clock.
9. Thymosin – Produced by the thymus gland, it helps in the
development of immune cells, especially in children.

Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in

the body, especially in digestion. They are mostly made up of
proteins and are specific to the substance they act upon.

Major Digestive Enzymes and Their Functions:

1. Ptyalin (Salivary Amylase) – Found in saliva, it breaks down

starch into sugars in the mouth.

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 2. Pepsin – Present in the stomach, it digests proteins into
smaller peptides.
3. Trypsin and Lipase – Produced by the pancreas:
o Trypsin digests proteins
o Lipase digests fats
4. Maltase, Sucrase, Lactase – Found in the small intestine, they
break down different sugars (maltose, sucrose, lactose) into
glucose, fructose, and galactose respectively.
5. Rennin – Found in infants, it helps in the digestion of milk
proteins.

Vitamin A (Retinol)

Deficiency Diseases:

• Night Blindness
• Xerophthalmia
• Bitot's Spots
• Corneal ulcer and permanent blindness
• Dry skin (Hyperkeratosis)
• Reduced immunity
Sources:

• Carrot, spinach, papaya

• Mango, tomato, egg yolk, cod liver oil, alfalfa grass
• Fish liver oil, milk, butter

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 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

Deficiency Diseases:

• Beriberi
o Dry: Nervous system disorders
o Wet: Heart-related problems
• Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome (common in alcoholics)
Sources:

• Whole grains, sprouted grains

• Peanuts, meat, egg
• Pulses, rice bran

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Deficiency Diseases:

• Cheilitis (cracked lips)

• Glossitis (inflamed tongue)
• Conjunctivitis
• Photophobia (sensitivity to light)
Sources:

• Milk, curd, egg

• Green leafy vegetables
• Whole grains, meat

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 Vitamin B3 (Niacin)

Deficiency Disease:

• Pellagra – 3 D's:
o Diarrhea
o Dermatitis
o Dementia
Sources:

• Meat, fish
• Peanuts, grains
• Milk, egg

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid) (Very rare deficiency)

Deficiency Symptoms:

• Fatigue
• Burning sensation in hands and feet
• Sleep disturbances
Sources:

• Broccoli, egg
• Meat, whole grains
• Avocado, mushroom

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Deficiency Diseases:

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 • Anemia
• Irritability
• Seizures
• Dermatitis, Glossitis
Sources:

• Banana, nuts
• Potato, fish
• Grains, pulses

Vitamin B7 (Biotin)

Deficiency Symptoms:

• Hair loss
• Red rashes on skin
• Fatigue, mental confusion
Sources:

• Egg yolk
• Peanuts, almonds
• Banana, mushroom, cauliflower

Vitamin B9 (Folic Acid)

Deficiency Diseases:

• Megaloblastic anemia
• Neural tube defects in fetus (e.g. Spina Bifida)

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 • Fatigue, nausea
Sources:

• Spinach, broccoli
• Chickpeas, lentils
• Orange, egg

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

Deficiency Diseases:

• Megaloblastic anemia
• Pernicious anemia
• Neuropathy (nerve damage)
Sources:

• Only from animal sources:

o Egg, meat, fish
o Milk, cheese

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

Deficiency Diseases:

• Scurvy
• Bleeding gums
• Wound healing issues
• Fatigue
Sources:

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 • Amla (Indian gooseberry), lemon, orange
• Guava, tomato
• Green chili, broccoli

Vitamin D (Calciferol)

Deficiency Diseases:

• Rickets (in children)

• Osteomalacia (in adults)
• Weak bones
Sources:

• Sunlight (UV rays)

• Fish, egg, cod liver oil
• Milk, cheese, butter

Vitamin E (Tocopherol) (Deficiency is rare)

Deficiency Symptoms:

• Neuromuscular issues
• Vision defects
• Weakness
Sources:

• Sunflower oil
• Almonds, peanuts, rice bran oil, alfalfa grass
• Spinach, seeds, wheat germ oil

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 Vitamin K

Deficiency Diseases:

• Blood clotting failure

• Excessive bleeding
• Hemorrhagic disease in newborns
Sources:

• Green leafy vegetables (spinach, bathua)

• Broccoli, cabbage, alfalfa grass (Rajbhoj or Lucerne)
• Fish oil

Space Science
● Henri Becquerel (1852–1908) – A French scientist who discovered
radioactivity.

● Niels Bohr (1885–1962) – A Danish scientist who proposed the model of the
atomic structure. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1922.

● Henry Cavendish (1731–1810) – A British scientist who discovered hydrogen

as an element.

● James Chadwick (1891–1974) – A British scientist who, in 1932, discovered

the neutron, an electrically neutral particle in the atom.

● Copernicus (1473–1543) – A Polish astronomer who was the first to state

that “the Earth is not stationary and revolves around the Sun.”

● Madame Marie Curie (1867–1934) – A Polish scientist who later became a

French citizen. She discovered radium and won the Nobel Prize twice, in 1903
and 1911.

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● John Dalton (1776–1844) – A British scientist who proposed the atomic
theory. He also formulated the “Law of Multiple Proportions.”

● Charles Robert Darwin (1809–1882) – A British scientist whose book The

Origin of Species presented the theory of evolution. He proposed the principle
of natural selection.

● Albert Einstein (1879–1955) – A Jewish-born German scientist who later

settled in the USA. In 1933, he proposed the Theory of Relativity (E=mc²). He
explained the photoelectric effect, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize.

● Alexander Fleming (1881–1955) – A British bacteriologist who discovered

lysozyme and penicillin.

● Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) – An Italian scientist who built the telescope,

supported Copernicus’s theory, and formulated the law of inertia of motion.

● William Harvey (1578–1657) – A British doctor who discovered blood

circulation and conducted experimental studies in physiology and embryology.

● Edward Jenner (1749–1823) – An English doctor who discovered the vaccine

for smallpox.

● Joseph Lister (1827–1912) – A British surgeon who pioneered antiseptic

surgery.

● Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) – A British chemist who discovered oxygen and

developed the method to collect gases.

● W. C. Röntgen (1845–1923) – A German scientist who discovered X-rays,

hence they are also called “Röntgen Rays.”

● Robert Hooke (1635–1703) – The first to observe cells in dead plant tissue in
1665 and name them “cells.” He also studied the elasticity of materials.

● Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) – A Scottish scientist who discovered the

atomic nucleus in 1911.

● Aryabhata (476–520) – A renowned ancient Indian astronomer and

mathematician. His work Aryabhatiya contributed significantly to mathematics

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and astronomy. He was the first to state that “the Earth rotates on its axis
while revolving around the Sun.”

● Jagadish Chandra Bose (1858–1937) – A famous physicist who demonstrated

wireless communication before Marconi. He conducted remarkable
experiments on the sensitivity of plants, founded the Bose Institute, and
invented the crescograph.

● Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman (1888–1970) – Awarded the Nobel Prize in

Physics in 1930 for discovering the Raman Effect (28 February 1928). In India,
28 February is celebrated as National Science Day. He was also honored with
the Bharat Ratna (1954) and Lenin Peace Prize (1958).

● Birbal Sahni (1891–1949) – A renowned botanist who made significant

contributions to the study of homogeneity and structure of certain plant
groups.

● Meghnad Saha (1893–1956) – A world-famous physicist who became a

professor at Allahabad University at the age of 30. He made notable
contributions to the theory of thermal ionization and thermodynamics. His
famous work is The History of Hindu Science.

● Dr. Salim Ali (1897–1987) – A famous naturalist and ornithologist, known as

the “Birdman of India.” He was awarded the Padma Vibhushan (1976) and the
“Wildlife Conservation Award” (1983).

● Dr. Homi Jehangir Bhabha (1909–1966) – The first chairman of the Atomic
Energy Commission of India (1948). Founder of the Atomic Research Centre
(later Bhabha Atomic Research Centre). He also served as chairman of the first
UN Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy and was the first
director of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR).

● Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910–1995) – An Indian-born American

scientist who conducted remarkable research on stars. In 1983, he shared the
Nobel Prize in Physics with William Fowler. The “Chandrasekhar Limit” refers to
1.4 times the mass of the Sun.

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● Har Gobind Khorana (1922–2011) – Conducted groundbreaking research on
protein synthesis in genetics and discovered the genetic code. In 1968, he
shared the Nobel Prize in Medicine with his American colleagues.

● Satish Dhawan (1920–2002) – Former chairman of the Indian Space

Research Organisation (ISRO). Under his leadership, satellites like Aryabhata,
Rohini, and APPLE were launched. He contributed to the development of
supersonic and transonic wind tunnels.

● Vikram Sarabhai (1919–1971) – A distinguished Indian scientist and

chairman of both the Atomic Energy Commission and ISRO. He played a key
role in establishing the Physical Research Laboratory (Ahmedabad) and the
Indian Institute of Management (IIM) Ahmedabad.

Medical Science Related Institutes

• National Institute of Medicine – Lucknow

• National Institute of Homoeopathy – Kolkata
• Institute of Medical Science – Chandigarh
• Tuberculosis Research Centre – Chennai
• National Brain Research Centre – Gurgaon
• Malaria Research Centre – Delhi
• Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) – New Delhi
• All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) – New Delhi
• Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI) – Lucknow
• National Institute – Lucknow

Agriculture & Animal Husbandry Research Institutes

• Sugarcane Breeding Institute (SBI) – Coimbatore

• Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI) – Cuttack
• Central Arid Zone Research Institute – Jodhpur
• National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI) – Karnal (Haryana)

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 • Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants – Lucknow
• Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany – Lucknow
• Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) – New Delhi
• Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) – New Delhi
• Indian Institute of Horticultural Research – Bangalore
• Indian Lac Research Institute (ILRI) – Ranchi (Jharkhand)
• Central Tobacco Research Institute (CTRI) – Rajahmundry (Andhra
Pradesh)

Space Research Institutes

• Space Applications Centre (SAC) – Ahmedabad

• Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT) – Indore
• Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) – Thumba (Kerala)
• Satish Dhawan Space Centre – Sriharikota (Andhra Pradesh)
• Indian Institute of Remote Sensing – Dehradun
• Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) – Thiruvananthapuram
(Trivandrum)
• ISRO Satellite Centre – Bangalore

Nuclear Research Institutes

• Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research – Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu)

• Radio Immuno Assay Centre – Dibrugarh (Assam)
• Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) – Trombay (Mumbai)
• Physical Research Laboratory – Ahmedabad
• Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics – Kolkata

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Other Research Institutes

• National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) – Nagpur

• Indian Institute of Petroleum – Dehradun
• Forest Research Institute (FRI) – Dehradun
• National Chemical Laboratory – Pune
• Central Marine Research Station – Chennai
• Central Building Research Institute – Chennai
• Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) – Hyderabad
• Veterinary Research Institute – Izatnagar

• Branches of Science and Their Studies

Branch of Science Field of Study

Numismatics Study of coins
Acoustics Science of sound
Entomology Study of insects
Ornithology Study of birds
Sericulture Silk production
Apiculture Beekeeping
Horticulture Production of fruits
Mycology Study of fungi
Anthropology Study of human evolution
Astronomy Study of celestial bodies
Bacteriology Study of bacteria
Chromatology Study of the colors of flowers
Cartography Art of making maps
Dermatology Study of skin diseases
Ethology Study of species characteristics of living beings
Oneirology Study of dreams
Genetics Study of hereditary traits

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Branch of Science Field of Study
Cosmology Study of the entire universe
Nephrology Study of kidneys
Neurology Study of brain diseases
Pomology Study of fruits
Virology Study of viruses
Pisciculture Art of fish farming
Myology Study of muscles
Gynecology Study of female reproductive system
Cardiology Study of heart diseases
Metallurgy Science of metals
Genetics Study of heredity
Phrenology Study of the skull
Numerology Study of numbers
Histology Study of tissues
Hepatology Study of the liver
Lithography Study of rocks and stones
Otology Study of the ear
Pneumatics Study of gases
Photology Study of light
Radiology Study of X-rays
Zoochemistry Study of animal chemistry
Viticulture Grape production
Vermiculture Rearing of earthworms
Phycology Study of algae
Cytology Study of living cells
Anthology Study of flowers
Agronomy Study of crop plants
Kalology Study of beauty
Cosmology Study of the entire universe
Semantics Study of words and sentences
Pedology Study of soil

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• Energy Conversion by Major Instruments

Instrument Energy Conversion

Electric Bulb Electrical energy to light energy
Electric Heater Electrical energy to heat energy
Loudspeaker Electrical energy to sound energy
Electric Motor Electrical energy to mechanical energy
Dynamo Mechanical energy to electrical energy
Candle Chemical energy to light and heat energy
Microphone Sound energy to electrical energy
Solar Cell Solar energy to electrical energy
Electric Cell Chemical energy to electrical energy
Sitar Mechanical energy to sound energy
•
• Image Formation by a Concave Mirror

Object Position Nature of Image

At focus, real, inverted, and highly
At infinity
diminished
Between focus (F) and center of
Between center of
curvature (C), real, inverted, and
curvature (C) and infinity
diminished
At the center of curvature (C), real,
At the center of curvature
inverted, and of the same size as the
(C)
object
Between the center of
Beyond the center of curvature (C),
curvature (C) and focus
real, inverted, and magnified
(F)
At infinity, real, inverted, and highly
At the focus (F)
magnified
Between the focus (F) and Behind the mirror, virtual, erect, and
the pole (P) magnified
•
• Image Formation by a Convex Mirror

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Object Position Nature of Image
At focus (F), virtual, erect, and highly
At infinity
diminished
Between the pole (P) Behind the mirror, between the pole (P) and
and infinity focus (F), virtual, erect, and diminished
•
• Image Formation by a Convex Lens

Object Position Nature of Image

On the other side at the focus (F), real,
At infinity
inverted, and diminished
Beyond 2F (center of On the other side, between F and 2F, real,
curvature) inverted, and diminished
At 2F (center of On the other side at 2F, real, inverted, and
curvature) of the same size as the object
On the other side, beyond 2F, real, inverted,
Between F and 2F
and magnified
On the other side, at infinity, real, inverted,
At the focus (F)
and highly magnified
Between the focus (F) On the same side as the object, virtual,
and the lens erect, and magnified
•
• Major Catalysts and Their Uses

Catalyst Use
Iron powder Haber process for the production of ammonia gas
Platinum
Contact process for the production of sulfuric acid
powder
Nickel For making artificial ghee from vegetable oils
Deacon's process for the production of chlorine
Cupric chloride
gas
Hot alumina For making ether from alcohol
•
• Inventions and Their Inventors

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Invention Inventor
Quantum Theory Max Planck
Calculator B. Pascal
Chloroform James Harrison
Telegraph (Mechanical) M. Lammond
Telegraph Code Samuel Morse
Television J.L. Baird
Telephone Graham Bell
Telescope Galileo
Transistor William Shockley
Dynamo Michael Faraday
Penicillin A. Fleming
Atomic Bomb Otto Hahn
Radioactivity Henri Becquerel
Radium Marie Curie
Radio Marconi
Blood Circulation William Harvey
Steam Engine James Watt
Radar Robert Watson Watt
Gunpowder Roger Bacon
Printing Press Gutenberg
Airplane Wright Brothers
X-ray Roentgen
Hydrogen Cavendish
Electron J.J. Thomson
Proton Goldstein
Neutron James Chadwick
Nucleus Rutherford
Atomic Number Moseley
Atomic Theory Dalton
Barometer Torricelli
Periodic Law Mendeleev

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Invention Inventor
Dynamite Alfred Nobel
Theory of Relativity Einstein
Transformer Michael Faraday
Blood Transfusion Landsteiner
Insulin Banting
Polio Vaccine John E. Salk
Wireless Telegraphy Marconi
Jet Engine Frank Whittle
Printing Press John Gutenberg
Microscope Z. Janssen
Pressure Cooker Denis Papin
Cosmic Rays Victor Hess
A.C. Motor Nikola Tesla
Chronometer John Harrison
Loudspeaker Horace Short

• Instruments and Their Functions

Instrument Function
Altimeter Measures altitude
Barometer Measures atmospheric pressure
Cardiogram Checks heart rate
Hydrometer Measures specific gravity of liquids
Manometer Measures gas pressure
Rain Gauge Measures rainfall
Richter Scale Measures the intensity of an earthquake
Lactometer Measures the purity of milk
Fathometer Measures the depth of the sea
Anemometer Measures the force and speed of wind
Hygrometer Measures atmospheric humidity
Seismograph Measures earthquakes

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Instrument Function
Measures the angular distance of celestial
Sextant
bodies
Ammeter Measures electric current
Odometer Records the distance traveled by wheels
Crescograph Measures the growth of plants
Galvanometer Measures the strength of electric current
Sphygmomanometer Measures blood pressure
Pyrometer Measures high temperatures
Hydrophone Measures sound in water
Tachometer Measures the speed of aircraft and motorboats
Thermostat Controls temperature
Gyroscope Measures the motion of a spinning object
Stethoscope Listens to heart and lung sounds
Dialysis Blood purification in case of kidney failure
Radiator Keeps vehicle engines cool
Xylophone Produces sound
Pipette Measures a fixed amount of liquid
Pacemaker Regulates heartbeat
Chronometer Tells the correct time on ships
Cyclotron Creates artificial weather
Pyknometer Measures the temperature of a distant object
Stroboscope Measures the velocity of rotating objects
Dictaphone Records and plays back conversations
Accumulator Stores electrical energy
Commutator Changes the direction of electric current
Odometer Records the distance traveled by a vehicle
Mixes a specific amount of air with petrol in
Carburetor
an engine
Gravimeter Detects oil fields in water

• Discoveries and Their Discoverers

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Discovery Discoverer
Diabetes Banting
RNA James Watson and Arthur Errg
DNA James Watson and Crick
Contraceptive Pills Pinkus
Blood Transfusion Karl Landsteiner
Insulin Banting and Best
Cholera Vaccine Robert Koch
T.B. Germs Robert Koch
Malaria Germs Ronald Ross
Typhoid Germs Iverth
Dysentery and Plague Germs Kitasato
Smallpox Vaccine Edward Jenner
B.C.G. Vaccine Yurin Calmette
Kala-azar Fever U.N. Brahmachari
Heart Transplant Christian Barnard
Beriberi Treatment Isaac Mann
D.D.T. Dr. Paul Müller
Treatment with Ultra Rays Pinmen
Genetic Code Dr. Hargobind Khorana
Rabies Treatment Louis Pasteur
Sulfa Drugs G. Domagk
Syphilis Treatment Paul Ehrlich
Polio Vaccine Jonas Salk
Blood Circulation William Harvey
Bacteria Leeuwenhoek
Homeopathy Hahnemann
Antiseptic Surgery Joseph Lister
Chloroform James Harrison
Stethoscope Laennec
Penicillin Alexander Fleming
Aspirin Dresser

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Discovery Discoverer
Iron Lungs Philip Drinker
Streptomycin Waksman
Leprosy Germs Hansen
Germ Theory Louis Pasteur
Diphtheria Klebs and Loffler
Mutation Theory Hugo-de-Vries
Theory of Evolution Charles Darwin
Cell Robert Hooke
Bacteria Leeuwenhoek
Heart Transplant in India V. Venugopal
Malaria Parasite Ronald Ross
Virus Iwanowski
Open Heart Surgery Walton Lillehei
Cloning Technology Ian Wilmut
Ecology Haeckel
Ecosystem A.G. Tansley

Sulphuric Acid: H2SO4

Tear Gas (Chloroacetophenone): CCl3NO2

White Vitriol (Zinc Sulfate): ZnSO4⋅7H2O

Alcohol (Ethyl Alcohol): C2H5OH

Caustic Potash (Potassium Hydroxide): KOH

Caustic Soda (Sodium Hydroxide): NaOH

Calomel (Mercurous Chloride): Hg2Cl2

Quicklime (Calcium Oxide): CaO

Baking Soda (Sodium Bicarbonate): NaHCO3

Galena (Lead Sulphide): PbS

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Sulphuric Acid: H2SO4

Gypsum (Calcium Sulfate): CaSO4⋅2H2O

T.N.T. (Trinitrotoluene): C6H2CH3(NO2)3

Blue Vitriol (Copper Sulfate): CuSO4⋅5H2O

Heavy Water (Deuterium Oxide): D2O

Washing Soda (Sodium Carbonate): Na2CO3⋅10H2O

Hydrochloric Acid: HCl

Sal Ammoniac (Ammonium Chloride): NH4Cl

Alum (Potassium Aluminium Sulphate): K2SO4⋅Al2(SO4)3⋅24H2O

Quicklime (Calcium Oxide): CaO

Slaked Lime (Calcium Hydroxide): Ca(OH)2

Sand (Silicon Dioxide): SiO2

Bleaching Powder: Ca(OCl)Cl

Slaked Lime (Calcium Hydroxide): Ca(OH)2

Vermilion (Mercuric Sulphide): HgS

Marsh Gas / Methane: CH4

Epsom Salt (Magnesium Sulfate): MgSO4⋅7H2O

Laughing Gas (Nitrous Oxide): N2O

Litharge (Lead Oxide): PbO

Saltpetre (Potassium Nitrate): KNO3

Nitric Acid: HNO3

Dry Ice (Solid Carbon Dioxide): CO2

Marble (Calcium Carbonate): CaCO3

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Vermilion (Mercuric Sulphide): HgS

Silica: Al2O3⋅2SiO2⋅2H2O

Vinegar (Acetic Acid): CH3COOH

Table Salt (Sodium Chloride): NaCl

Glauber's Salt (Sodium Sulfate): Na2SO4⋅10H2O

Borax: Na2B4O7⋅10H2O

Hydrogen Peroxide: H2O2

Green Vitriol (Ferrous Sulfate): FeSO4⋅7H2O

Chile Saltpetre (Sodium Nitrate): NaNO3

Salt Cake (Sodium Sulfate): Na2SO4

Vitamin Chemical Name Deficiency Disease(s) Food Sources

A Retinol Night Blindness Carrots, milk, eggs, fruits

Peanuts, potatoes,
B1 Thiamine Beriberi
vegetables

Cracked skin, eye Eggs, milk, green

B2 Riboflavin
disease vegetables

Mental retardation,
Meat, milk, tomatoes,
B3 Niacin premature graying of
peanuts
hair

Pantothenic
B5 Fatigue, weakness Meat, peanuts, potatoes
Acid

B6 Pyridoxine Anemia, skin diseases Milk, meat, vegetables

B7 (H) Biotin Paralysis, body aches Yeast, wheat, eggs

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Vitamin Chemical Name Deficiency Disease(s) Food Sources

B12 Cyanocobalamin Anemia, jaundice Meat, liver, milk

Amla (Indian gooseberry),

C Ascorbic Acid Scurvy, swollen gums
lemon, orange, citrus fruits

D Calciferol Rickets Sunlight, milk, eggs

Decreased reproductive Green vegetables, butter,

E Tocopherol
power milk

Tomatoes, green
K Phylloquinone Non-clotting of blood
vegetables, milk

Physics: Physical Quantities and SI Units

Physical Quantity SI Unit

Area m2

Volume m3

Density kg/m2

Viscosity Newton-second/m2

Speed m/s

Velocity m/s

Magnetic Field Strength Oersted

Momentum kgm/s

Acceleration m/s2

Gravitational Acceleration m/s2

Force kgm/s2

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Physical Quantity SI Unit

Weight kgm/s2

Coefficient of Viscosity Poise

Force Constant kg/s2

Work Joule

Energy Joule

Power Joule/second

Impulse kgm/s

Angular Velocity Radian/s

Electrical Energy Electron Volt

Moment of Inertia kg−m2

Angular Momentum kg−m2/s

Gravitational Constant Nm2/kg2

Magnetic Flux Weber

Magnetic Induction Tesla or Weber/m2

Inductance Henry

Resistance Ohm

Potential / Potential Difference Volt

Temperature Kelvin

Heat Calorie

Heat Capacity Joule/Kelvin

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Physical Quantity SI Unit

Surface Tension Newton/meter

Electric Charge Coulomb

Electric Current Ampere

Pressure Pascal

Moment of Inertia kg−m2

Magnetic Field Weber/m2

Specific Heat Joule/kg/Kelvin

Frequency Hertz

Luminous Intensity Candela

Luminous Flux Lumen

Solid Angle Steradian

Lens Power Diopter

Physics: Power of Ten Prefixes

Power of Ten Prefix Symbol

1018 Exa E

1015 Peta P

1012 Tera T

109 Giga G

106 Mega M

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Power of Ten Prefix Symbol

103 Kilo K

102 Hecto h

101 Deca da

10−18 Atto a

10−15 Femto f

10−12 Pico p

10−9 Nano n

10−6 Micro µ

10−3 Milli m

10−2 Centi c

10−1 Deci d

Physics: Facts

• 1 Parsec: 3×1016 m
• 1 Light Year: 9.46×1015 m
• 1 Astronomical Unit: 1.496×1011 m
• 1 Micron: 10−6 m
• 1 Nautical Mile: 1.852 km
• 1 Angstrom: 10−10 m
• 1 Fermi: 10−15 m
• 1 Newton: 105 dyne
• 1 Joule: 107 erg

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 • 1 Calorie: 4.18 Joule
• 1 Electron Volt: 1.16×10−19 Joule
• 1 Kilocalorie: 103 Calorie
• 1 Watt Hour: 3600 Joule
• 1 Millisecond: 10−3 second
• 1 Microsecond: 10−6 second
• 1 Nanosecond: 10−9 second
• 1 Horsepower: 746 Watt
• 1 Fathom: 6 feet
• 0° Celsius: 32° Fahrenheit
• -40° Fahrenheit: -40° Celsius
• 1 Barrel: 159 liters
• 1 Carat: 200 milligrams
• 1 Cable: 100 fathoms
• 1 Micron: 0.001 mm
• 1 Bar: 106 dynes
• 1 Ream: 20 quire

Physics: Conversion of Energy in Different Devices

Device Energy Conversion

Dynamo Mechanical to Electrical

Electric Motor Electrical to Mechanical

Candle Chemical to Light

Cell Chemical to Electrical

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Device Energy Conversion

Loudspeaker Electrical to Sound

Microphone Sound to Electrical

Sitar Mechanical to Sound

Chemistry: Alloys and their Components

Alloy Components

Dutch Metal Copper, Zinc

Duralumin Aluminum, Copper, Magnesium

Gun Metal Copper, Tin, Zinc

German Silver Copper, Zinc, Nickel

Magnalium Aluminum, Magnesium

Monel Metal Copper, Nickel, Iron

Pewter Tin, Lead

Solder Tin, Lead

Coinage Metal Lead, Tin, Antimony

Bell Metal Copper, Tin

Brass Copper, Zinc

Bronze Copper, Tin

Chromium Steel Chromium

Delta Metal Copper, Zinc, Iron

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Alloy Components

Constantan Copper, Nickel

Artificial Gold Copper, Aluminum

Stainless Steel Iron, Chromium, Manganese, Carbon

Solder Lead, Tin

Type Metal Lead, Tin, Antimony

White Metal Lead, Antimony, Tin, Copper

Woods Metal Cadmium, Tin, Lead, Bismuth

Rust-proof Steel Iron, Chromium, Nickel, Carbon

Tungsten Steel Iron, Tungsten, Carbon

Export to Sheets

Chemistry: Elements and their Properties

• Total known elements: 119

• Natural elements: 88
• Artificial elements: 24
• Number of metallic elements: 90
• Number of non-metallic elements: 22
• Most abundant element: Oxygen
• Most abundant metal: Aluminum
• Lightest element: Hydrogen
• Heaviest element: Osmium
• Lightest metallic element: Lithium

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 • Liquid metal element: Mercury
• Liquid non-metal element: Bromine
• Best conductor of electricity: Silver
• Non-metal conductor of electricity: Graphite
• Most malleable element: Gold
• Components of bones and teeth: Calcium
• Most reactive metallic element: Cesium
• Most reactive non-metallic element: Fluorine
• Element stored in kerosene: Sodium

Chemistry: Elements and their Ores

Element Ore

Aluminum (Al) Bauxite, Corundum, Cryolite

Antimony (Sb) Stibnite

Cadmium (Cd) Greenockite

Calcium (Ca) Limestone, Gypsum, Dolomite

Chromium (Cr) Chromite, Crocoite

Copper (Cu) Cuprite, Copper, Malachite

Gold (Au) Sylvanite, Petzite, Calaverite

Iron (Fe) Hematite, Magnetite, Limonite

Lead (Pb) Galena, Anglesite, Cerussite

Magnesium (Mg) Dolomite, Magnesite, Talc

Manganese (Mn) Bromite, Magnite, Hausmannite

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Element Ore

Mercury (Hg) Cinnabar

Potassium (K) Carnallite, Sylvite, Saltpeter

Silver (Ag) Silver Glance, Argentite

Sodium (Na) Rock Salt, Chile Saltpeter

Strontium (Sr) Celestite, Strontianite

Tin (Sn) Cassiterite

Zinc (Zn) Zincite, Zinc Spar, Calamine

Arsenic (As) Arsenical Pyrite, Orpiment

Barium (Ba) Heavyspar or Barite, Witherite

Chemistry: Glass and Coloring Agents

Glass Color Substance

Deep Blue Cobalt Oxide

Yellow Ferric Oxide

Green Sodium Chromate

Red Cuprous Oxide

Bright Red Cadmium Sulfide

Orange Red Selenium Oxide

Peacock Blue Cupric Salts

Lemon Yellow Cadmium Sulfide

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Glass Color Substance

Light Violet Manganese Dioxide

Ruby Red Gold Chloride

Fluorescent Yellow Ferric Salts

Chemistry: Types of Glass and their Uses

• Flint Glass: Used in cameras, telescopes, and lenses.

• Pyrex Glass: Used for laboratory equipment.
• Soda Glass: Used for tube lights and bottles.
• Crown Glass: Used for making electric bulbs.
• Crookes Glass: Used for sunglasses lenses.
• Potash Glass: Used for making utensils.
• Soft Glass: Used for making test tubes.

Chemistry: pH Values of Common Substances

Substance pH Value

Pure Water 7

Vinegar 2.5 - 3.4

Wine 2.8 - 3.8

Milk 6.4 - 6.6

Seawater 8.4

Saliva (Human) 6.5 - 7.5

Urine (Human) 4.8 - 8.4

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Substance pH Value

Blood (Human) 7.4

Lemon Juice 2.2 - 2.4

Coffee 4.5 - 5.5

Beer 4.0 - 5.0

Tomato Juice 4.5 - 5.5

Chemistry: Natural Sources of Major Acids

Acid Natural Source

Formic Acid Red ants and scorpions

Citric Acid Citrus fruits (amla)

Benzoic Acid Grass, leaves

Oxalic Acid Sorrel tree

Acetic Acid Fruit juices

Nitric Acid Alum and saltpeter

Sulfuric Acid Green vitriol

Tartaric Acid Tamarind, grapes

Lactic Acid Milk

Amino Acid Protein

Hydrochloric Acid Digestive juices

Malic Acid Raw apples or fruits

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Acid Natural Source

Tannic Acid Tea

Uric Acid Urine

Chemistry: General Formulas of Organic Compounds

Organic Compound General Formula

Alkane CnH2n+2

Alkyne CnH2n−2

Ether CnH2n+2O

Carboxylic Acid CnH2nO2

Alcohol CnH2n+2O

Aldehyde & Ketone CnH2nO

Alkene CnH2n

Chemistry: Glass Composition

Glass Composition

Soda Glass Sodium carbonate, Calcium carbonate, and Silica

Flint Glass Potassium carbonate, Lead oxide, and Silica

Crookes Glass Cerium oxide and Silica

Potash Glass Potassium carbonate, Calcium carbonate, and Silica

Pyrex Glass Barium silicate and Sodium silicate

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Glass Composition

Crown Glass Potassium oxide, Barium oxide, and Silica

Lead Crystal Glass Potassium carbonate, Lead oxide, and Silica

Biology: Diseases and Affected Organs

• Pneumonia, Tuberculosis: Lungs

• Bronchitis, Whooping cough, Asthma: Lungs
• Cholera, Typhoid: Small intestine
• Polio, Rabies, Epilepsy, Paralysis: Nervous system
• Scurvy, Pyorrhea: Gums
• Hepatitis, Jaundice: Liver
• Leprosy: Nervous system
• Plague: Lymph glands
• Malaria: Spleen
• Tetanus: Spinal cord
• Goiter: Thyroid gland
• Trachoma, Glaucoma, Myopia, Rosacea: Eyes
• AIDS: Immune system
• Smallpox: Entire body
• Influenza: Respiratory system
• Measles: Entire body
• Diphtheria: Trachea
• Meningitis: Brain
• Herpes: Skin
• Kala-azar: Bone marrow

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Biology: Diseases and their Causes

Virus Bacteria Protozoa

Smallpox Tetanus Malaria

Cold Cholera Pyorrhea

Influenza Typhoid Asthma, Scabies

Measles Tuberculosis Dysentery

Brain Fever Diphtheria Kala-azar

Polio Plague Diarrhea

AIDS Pneumonia Filariasis

Rabies Leprosy Fungi

Mumps Tuberculosis Sleeping sickness

Biology: Elements and their Medicinal Uses

Chemical Element Medical Use

Iodine-131 Thyroid gland

Cobalt-60 Blood cancer treatment

Arsenic-74 Tumor detection

Sodium-24 Blood circulation disorders

Phosphorus-32 Blood cancer treatment

Biology: Plant-Based Medicines

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 • Nicotine: Tobacco
• Quinine: Bark of Cinchona tree
• Reserpine: Roots of Rauwolfia serpentina
• Caffeine: Coffee beans
• Theine: Tea leaves (also contains caffeine)
• Marijuana: Hemp
• Atropine: Roots of Atropa
• Asafoetida: Resin from the roots of Ferula plant
• Rubber: Latex from Hevea plant
• Cork: Bark of Oak tree

Biology: Scientific Names of Organisms

Organism Scientific Name

Human Homo sapiens

Frog Rana tigrina

Cat Felis domestica

Dog Canis familiaris

Cow Bos indicus

Housefly Musca domestica

Mango Mangifera indica

Rice Oryza sativa

Wheat Triticum aestivum

Pea Pisum sativum

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Organism Scientific Name

Chickpea Cicer arietinum

Mustard Brassica campestris

Biology: Reproductive Period of Animals

Animal Gestation Period (Days) Animal Gestation Period (Days)

Elephant 624 Buffalo 300

Camel 400 Donkey 365

Horse 330 Mouse 21

Cow 284 Lion 120

Tiger 155 Squirrel 40

Goat 150 Cat 50

Dog 63 Cheetah 95

Pig 114 Wolf 63

Biology: Special Types of Agriculture

Term Meaning

Viticulture Grape cultivation

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Term Meaning

Pisciculture Fish production

Sericulture Silk production

Horticulture Production of fruits, flowers, and vegetables

Apiculture Honey production or beekeeping

Silviculture Cultivation of flowers

Floriculture Conservation and development of forests

Arboriculture Cultivation of trees and shrubs

Mariculture Production of marine organisms

Olericulture Cultivation of vegetables that spread on the ground

Oliviculture Olive cultivation

Biology: Important Plant Diseases

Disease Crop

Blast Paddy

Black Arm Cotton

Khaira Paddy

Red Rot Sugarcane

Tikka Groundnut

Brown Leaf Spot Paddy

Whiptail Cauliflower

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Disease Crop

Ergot Millet

Smut Wheat

Biology: Respiratory Organs of Major Animals

Animal Respiratory Organ

Humans, Birds, Lizards Lungs

Fish, Prawn, Oyster Gills

Earthworm Skin

Housefly, Grasshopper, Cockroach Trachea

Biology: Diagnostic Tests and Related Body Parts

Test Related Body Part

EEG (Electroencephalography) Brain

ECG (Electrocardiogram) Heart

EOG (Electrooculography) Eye

EMG (Electromyography) Muscle

Audiogram Ear

Mammogram Breast

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Test Related Body Part

BMD (Bone Mineral Density) Bone

Biology: Vitamins and their Discoverers

Vitamin Discoverer

Vitamins Funk

Vitamin A MacCollum

Vitamin B MacCollum

Vitamin C Holst

Vitamin D Hopkins

Science: Color Mixing

Mixture Resulting Color

Red + Blue Magenta

Red + Green Yellow

Green + Blue Peacock Blue

Red + Peacock Blue White

Green + Magenta White

Blue + Yellow White

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Mixture Resulting Color

Red + Green + Blue White

Science: PHENOMENA AND REASONS

State/Condition Reason

Redness of Onion Anthocyanin

Garlic odor Allicin

Pungency in Radish Isothiocyanate

Pungency in Chili Capsaicin

Bitterness in Cucumber Cucurbitacin

Bitterness in Bitter Gourd Triterpenes

Red color of Carrot Anthocyanin

Color in Orange Carotene

Yellow color of Turmeric Curcumin

Red color of Chili Capsanthin

Red color of Tomato Lycopene

Green color of Potato tubers Solanine

Astringency in Amla Tannin

Yellow color of Onion Quercetin

Onion odor Allyl

General Science: Miscellaneous Facts

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Topic Fact

Largest Flower Rafflesia

Smallest Flower Wolffia

Heaviest Wood Harviviya vanasa

Lightest Wood Ochroma lagopus

Tallest Tree Eucalyptus

Largest Tree Sequoia

Largest Seed Lodoicea

Smallest Seed Orchid

Largest Leaf Victoria regia

Smallest Leaf Wolffia

Largest Chromosome Algae

Largest Fruit Jackfruit

Smallest Fruit Wolffia

Living Fossil Cycas

Smallest Algae Chlamydomonas

Largest Algae Macrocystis

Tallest Angiosperm Tree Eucalyptus

Smallest Angiosperm Lemna

Space: Planets and their Moons

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Planet Number of Moons Major Moons

Earth 1 Moon

Mercury 0 -

Mars 2 Phobos and Deimos

Venus 0 -

Saturn 146 Titan

Uranus 27 Miranda and Ariel

Jupiter 95 Ganymede

Neptune 14 Triton and Nereid

Science: Electromagnetic Waves and Wavelength

Wave Wavelength (in A°)

Cosmic Rays 0 to 0.01

Gamma Rays 0.01 to 0.1

X-rays 0.1 to 150

Visible Rays 3800 to 7600

Radio Waves 3×109 to 3×1014

Ultraviolet Rays 150 to 3800

Infrared Radiation 7600 to 6×106

Microwaves 6×106 to 3×109

Science: Speed of Light in Different Mediums

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Medium Speed of Light

Vacuum 3×108 m/s

Water 2.25×108 m/s

Glass 2×108 m/s

Nylon 1.96×108 m/s

Science: Speed of Sound in Different Mediums

Medium Speed of Sound

Air 332 m/s

Hydrogen 1269 m/s

Water 1490 m/s

Seawater 1533 m/s

Mercury 1450 m/s

Glass 5640 m/s

Iron 5130 m/s

Science: Sound Intensity from Different Sources

Sound Source Intensity (in Decibels)

Normal Conversation 30-40

Loud Conversation 50-60

Whisper 15-20

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Sound Source Intensity (in Decibels)

Traffic in a crowd 70

Jet plane 140-150

Siren 110-120

Missile 180

Science: Refractive Index and Critical Angle of Substances

Substance Refractive Index Critical Angle

Water 1.33 98.5°

Crown Glass 1.52 41.1°

Diamond 2.42 124.4°

Flint Glass 1.65 37.4°

Science: Different Temperature Scales

Temperature (°C) (°F) (°K)

Freezing point of water 0 32 273

Normal room temperature 27 80.6 300

Normal human body temperature 37 98.6 310

Boiling point of water 100 212 373

Science: Sedimentary Excretory Substances

• Opium: From raw fruit of poppy

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 • Quinine: From bark of Cinchona
• Reserpine: From roots of Rauwolfia serpentina
• Nicotine: From leaves of tobacco
• Caffeine: From coffee beans
• Theine: From tea leaves (also contains caffeine)
• Marijuana: From cannabis
• Atropine: From roots of Atropa
• Asafoetida: Resin from roots of Ferula plant
• Rubber: Latex from Hevea plant
• Cork: Bark of Oak tree
Science: Chemical Isotopes and their Medical Uses

Isotope Medical Use

Iodine-131 Thyroid gland diagnosis

Cobalt-60 Blood cancer treatment

Arsenic-74 Tumor identification

Sodium-24 Blood circulation study

Phosphorus-32 Blood cancer treatment

Science: Major Vector and Scalar Quantities

Vector Quantities Scalar Quantities

Momentum Speed

Impulse Mass

Acceleration Charge

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Vector Quantities Scalar Quantities

Force Density

Velocity Energy

Weight Electric Current

Torque -

Science: Elements and their Allotropes

Element Allotropes

Carbon Diamond, Graphite, Coal

Oxygen Ozone

Sulfur Rhombic, Monoclinic

Phosphorus Yellow and Red phosphorus

Science: Mixtures and their Examples

Type Example

Gas in Gas Air

Gas in Liquid Soda water

Liquid in Liquid Lemon juice and water

Solid in Liquid Seawater

Solid in Solid Alloys, soil

Science: Medical Equipment

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Medical Equipment Use

Electrocardiograph (ECG) To detect heart disorders.

Electroencephalograph (EEG) To diagnose brain-related diseases.

CT Scan To detect abnormalities in any part of the body.

Pacemaker To normalize heart rate when it slows down.

Stethoscope To listen to heart and lung sounds.

Sphygmomanometer To measure blood pressure.

Endoscope To examine the inside of the body.

Science: Major Diseases and Related Vaccines

Disease Vaccine

T.B. (Tuberculosis) B.C.G.

Diphtheria, Tetanus D.P.T.

Whooping Cough D.P.T.

Mumps, Measles MMR

Polio MMR (Mumps Vaccine)

Typhoid Typhoid Vaccine

Smallpox Rubella Vaccine

German Measles Rubella Vaccine

Agriculture: High-Yielding Crop Varieties

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Crop High-Yielding Varieties

Paddy (Rice) IR-36, IR-20, Pusa Basmati, Kasturi, Vikas, P.N.R. 591-18

Wheat H.D. 2687, H.D. 2285, C-306, P.B.W. 156, H.W. 157

Maize Ganga 5, Him 128, Shakti, Navjot Vikram

Gram K 850, Pusa 240, Pant 114

Pigeon Pea (Arhar) Pusa Ageti Y.P.A.S. 120, Pusa 84, Manak, T 21

Black Gram (Urad) T 9, Pant 430, P.S. 1, C.O. 5

Green Gram (Moong) P.L. 16, S 8, T 44, K 851, Asha

Groundnut M.H. 2, I.C.G.S. 1, M. 37, G.G. 11, T.M.B. 12

Mustard Pusa Bold, Kranti, Pusa Agrani, R.L.M. 514, R.H. 30

Soybean P.K. 262, P.K. 327, Pusa 24, Durga, Gaurav

Sunflower B.S.H. 1 M.S.F.H. 8, Morden, Arun, Paras

Miscellaneous: Indian Missiles

Missile Test Date Range (km)

Agni May 22, 1989 2000 to 2500

Prithvi Feb 22, 1988 150 to 250

Trishul June 5, 1988 4

Akash Aug 15, 1990 25 to 30

Export to Sheets

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Biology: Edible Parts of Fruits

Fruit Edible Part

Tomato Pericarp and placenta

Watermelon Mesocarp and endocarp

Pear Fleshy thalamus

Jackfruit Bracts, perianth, and seeds

Ber/Jamun Pericarp, fleshy

Bael Inner placenta

Apple Fleshy thalamus

Grape Pericarp and placenta

Pomegranate Fleshy seeds

Cashew Cotyledons and thalamus

Brinjal Pericarp and placenta

Litchi Aril

Pea/Lentil Cotyledons

Okra Entire fruit

Mulberry Fleshy perianth

Custard Apple Fleshy and pulpy thalamus

Tamarind Mesocarp

Groundnut Seed

Guava Pericarp and thalamus

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Fruit Edible Part

Mango Mesocarp

Banana Mesocarp and endocarp

Lemon Juicy hairs

Water Chestnut Cotyledons

Coriander Thalamus and seeds

Wheat Endosperm

Papaya Mesocarp

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